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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL [IRISH ACADEMY.
DUBLIN:
PRINTED BY M. H. GILL,
PRINTER TO THE ACADEMY.
MDOOCLXX.
THe Acapemy desire it to be understood, that they are not
answerable for any opinion, representation of facts, or train of
reasoning that may appear in the following Papers. The
Authors of the several Lssays are alone responsible for their
contents.
ee _ wel ewe
- > th ih
pe ro a a De
za nS - - — _ - -
r — - =
- >
ee Pe ~
y=
CONTENTS.
VOLUME X.
1866-1869.
On Spenser’s Irish Rivers. By P. W. Joyce, Esq., A-M., ‘
On Scandinavian Antiquities discovered near Islandbridge, County Dublin.
By Sir W. R. Wilde, M. D.,
On the Battle of Moytura. By Sir W. R. Wilde, M. D. rye .
On Remains of Ancient Villages in the Aran Isles, County Galway. By G. i.
Kinahan, Esq., : en? i See A
On a Crannoge in Lough oe By G. H. Kinahan, Esq,, . ABC?
On the Forms of Ordeal anciently practised in Ireland. By W. M. Hen-
nessy, Esq., -
On Bicireular Quartics. By John Sines rm B., 2
On the Life and Labours of the late John D'Alton, Esq. By J. R. O'Flana-
gan, Esq., . -
On Ziphius Sowerbiensis. ie W. ae Esq.,
On the Formation of Ground Ice in the Bed of the River Dodder.
_ Hennessy, F.R.S., ma :
On the Round Tower of Ardmore. By H. M. Wesupp Weg. hs
On a Cairn at Hyat Nugger, in the Dekhan. By Colonel Meadows ‘Day tor,
On the Histology of the Test of the Class Palliobranchiata. By W. King, Esq.,
On Animal Heat. By W. H. O’Leary, Esq., ,
On South European Plants found growing in the West au South of irelartal
By Henry Hennessy, F.R.S., :
On Irish Glosses recently found in the Library of Nuingyt Bi y M. Henri Gaidoz,
On a Souterrain at Curraghely, near Kilcrea, County Cork. By R. B.
Brash, Esq., bESSF
On some Relationships of Taper antes is G. ae M. D.,
On Protrusion of the Tongue, and its Deviation to the affected Side i in Unila-
teral Paralysis. By Thomas Hayden, M.D., :
On Architectural Sketches presented by G. V. Du Noyer, roe ;
On the Pre-Celtic Epoch in Ireland. By Hyde Clarke, Esq., Pash ae
On the Ogham Chamber at Drumloghan, County Waterford. By R. B.
By Henry
Brash, Esq.,
v1
On the Ogham Chamber at Drumloghan. By the Lord Bishop of Limerick,
On Muscular Anomalies in Human Anatomy, and their bearing upon Homo-
typical Myology. By Alexander Macalister, Esq, . . - + + - -:
On the Occurrence of the Number Two in Irish Proper Names. By W. P.
Joyce, A. M., ; SS gene ah eae
On Chinese Porcelain Seals road's in alah By W. Frazer, Esq., :
On Original Sketches of Coats of Arms presented by Geo. V. Du Noyer, Esq., .
On the Rotatory Motion of the Heavenly Bodies. By Rev. W. G. Penny,
On Irish Sponges (Part I.). By E. Perceval Wright, M. D., : :
On the Cave of Knockmore, County Fermanagh. By W. F. Wakeman, mae :
On Rock Carvings. By H. M. Westropp, Esq., . .
On the Geology of the County Antrim, &c. By John Kelly, aes ae C. E,
On the inscribed Cavern in Farish of Bohoe, County of Fermanagh. By W. F.
Wakeman, Esq., : Ate EOS AeA eS IOe
On recent Excavations at Howth, Gini, Dublin. By Rev. J. F. Shearman, .
On the Physical Conditions of Climate during different Geological Epochs. By
Professor Hennessy, F.R.S., . . . . $7) ar “ ise
On Two Streams flowing from a Common Source in opposite DineGin.! By H.
Hennessy, F.R.S., . - : : Baa:
On Earthen Vases found at Pease rina Coanigy. Dublin. By W. Pubes Esq.,
On an Inscribed Stone in Tullagh Churchyard, County Dublin. By Henry
Parianson, Wsyq.;. > ios, 3. = 22 Cee eee
On the Imaginary Roots of eed ones be. By J. R. Young, Esq.,
On an Ogham Stone in Glen Fais, County Kerry. By Richard Rolt Brash, Esq.,
On the Cavern called “‘ Gillies’ Hole,” at Knockmore, County Fermanagh. By
W. H Wakeman, Faq. 2°): 2S ate
On the Occurrence of Mammalian Bones, Brown Coal, a “Pebbles i in "Mineral
Veins. By William K. Sullivan, Ph. D., <0) 6 a aegh) Ragin
Catalogue of Coats of Arms from Tombstones, &c. By George V. Du Noyer,
Baq:, sivas weoherie teenie va sheddo ST orl see eee
On the Flora of the Seychelles Islands. By E. Perceval Wright, M. D.,
Biographical Notice of the late George V. Du Noyer, Esq. By Alphonse Gages,
Esq., . J. yell tats. oa eae Ree eee
On Colophonine ail Gulupfoaic arate, By Charles R. C. Tichborne, F.C.S.,
Biographical Notice of August Schleicher. By Dr. Lottner, .
On the Goddess of War of the Ancient Irish. By W. M. Hennessy, oe ;
On Ancient Sepulchral Monuments found in the County Galway. By M. Brogan,
Esq., , 2 ie eA RR
On the Rivers of ee with Detivetins of their racist “iy Owen Connel-
lan, LL. D., wih,
On an Ancient Cup and pracabeg found near rene in vatnet County Limerick:
By Right Hon. Earl of Dunraven, : :
On a Modification of Regnault’s Condensing ent with ome ations on
the Psychrometer. By M. Donovan, Esq., .
vil
: PaGE
On Megalithic Remains in the Department of the Basses Pyrenees. By Lord
Talbot de Malahide, President, . . a Ree a te ee, Ba
On Spanish Archeology. By Lord Talbot ae Malahide, Puaiwune: SS 474
On an Agreement, in Irish, between Gerald, Ninth Earl of Kildare, ma
the Mac Rannalls, executed at Maynooth, November 5, 1530. By Very
Peet are ie Pe Pino sen ee ae tS ee SS. * 480
On the “Duties upon Irishmen’’ in the Kildare Rental Book, as ilus-
trated by the Mac Rannall Agreement. By Very Rev. C. W. Russell, D.D., 490
On the “ Fohn” of the Alps, and its Connexion with the Glacier Theories. By
Henry Hennessy, F.R.S.,. .- - . - - 496
A Report on the Researches of Herr Cohnheim on See aad Sapna
feo Pore MB, . fC; Jia 299
On “ Eozoon Canadense.’’ By William King, seas ‘D.; : Bie Eiass H a ttieg:
Bathe Re SA a ee SO - . e y eae
The Ruins of Arilissn, County isee “By G. Henry Kinahan, Esq., . . 551
APPENDIx.— Minutes of the Meetings of the Academy for the Sessions 1866-67,
’67-68, 68-69,. . . . Pi lage : eR Ciera got |
Donations to the Library of the Reais from November 1866, to July,
Lo ae can ae See
General Abstract of Monthly Aciantn ze the Academy, en cael 1866,
toMarch,1868 ... Perea tea tet et XXXV, XXXVI
Ditto, from March, 1868, to April, 1869, Se epee ee ee ieee <li, tiv
tgpex, . . See EE ees 2 ee a SS ek ly
PLATES, I, to XLIX.
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY,
SESSION OF 1866-67.
T.—On Spenser’s IntsH Rivers. By P. W. Joycz, A. M., T.C.D.
[Read November 12, 1866.]
In the year 1580 Edmund Spenser was appointed secretary to the
newly created Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Grey of Wilton,
and in that capacity resided in Ireland for two years. In 1586 he
obtained a grant of 3028 acres of land in the county of Cork, part
of the forfeited estates of the Earl of Desmond, under the impor-
tant condition that he should reside on, and cultivate the property.
He selected for his residence the Castle of Kilcolman, one of Des-
mond’s strongholds, situated on the estate, two miles from Buttevant,
and while living there he composed a considerable part of ‘‘ The
Faerie Queene.”
During the time he filled the office of secretary, as well as while he
lived at Kilcolman, he studied carefully the history, politics, and topo-
graphy of Ireland, of which he has left proof in his ‘‘ View of the State
of Ireland.”” Throughout his poems he makes frequent mention of
Trish localities; but there are three passages of especial interest in
which he enumerates and describes ourrivers. In the Fourth Book of
‘The Faerie Queene,”’ Canto xi., he describes the marriage of the
Thames and Medway, and among the guests, he gives a long catalogue
of the rivers both of England and Ireland. The following is the pas-
sage in which the Irish rivers are named :—
‘¢ There was the Liffy rolling downe the lea;
The sandy Slaine; the stony Aubrian ;
The spacious Shenan spreading like a sea;
The pleasant Boyne; the fishy fruitfull Ban ;
Swift Auniduff, which of the English man
Pet A PROC. Vole x: * B
2
Is cal’de Blacke-water; and the Liffar deep ;
Sad Trowis, that once his people over-ran ;
Strong Allo tombling from Slewlogher steep ;
And Mulla mine, whose waves I whilom taught to weep.
‘« And there the three renowmed brethren were,
Which that great gyant Blomius begot
Of the faire nimph Rheusa wandring there:
One day as she to shunne the season whot
Under Slewbloome in shady grove was got,
This gyant found her, and by force deflowr’d ;
Whereof conceiving she in time forth brought
These three faire sons, which being thenceforth powr’d,
In three great rivers ran, and many countries scowrd.
“‘ The first the gentle Shure, that, making way
By sweet Clonmell, adornes rich Waterford ;
The next, the stubborne Newre, whose waters gray
By faire Kilkenny and Rosseponte boord ;
The third the goodly Barrow which doth hoord
Great heaps of salmons in his deepe bosome:
All which, long sundred, doe at last accord
To ioyne in one, ere to the sea they come;
So, flowing all from one, all one at last become.
‘** There also was the wide embayed Maire:
The pleasant Bandon crown’d with many a wood ;
The spreading Lee, that, like an island fayre,
Encloseth Corke with his divided flood :
And banefull Oure late stained with English blood.”
In the first of the ‘‘ Two Cantos of Mutabilitie,”’ itis related that a
meeting of the gods took place on a hill called Arlo, which is very fully
described; and here two other rivers are mentioned, both of which
figure in a charming pastoral story—the Molanna, and the Fanchin or
Funcheon. The third passage occurs in ‘Colin Clouts come home
again ;’’ and here the Mulla and the Bregoge are the subjects of another
pretty pastoral.
Many of Spenser’s Irish rivers are so well known, that they could
not be mistaken ; there are several, however, that no one, so far as 1am
aware, has ever attempted to identify ; and there are two, and these
some of the most important, that by the generality of writers have been,
as I believe, erroneously identified. On those that are sufficiently well.
known—such as the Shenan, the Slaine or Slaney, the Boyne, &c.—I
do not intend to offer any remarks, and in dealing with the remainder
I shall take them in the order most convenient to myself.
There is a range of mountains running eastwards from the neigh-
bourhood of Buttevant and Charleville, county Cork, till it terminates
near Cahir in Tipperary, extending altogether nearly 30 miles in length ;
the western portion of this range is called the Ballyhoura mountains,
and the eastern the Galties. This eastern portion is also the highest, and
one particular summit, Galtymore, the most elevated of the whole range,
rises 38015 feet above the sea level. This peak is Spenser’s Arlo Hill,
once, according to him, the favourite resort of Diana, and the scene of
the meeting of the gods. It was never so called except by Spenser him-
3
self, and he borrowed the name from the Glen of Aherlow, at that time
commonly called Arlogh or Arlow by English writers—a beautiful
valley, ten miles long, enclosed by the Galties on one side, and Sheve-
namuck on the other, with Galtymore towering immediately over it.
That this peak, and no other, is Arlo Hill, is shown by several circum-
stances. Arlo Hill must be at the eastern end of the range, that is,
among the Galties, for he tells us that it overlooks the Suir, and the
plain through which it flows :—
‘*_____ [Diana] quite forsooke
AJ those faire forests about Arlo hid,
And all that mountaine which doth overlooke
The richest champain that may else be rid ;
And the faire Shure in which are thousand salmons bred.”
First Canto of Mutabilitie.
The name Arlo Hill shows it to be one of the peaks rising over the
vale of Aherlow; and its identity with Galtymore is placed beyond all
question by Spenser’s own assertion, that Arlo Hill
ee ‘is the highest head in all men’s sight
Of my old father Mole.”—Jdid.
We have just seen that he reckons Galtymore as one of the moun-
tains called Mole; in ‘‘ Colin Cloyts come home again”’ he says his
own residence of Kilcolman was under the foot of Mole, and further on
in the same poem he states that the Mulla or Aubeg rises out of Mole;
in the same place also he says that
‘¢_____. Mole hight that mountain gray
That walls the north side of Armulla dale.”
From all which it is evident that by ‘‘ Old Father Mole,” Spenser
meant the whole range including the Galties and Ballyhoura mountains.
“Old father Mole”
us had a daughter fresh as floure of May
Which gave that name unto that pleasant vale,
Mulla, the daughter of old Mole, so hight
The nimph that of that watercourse has charge,
That springing out of Mole, doth run doune right
To Buttevant, where, spreading forth at large,
It giveth name unto that ancient cittie
Which Kilnemullah clepped is of old.”
The river Mulla or Aubeg, which flows by Buttevant and Doneraile
has been already well described by several writers, so that no descrip-
tion is necessary here; but I wish to make a few remarks on the name.
It is called the Aubeg to distinguish it from the Avonmore, ‘the
great river’’—the Blackwater. Spenser has drawn on poetic license in
calling it by the name Mulla, which could not be the name of a river
at all except by transference from a hill; the Aubeg was never called
Mulla except by himself. Kilnamullagh was, as Spenser says in the
4
above passage, the old name of Buttevant, and seeing this, he assumed
or believed that the river was called Mulla, and that it gave name to
Kilnamullagh; but this is all the work of his own fertile imagination.
At the year 1251 the Four Masters, in recording the foundation of the
monastery, call it Cill-na-mullach, which O’Sullivan, in his ‘‘ History of
the Irish Catholics,” translates Heclesia tumulorum, the church of the
summits or hillocks, and the words admit of no other interpretation.
Spenser takes great delight in the name of Mulla; and not content
with impressing the name on the river, he has multiplied it in other
localities; the plain through which it flows, he calls Armulla, and it
is, no doubt, to carry out the same idea that he personifies the adja-
cent range of hills under the name of Mole—another imaginary name—
whose daughters, Mulla and Molanna, are to be understood as named
from him. All this structure of fictitious names he has evidently built
on the name Mulla—this, too, as we have seen, being the work of his
own fancy. ‘There can be no doubt that he selected the name for its
soft musical sound, in preference to the true but less harmonious name
Aubeg.
In the first of the ‘‘ Two Cantos of Mutabilitie,’’ Spenser mentions
a river under the fictitious name of Molanna, which he personifies as
one of Diana’s nymphs, and celebrates her love for the river Fanchin
or Funcheon. It is not easy to determine with certainty what river
Spenser meant by the Molanna. ‘he whole context of the pastoral
shows that it runs from one of the slopes of Galtymore, and according
to Spenser it joins the Funcheon :—
‘« So now her waves [i. e. Molanna’s] passe through a pleasant plaine
Till with the Fanchin she herselfe doe wed,
And both combined, themselves in one faire river spred.”
There are only two streams which run down on that side from the
slopes of Galtymore. One of these, the Behanagh, rises about a mile
west of Galtymore, and joins the Funcheon at Kilbeheny, after a steep
course of about four miles. The other is the Attychraan stream, some-
times called the Brackbawn; it rises on the side of Galtymore, and
flows through a deep glen by Galty Castle, or ‘‘ The Mountain Lodge.”
It is the generally received opinion that this is the Molanna, and in
many particulars it certainly answers Spenser’s description. ‘It rises
from a group of rocks somewhat in the shape of a horseshoe, high up on
the side of Galtymore; near the rocks it forms a pretty large pool, and
the glen through which it flows is to this day shaded with oaks.”*
This is just as Spenser describes it :—
‘For first she springs out of two marble rocks,
On which a grove of oakes high-mounted growes,
That as a girlond seemes to deck the locks
Of some faire bride, vrought forth with pompous showes
* [have not been able to examine this exact locality personally. For the short
description of the Brackbaun quoted above I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Ed-
mund Mulcahy, who lives on the spot, and he is responsible for its correctness.
4)
Out of her bowre, that many flowers strowes ;
So through the flowry dales she tumbling downe,
Through many woods and shady coverts flowes,
That on each side her silver channell crowne,
Till to the plaine she come, whose valleyes she doth drowne.”
And farther on he states that Diana used to come to bathe ‘to this
sweet spring,’ which answers to the pool still existing at the source of
the stream.
There is however one grand difficulty, which no one has hitherto
noticed, though all assert that the Molannais the Brackbaun. Accord-
ing to Spenser the Molanna and the Funcheon are two different streams,
the former joining the latter after passing ‘‘ through a pleasant plaine.”’
But this River Brackbaun is the source of the Funcheon itself, and even
to a person unacquainted with the locality this will be rendered evident
by a glance at a good map; how then can the Brackbaun be the Mo-
lanna, since the former is the Funcheon, while the latter is a different
river ?
Smith, in his “‘ History of Cork” (vol. i1., p. 262), asserts that the Fun-
cheon rises in a bog in the county Tipperary, one mile south of the Galties,
and that it receives the Brackbaun not far from its source. He is fol-
lowed by several modern writers, all being apparently more anxious to
reconcile Spenser’s statements regarding the Molanna and the Funcheon,
than to describe these rivers as they really exist. Smith’s statement
is undoubtedly erroneous, for the Brackbaun is universally known as
the source of the Funcheon ; moreover, there is no stream at all meeting
the Brackbaun from the Tipperary side; all the streams without excep-
tion on that side flow east into the tributaries of the Suir.
Tam not yet able to come to any satisfactory conclusion on this
point. It is possible that Spenser may have been mistaken regarding
the source of the Funcheon, like Smith and other modern writers, and
that he may have intended the Brackbaun for the Molanna. If, on the
other hand, we suppose that Spenser had a correct knowledge of the
source of the Funcheon, then the Molanna must be some tributary of
the Funcheon, the most likely stream being in this case the Behanagh,
but at present I cannot say whether it answers Spenser’s description.
One thing appears to me certain, that modern writers have drawn their
conclusion somewhat too hastily, and without sufficient examination of
the locality.
In ‘‘ Colin Clouts come home again,” Spenser celebrates the love of
the Bregoge for the Mulla, and in his usual felicitous style he describes
the stratagem by which the Bregoge contrived to gain possession of the
nymph, in spite of her ‘‘old father Mole;” he also states that this
river—‘‘ the false Bregoge,”’ as he elsewhere calls it—was
“‘So hight because of this deceitful traine
Which he with Mulla wrought to win delight.”
The littleriver Bregoge hasnot disappeared, as some writers assert; itis
still well known by the same name. Its principal branch rises in a deep
6
glen on the side of Corrinmore hill, and it joins the Aubeg near Done-
raile. After leaving the hills it traverses the plain before its junction
with the Aubeg, and in this part of its course its channel is sometimes
very wide, and filled with heaps of gravel and rocks, rolled down from
the mountain, so that the stream, which is generally very small, and
often nearly dry, is much scattered, divided, and interrupted. These
characteristics are very correctly described in Spenser’s beautiful pasto-
ral, and he has also rightly interpreted the name as signifying <“‘ false.”’
The word ‘‘ breug”’ means a lie, and in various modified senses it is
pretty commonly used in Irish names. For example, Dromorebrague,
in the parish of Aghaderg, Down; there isa tradition that the founders
of Dromore at first intended it to be here, and that, having changed
their minds, and built the town on its present site, the former place was
called Dromorebrague—false or pseudo Dromore. So alsoArmaghbrague,
a few miles south of the city of Armagh; and there is a townland of
this name in the parish of Nobber, Meath.
In a great many places in Ireland, standing stones that look ata
distance something like men are called Firbreaga—false, or fantastic,
or pseudo men—and these objects have given name to some townlands.
The word is sometimes applied to rivers that are subject to sudden and
dangerous floods, and in this case 1t means deceitful or treacherous. It
forms part of the name of Trawbreaga bay at Malin, Donegal, the false
or treacherous strand—a name well deserved, as the tide rises there so
suddenly, that it has often swept off people walking incautiously on
the shore. |
Spenser’s Bregoge also fully bears out its name; it is formed by the
junction of four mountain streams, all of the same length, and meeting
nearly in the same place. There is very little water in these in dry
weather; but whenever a heavy shower falls on the hills, four mountain
floods rush down simultaneously, and coming from the same distance,
they meet together nearly at the same instant, and the insignificant
little rivulet swells in a few moments to a dangerous torrent.
In the north of the parish of Galbooly, Tipperary, there is a river
called Breagagh—same meaning as Bregoge; at the city of Kilkenny
there is a small stream of the same name; and the River Dinin in Kil-
kenny is, or used to be often called Breagagh, on account of its sudden
and destructive floods.
“The Liffar deep” is the Foyle at Lifford. It is often called Liffar
by early English writers, as by Spenser himself in his ‘‘ View of the
State of Ireland” (p. 158, Ed. 1809) :—‘‘ Another [garrison] would I
put at Castle-liffer, or thereabouts, so as they should have all the pas-
sages upon the river to Logh-foyle.” Both Gibson and Gough, the
translators of Camden, also call this river by the name of Liffer. The
Trish form of the name as used by many authorities is Leithbhearr,
which is well represented in pronunciation by the old and correct
English form Liffer. The town of Lifford takes its name from the
river, a circumstance very usual in Ireland; in this manner Dublin,
7
Limerick, Galway, and many other places have received their names.
The d at the end is a modern corruption in accordance with a phonetic
law that I examined in a former paper, by which d is often corruptly
added in modern names after n and 7, and 6 after m.
‘‘Sad Trowis that once his people over-ran.’’ This is the little
River Drowes, flowing from Lough Melvin, between the counties of Fer-
managh and Leitrim, into Donegal Bay. The Irish name is Drobhaois,
and it is a river very often mentioned in Irish history. From the most
ancient period it separated the province of Connaught from that of
Ulster, and it is still the boundary betweenthem. The earliest division
of Ireland into five provinces was made by the Firbolgic colony, when
the five sons of Dela divided the country between them, and ‘‘ Geanann
took the province of Connaught from Luimneach [ Limerick] to Dro-
bhaois, and Rughruidhe took the province of Uladh from Drobhaois to
Droiched-atha [ Drogheda ].’”’ (Keating, chap. ii.)
The words ‘‘sad,” and ‘‘ that once his people over-ran,’’ allude to
a well-known legend regarding Lough Melvin, from which the river
flows—namely, that at a very ancient period it suddenly overflowed
the land, and drowned the people. This legend is given by the Four
Masters in the following words :—‘‘ Anno Mundi 4694, Melghe Molbh-
thach, monarch of Ireland, was slain in the battle of Claire by Modh-
corb;” and they go on to say that “‘when his grave was digging, Loch
Melghe burst forth over the land in Cairbre, so that it was named
[ Loch Melghe, now corrupted to Lough Melvin] from him.”
Spenser makes the three rivers, Barrow, Suir, and Nore, the offspring
of ‘‘the great gyant Blomius” and “the faire nimph Rheiisa,”’ which
is only a figurative way of saying that these rivers rise in Slieve Bloom,
and that they draw their supplies from the rain water falling on the
mountains; Rhetisa being merely ‘Peodca, the fem. participle of ‘Péw,
to flow. .
I am persuaded that Spenser, in mentioning ‘‘the great gyant
Blomius,”’ alludes to another very ancient Irish legend, namely, that
Slieve Bloom, or as it is written in Irish, Sliabh Bladhma [pron. blaw-
ma | received its name from Bladh [gen. Bladhma], the son of Breogan,
one of the chieftains of the Milesian expedition to Ireland. The legend-
ary personages connected with hills or other features are almost always
magnified into giants or supernatural beings by the imagination of the
peasantry ; and they are believed to haunt those places as a kind of
guardian spirits; as, for example, Finnvarra of Knockmaa near Tuam;
Donn of Knockfierna in Limerick; Midir of Bri Leith, now Slieve
Golry, near Ardagh, county Longford, &c. It is highly probable that
this legend was preserved among the peasantry in Spenser’s time; that
he became acquainted with it, as he knew and recorded the legend of
Lough Melvin; and that ‘“‘the great gyant Blomius”’ is the ancient
legendary hero Bladh [| Blaw |, the presiding spirit of Slieve Bloom.
It is curious that Spenser personifies these rivers in the masculine
gender, calling them ‘‘three renowmed brethren,’”’ and further on in
8
the same passage ‘“‘ three faire sons;” by early English writers they
are commonly called ‘‘ The three sisters,’ as by Giraldus Cambrensis,
Camden and others.
“The wide embayed Maire” is the Kenmare river and bay. This
bay was often called Maire by writers of that early period. In Norden’s
map it is written ‘‘ Flu. Maire;”’ and Boate describes it asa ‘‘ huge
bay called Maire” (‘‘Nat. Hist. of Ireland,” p. 11, Ed.1726). This
name was, I believe, an invention of these writers themselves, and
they took it from Kenmare, by a kind of reverse process, as if Kenmare
signified ‘‘The head of Maire.’’ The original name as used in Irish
authorities is Ceann-mara; and it was in the first instance applied to
the highest point to which the tide ascended in the river Roughty, the
name signifying ‘‘ head or highest point of the sea.”
“The balefull Oure late stained with English blood.’’ Iam not
aware that any one has attempted to identify this. At first glance the
Nore in Kilkenny would suggest ifsel’, as this river was at that period
often called the Oure; but this supposition is out of the question, as,
besides other reasons, the Nore has been already enumerated. I think
I shall be able to show that the ‘‘balefull Oure” is the Avonbeg,
which flows through Glenmalure in Wicklow, and joins the Avonmore
at the Meeting of the Waters, the two forming the Avoca. Whether
Spenser meant to apply the name Oure to the whole river as far as
Arklow, or only to the Avonbeg, one of its branches, I shall leave an
open question, but | think the former probable.
The words “late stained with English blood” obviously refer to
some battle in which the English were defeated and suffered loss, and
which was fought a short time before Spenser wrote the fourth Book
of ‘‘ The Faerie Queene,’’ in which this passage occurs. The first
three Books of ‘‘ The Faerie Queene’’ were published in 1590, and it
is an ascertained fact that the remaining three were finished before
1594. The only battles of any consequence in which the English
were defeated, that could be called ‘‘late’’ at this period, were the three
following :—A trifling action fought at Tulsk in Roscommon in 15938,
in which an English officer, Sir Wiliam Clifford, was slain; a battle
fought at Gort-na-tiobrad in the south of the county Limerick in 1579,
in which fell three hundred English soldiers and three officers; and a
third, the most serious ofthe three, fought in Glenmalure in 1580. It
will not be necessary to examine the two former; this last is the only
battle that will answer Spenser’s description in every particular. The
newly appointed Deputy, Lord Grey, advancing rashly against the
Wicklow clans, suffered a disastrous defeat on the 25th August of that
year, on the banks of the little river Avonbeg, flowing through this
glen, in which four English officers, Colonels Moor, Cosby, Audley, —
and Sir Peter Carew, with a great number of men—eight hundred,
according to some authorities—were slain. So far it exactly bears out
Spenser’s words ‘‘late stained with English blood.” It must be ob-
served, too, that Spenser was himself in an indirect way closely con-
4
cerned in this defeat, filling as he did the office of secretary to Lord
Grey, and consequently he would be all the more likely to retain a
vivid memory of it, and to mention it in connexion with the river.
But the name itself, and his manner of using it, afford if possible
still stronger evidence. Spenser often bestows fictitious names from
some real or fancied connexion with neighbouring localities; Gal-
tymore he calls Arlo, from the Glen of Aherlow; Molanna is so called
from Father Mole; Armulla from the River Mulla; and the name
Mulla itself he borrowed from Kilnamullagh. So this river he calls
the Oure, from the last syllable of Glenmalwre (or Glenmalour, as he
calls it in his ‘‘ View of the State of Ireland’’), as if the glen took its
name from the river.
In his catalogue of rivers, Spenser generally gives a short and very
correct description of each; and he often endeavours to find a corre-
spondence between the character of the rivers and the real or supposed
meaning ofthename. For example (see ‘‘ Faerie Queene,’”’ Book IV.,
Canto XI.),
Wylibourne with passage slye
That of his wylinesse his name doth take.”
ct Mole that like a nouzling mole doth make
His way still under ground.”
‘* Bounteous Trent that in himself enseames
Both thirty [Fr. ¢rente] sorts of fish, and thirty sundry streames.”
‘“‘ False Bregoge,”’
‘* So hight because of this deceitful traine.”’
So also ‘‘Tygris fierce,” ‘‘Meeander intricate,’ &c. In accordance
with this custom of his, the word ‘‘ baleful’ he evidently intends as
the equivalent in meaning of the syllable ‘‘ mal;’’ the Oure or ‘“‘ Mal-
oure”’ was baleful on account of the catastrophe that occurred on its
banks, and its very name corresponded exactly with its character. It
is almost needless to say that this meaning is not the true one, and
that it originated in the poet’s imagination.
It will be admitted, 1 think, that the river answers Spenser’s short
description in every particular with singular precision, and I may add
that I believe no other river can be found to do so. Moreover, what
makes the matter still more certain, it comes in the natural place ; for
after the Maire, the Bandon, and the Lee, the very next in order of those
not already named is the Avoca. How far these considerations may
weigh with others I know not, but they are quite sufficient to convince
me that Spenser’s ‘baleful Oure” is the Avonbeg of Wicklow.
-‘T shall next take two rivers together, the Allo and the Auniduff,
or Blackwater; and in dealing with these I shall be obliged to run
counter to the generally received opinion. It has been commonly
taken for granted that Spenser’s Auniduff is the great ee ein and
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X.
10
that his Allo is the little river at present so called, flowing by Kanturk
into the Blackwater; and these identifications have been copied and
repeated by writers of all kinds down to the present day, with a single
exception. The Rev. C. B. Gibson, in his ‘ History of Cork’ (1861),
asserts, but without giving any proof, that Spenser’s Allo is the Mun-
ster Blackwater, and that his Auniduff is the Ulster Blackwater, flow-
ing by Charlemont into Lough Neagh: that these identifications are
correct I hope to be able to show beyond any reasonable doubt.
In the first place I must remark that, so far as I have been able to
discover, the Munster Blackwater was never called Auniduff or Avon-
duff (black river). Its Irish name is Abhainn-mor, or Avonmore (great
river); if is so called in all Irish authorities, and this is its universal
Irish name among the people of Munster at the present day. Black-
water appears to be a modern English name, though a sufficiently
appropriate one, as the river is very dark in the early part of its course,
partly from the bogs of Slievelougher, and partly from the coal district
through which it flows.
Slievelougher, from which Spenser tells us the yale flows, is the
ancient Sliabh Luachra (rushy mountain), a wild moorland district,
lying east of Castleisland in Kerry, and very much celebrated in ancient
Trish writings. ‘The modern Allo, as Smith remarks in his “ History of
Cork’’ (vol. 1. p. 828), does not flow from or near Slievelougher ; its
whole length is not more than seventeen miles, and in every part of its
course it is at least twelve miles distant from the nearest part of
Shevelougher. That Spenser, who lived so near these places, could
commit the gross mistake of making this Allo rise in Shevelougher,
requires a more than ordinary amount of credulity to believe. The
Blackwater, on the other hand, flows directly from Slievelougher; it
rises about five miles N. N. W. from King Williamstown, flowing first
southwards, and, after passing through this very mountain district, it
turns east towards Mallow, so that Spenser must have been speaking
of the Blackwater when he described it most truly as ‘‘strong Allo
tombling from Slewlogher steep.”
But, to remove all doubt, Spenser himself in another place tells us
expressly the very river he means by the Allo. In “Colin Clouts
come home again”’ he relates how Old Father Mole did not wish his
daughter Mulla to wed the Bregoge, but
‘¢ _____ meaning her much better to preferre,
Did thinke to match her with the neighbour flood,
Which Allo hight, Broadwater called farre ;”
by which he means that the river which he called Allo was called
Broadwater by distant writers. Now, Broadwater is the name by
which the Blackwater was known by early English writers, and it is
nothing more than their translation of the Irish name Abhainn-mor.
For instance Boate:—<‘‘The chief rivers of Munster are Sure and
Broadwater..... .°.*.": The other [ the Broadwater | passeth by Lismore’”’
11
(‘‘Nat. Hist.,” p. 87, Ed. 1726). Mr. O’Flanagan, in his interesting
book on the Blackwater, quotes a charter of James IJ., in which it is
described as ‘‘the River Blackwater, called otherwise Broadwater.”’
‘Both Gough and Gibson, the translators of Camden, call it Broadwater ;
and Mr. Hennessy has directed my attention to the fact that in Norden’s
Map of Ireland, compiled about the year 1610, which is published
with the State Papers of Henry VIII., it is marked ‘‘ Broadwater.”’
I might quote many other authorities on this point, but I do not think
it necessary. Nothing can be plainer than Spenser’s text on this river
Allo, telling us in one place that it rises in Slievelougher, and in ano-
ther place that it is the Broadwater he means.
_ In support of all that has been advanced, I have now to quote the
opinion of the most accomplished of all Irish topographers, the late Dr.
O’Donovan, from which it will appear that the Blackwater was at one
time, either wholly or in part, called the Allo, and that consequently
the application of this name was not the invention of Spenser’s imagi-
nation. The ancient territory of Duhallow and the town of Mallow
both lie on the Blackwater, and both derive their names from a river
Kalla or Allo. The original name of the former, as written in Irish
documents, is Duthaidh-Ealla, 1. e. the district of the river Allo; and
the Irish name of Mallow is Magh-Ealla, the field or plain of the Allo.
Duhallow might have taken name from the modern Allo, as this river
flows through it, but how does Mallow get its name, for it is eleven
miles east of the Allo? This difficulty was so apparent to O’ Donovan,
thatin a note on Magh-Ealla in the ‘‘ Four Masters’ (vol. vi., p. 2080)
he states his conviction that the part of the Blackwater between Kan-
turk and Mallow was anciently called the Allo. His words are :—
‘From this name | Magh-Ealla] it is evident that the name Halla was
anciently applied to that part ofthe Blackwater lying between Kanturk
where the modern River Allo ends, and the town of Magh-Ealla, now
Anglice Mallow.”’
It does not appear that O’Donovan was acquainted with these pas-
sages of Spenser; if he were, he would no doubt have quoted them in
support of his opinion. His evidence is independent, and his corrobo-
ration of Spenser quite unintentional; and this circumstance gives his
opinion tenfold force as an argument. It must»be regarded as exceed-
ingly interesting to find this opinion of O’ Donovan’s so unexpectedly
confirmed by Spenser.
Smith, in his “‘ History of Cork,” so far as I mor, was one of the
_ first to discuss these rivers of Spenser, and he identifies the “ strong
Allo” with the modern river Allo, and the Auniduff with the Munster
Blackwater. He is followed by Crofton Croker (‘‘ Researches in the South
of Ireland,” p. 124). In Todd’s elaborate edition of Spenser these as-
sertions are repeated, but Todd received his information from Joseph
Cooper Walker (Author of ‘‘The History of the Irish Bards’), who merely
follows Smith, without adding anything of his own. I believe, indeed,
that modern writers generally have followed the authority of Smith
regarding these rivers. But Smith was evidently puzzled, and unable
12
to explain Spenser’s text on this supposition, for it never occurred to
him to question it. Instead of taking the poet at his own word, that
the Allo was the Broadwater, and reading the passages in their natural
and obvious meaning, both Smith and Walker adopt the incredible sup-
position that Spenser confounds the Allo and the Blackwater. Spenser
had a good knowledge of the topography of Ireland so far as it was
known in his time; his descriptions of our Irish rivers are always ex-
ceedingly correct, and it would be strange indeed to find him confound-
ing two remarkable rivers in his own immediate neighbourhood, with
both of which he must have been perfectly well acquainted.
Whether the whole of the Blackwater was anciently called the
Allo, or only a part of it, as O’ Donovan believes; whether also the
present Allo was ever known by a different name, and whether it got
the name Allo by transference from the Blackwater—these are ques-
tions I am not now able to decide; my object has been to prove that
Spenser’s Allo is the Munster Blackwater. .
Let us now return to the enumeration of the rivers. The order
followed is Liffey, Slaney, Aubrian, Shannon, Boyne, Bann, Auniduff,
Liffer, Drowes, Allo, Mulla. Here I must observe that the writers
referred to evidently never grasped the whole of Spenser’s rivers in
one view; for if they did they could not fail to perceive that the Auni-
duff is the Ulster Blackwater, the classification alone being sufficient to
prove it. When this river is restored to its proper place, Spenser’s
enumeration becomes perfectly natural. He first names the Liffey, and
proceeds southwards till he reaches the Shannon. He then begins at
the Boyne, and, proceeding north and west round the coast, he takes
the northern rivers in their exact order, ending with the Drowes; he
then returns to Munster, and finishes his stanza with his own two
rivers :—
*¢ Strong Allo tombling from Slewlogher steep ;
And Mulla mine, whose waves I whilom taught to weep.”
After a careful search I find myself unable to identify ‘‘the Stony
Aubrian.”’ The first syllable Aw is probably the common Irish prefix
signifying “‘river.’’ From the order in which Spenser names it in con-
junction with three well-known rivers (Liffey, Slaney, Awbrian, Shan-
non), it may be inferred that it lies somewhere in Cork or Kerry. The
river Feale in Kerry, flowing by Abbeyfeale, would naturally strike one
as being possibly the river Spenser meant, as its bed is very “‘ stony,”
and its position would answer the classification; but I cannot find that
this river was ever called by any name resembling Aubrian, and at best
it is only a conjecture. I thought also of the Galway River, for this
too would answer the classification very well; and its bed is very rocky
near the town. Lough Corrib, from which it flows, was anciently
called Lough Orbsen, which 1s not wholly unlike Aubrian, but the re-
semblance is too faint to found any conclusion on it. This is the only
one of Spenser’s rivers that remains unidentified.
13
In a note at A. D. 1385 of the “‘ Four Masters” (vol.iv., p. 701),
Dr. O’ Donovan states that the Hill of Croghan in the north of the
King’s County is celebrated by Spenser in his ‘‘ Faerie Queene.” Smith
in his ‘‘ History of Cork’ says of the Dripsey, a tributary of the Lee,
that it is ‘‘a rivulet that will for ever murmur in the lays of the immor-
tal Spenser, when, perhaps, its fountains are no more” (vol. 11, p. 255).
In O’Brien’s Irish Dictionary, under the word Cloedeach, is the fol-
lowing statement :—‘‘ Cloedeach, the name of a river in the county of
Cork, near Mallow, celebrated in Spenser’s Fairy Queen.”’ I have not
been able to find any mention of these—Croghan Hill, the River Drip-
sey, or the Cloedeach (or Clydagh) in ‘‘ The Faerie Queene,” or in any
other part of Spenser’s poems.
IJ.—On tHE ScANDINAVIAN ANTIQUITIES LATELY DISCOVERED AT
IsLANDBRIDGE, NEAR Dusiin. By Sir W. R. Wipe.
[Read December 10, 1866. ]
Sir Wittiam Wipe, Vice-President, brought under the notice of
the Academy an account of the antiquities of Scandinavian origin,
lately found in the fields sloping down from the ridge of Inchicore
to the Liffey, and to the south-west of the village of Islandbridge,
outside the municipal boundary of the city of Dublin, where, there was
reason to believe, some of the so-called Danish engagements with the
native Irish took place. These antiquities consisted of swords of great
length, spearheads, and bosses of shields, all of iron; also iron knives,
smiths’ and metal smelters’ tongs, hammer heads, and pin brooches, &c.
Of bronze there were four very beautiful tortoise-shaped or mammil-
lary brooches found, likewise some decorative mantle pins and helmet
crests of findruin, or white metal; beams and scales of the same ma-
terial, and leaden weights, decorated and enamelled on top, and in some
cases ornamented with minerals. Besides those which were considered
to be of Scandinavian origin, there were others, especially small discs
of embossed work and enamel, found among them, probably of Frankish
or Saxon workmanship, similar to some of those in the Academy’s
Museum, and figured in the Catalogue, p. 574. Among the most
interesting articles in the collection was a sword handle of bronze
and iron, highly decorated in Scandinavian pattern, and inlaid with
discs of white metal, which Mr. Clibborn was fortunate enough to
procure, some months ago, from Islandbridge. With few exceptions,
weapons of that class were believed to be of what was usually, but erro-
neously called, Danish origin. Sir Wilham stated that iron swords
of that pattern were rarely found in Jutland, or the countries known
in modern geography as Denmark, but similar swords were found,
chiefly in Norway, and the adjoining coasts of Sweden, and he believed
that there were more iron swords of the so-called Danish pattern in the
14
collection of the Academy than were to be found in the Copenhagen Mu-
seum. He complimented the noble President upon the circumstance that,
through his instrumentality in procuring the ‘‘ Treasure-trove regula-
tion,” the Royal Irish Academy was now able, without drawing upon
its own very limited resources, to purchase any collection of articles
which might be discovered in Treland, provided such articles were at
once brought to the Academy, or forwarded through the constabulary
or police. ‘In detail, or spread through private collections, these articles
would be of comparatively little worth; but collectively, and procured
as they were, with all the circumstances connected with their cnseonery.
well known, they became of great historic interest.
The circumstances under which the osscous remains and the
accompanying relics were found were well worthy of consideration.
The surface of the great pit from which the macadamizing material of
Dublin was being procured, which was about twenty feet in section,
consisted of a layer of dark, alluvial soil, varying from eighteen
inches to two feet in depth. Upon the gravel bed on which it rested
were found several skeletons; and among their bones, both above and
below them, were discovered the different articles referred to. It would
appear that they were worn by or were in the possession of the persons
to whom these skeletons belonged; but there was no evidence of
‘interment’ having taken place; and, from all the attendant circum-
stances, the investigator was left to believe one or other of two suppo-
sitions: the first was, that the bodies were buried in all the panoply of
war, with their weapons, offensive and defensive, and their armour, de-
corations, tools, and implements upon them—either hastily after a battle,
or according to the usage of the people to whom they belonged—which
latter was not only unlikely, but, from the shallow surface of the soil
covering them, most improbable. ‘The other and most likely conjecture
was, that these Scandinavian invaders were killed in battle or some
sudden skirmish, and lay there on the lightly covered gravel field, on
the south side of the Liffey, until the birds of prey picked their bones,
and the weeds, grass, and soil accumulated over them during the last
eight or nine hundred years.
Sir William was of opinion that the Scandinavian incursions into
Ireland extended back into the very remote period of the Tuatha de
Dannans, although the annalists assign the first great invasion of the
Tutons to the early part of the ninth century. We have no special notice
of any battle having been fought in the precise locality from which these
antiquities were procured, although several engagements took place round
the envirous of Dublin. One of the last is that related in the ‘‘ Annals
of the Four Masters,” under the year 1171, when Asgall, or Hasculphus,
ex-King of the Foreigners of Ath-Cliath, attacked Milo de Cogan, near
the city, but was vanquished by the English Governor, and beheaded.
It is only in the museum of Christiania that we find any number of
swords identical with those discovered in Ireland ; and some of the few
that are in the collection at Copenhagen were, with other valuable ar-
2 or dtl de nek, Be te ee aN
15
ticles, procured from this country some years ago by that most energetic
and learned Dane, Dr. Worsaae, who, however, has not figured them in
his beautiful Catalogue of the Copenhagen Museum ; neither have such
weapons been described by Engelhardt as found in the Thorsbjerg Mose-
fund, or the bogs of Slesvig, nor in the same author’s splendid work,
“¢ Denmark in the Early Iron Age.’’ A few, however, have been found in
England, and are figured and described in the ‘‘ Horze Ferales’’ of the late
J. M. Kemble. Our Danish invaders, or at least their commanders, were
clad in mail, generally chain armour; wore conical helmets, of which
there is an exemplification upon one of the oval brooches, lately procured
from Islandbridge; had circular shields, probably bound with iron,
and studded with large central bosses, one of which bears evidence of
the indentation of an Irish battleaxe. They had also long sharp iron
spears and javelins ; but their chief weapon was the large heavy-hilted,
broad-bladed iron sword, with a strong decorated hilt, and loaded
pummel. We have no evidence derivable from physical objects, nor any
record in our manuscripts, of the cross bow or any similar projectile
haying been employed in the Danish wars, except that shown in the
helmet crest, p.17. There were also found some fragments of bone
sword handles, and a few vestiges of the brass ferules or tippings of
scabbards. An endeavour had been made to scrape and polish some of
the articles, but it should be generally known among all classes that
every effort of the kind decreases the commercial value of the articles.
In conclusion, Sir William stated that his attention was -at-
tracted to the Islandbridge discovery by Sir Thomas Larcom, to whom
the Academy was already so much indebted; and ended by congratu-
lating the members upon these and other valuable accessions which had
been made to the Museum during the past year. He also referred to
the history of the Committee of Antiquities, and the formation of the
Museum, which he had brought under the notice of the Academy some
years ago, and in which formation those who bore a part were justly
referred to, and more especially Dr. Todd, then Secretary of the Academy,
and who subsequently, during his presidency, so effectively assisted in
procuring the publication of the first part of the Catalogue.
The following is a list of the principal Antiquities procured from this
very remarkable Find, given in the consecutive order of the arrange-
ment observed in the Museum Catalogue, ‘‘ according to Use ;” and illus-
trated by engravizgs of some of the rarest articles :—
Five complete iron swords, much corroded, but with handles; also
a decorated sword handle. They are numbered 2356, —7, -8, and -9;
and also 2360, and -61, in the New Registry. The Scandinavian
weapons of this class are of two kinds—single and double-edged; the
latter average 36 inches long in the blade, and 2 wide, and have
rather obtuse points; the former are not quite so long, and have the
cutting edge running off obliquely into the straight blunt back. Ina
few rare instances the flats of these sword blades are indented with
16
longitudinal grooves, as in Nos. 2357 and 2358 in this collection. The
handles of the iron swords in the Academy’s collection are all massive, .
and appear to have been so weighted as to balance the blade, and render
its blow more effective. Some of them are beautifully decorated with
silver, inlaid into the iron hilts and pommels. The handle portion in-
cluded within the space of these two guards was generally occupied
with wood, bone, or seahorse tooth, &c.; but, owing to the curiosity or
the cupidity of the finders, they rarely find their way into the collection in
this condition. Fortunately, however, in No. 2358 a portion of the bone
handle remains, and a fragment of the wood in No. 2360. The beautifully
decorated metal handle here figured, one-half its natural size, is the
first of its kind that has been discovered, and is formed of iron, bronze,
silver, and findruin, or white me-
tal, now so intimately incorporated
that the lines of junction cannot
be discovered. ‘The entire length UE hohishh (oLolo
of this article in its present con- WASUR EUs sug ogee:
dition is 54 inches, and there is W@Yes ZV
a portion of the blade still re-
maining, but the hilt or guard is
wanting. The hilt is iron, beau-
tifully wrought, and inlaid with
white metal, and the handle por-
tion of bronze, inlaid with white
metal or silver chevrons, termi-
nating in small circles, as shown
in the illustration. The side edges
are also decorated. Nothing lke
this has heretofore been published.
Six spear heads, of the ordinary
class—long, thin, and narrow,
4 to 20 inches in length, by 2 5
inches broad in the widest por-
tion, and having a socket about 5 : Hl
inches deep. There is also a great sl
number of these weapons in the No. 2361.
general Scandinavian Collection
of the Academy. They may have been used either in war or for the
chase.
Four umbos, or shield bosses, of thin plate iron, with holes in some
instances for holding the rivets that attached them to the bucklers : some
are globular, and others conical, They average 34 inches across, and
24 high.
Connected with the weapons and armour discovered at Islandbridge
was a white metal figure of a dog, evidently a helmet crest, and which
is here represented, the full size. It holds in its mouth something likea
cross bow, and stands on plates for attaching it to the metallic por-
sSoSs—m
LESS SS
o
Mig Kay LXer
SESE aN NY
Sipe aes
DWF As FO ©
SE PT
Ppt core et
a.) SS == aS SE =
iil
; H
‘4
IR?
tion of the casque. On the left side it is plain, but on the right it was
carved (after casting) with two remarkable spiral volutes, precisely
similar to those markings on the stones of New Grange and Dowth,
and other monuments of that class in Ireland. This is one of the first
occasions in which our earlier stone decoration of the spire character has
been found on metal, and lends support to the belief that the Tuatha
de Dannan erectors of
the sepulchral caves of
Meath and some of the
great monuments of
Moytura were of Scan-
dinayian origin. Along
the neck and back is
engraved the represen-
tation of a mane, the ©
eurls of which end ina
series of scrolls, which
is still a common form
of decoration in Swe-
den and Denmark.
Upon the dog-head
weight, figured on p. 18, there are four scrolls of the same pattern.
Among the “ weapon tools’’ were several knife blades, varying in
length from 8 to 5 inches; and also an iron sickle-like hook, No. 2379,
which may, when hafted, have been used as an instrument of war at a
time when every ‘‘ cutting and maiming” implement was made available
for the fight. The true ‘tools’ discovered in this Find consist of hammer-
heads, shears, and tongs, especially one slender implement of this latter
class, No. 2382, with bent blades, manifestly used for lifting crucibles,
and in other smelting purposes. There were also several large-headed
nails, and other pieces of iron, such as might be found in the forge of a
smith or armourer, together with sharpening stones, spindle whorls,
mixed with various articles of household economy.
We learn from history that in their predatory incursions the Scan-
dinavians pillaged our churches and monasteries, and despoiled us of our
gold and ornaments. They afterwards exhibited their commercial pro-
pensions in their trading settlements in Dublin, Waterford, &c.; so
that, having “‘ an eye to the main chance,”’ they were always ready to
barter, and prepared to weigh the precious articles which may have
fallen into their hands. This may account for the circumstance that in
three instances, in this very neighbourhood, small scales have been dis-
covered in connexion with human remains and implements of war, art,
and barter. In the Islandbridge Find were discovered one straight
and one folding beam of coppery bronze, to both of which belonged cup-
shaped white metal scales; but in the former instance the chains were
wanting. In the latter, which is 54 inches long in the beam, the chains
are perfect; but suspended from a single strand, which holds up, by
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. D
18
means of an eagle’s claw, the three chains of the scale. The balance of
the beam is held up by a bronze model of a swan, very similar in size and
form to that believed to be one of the birds of Oden, discovered recently
in his tomb at Upsala. It is manifest that these small portable scales
were used by their possessors in the same manner that the’ guinea scales
and weights were carried about to fairs and markets in the early part
of the present century. It is, however, to the weights, now for the first
time discovered, and to develope their artistic structure, that special at-
tention should be directed. They are ten in number, and vary from
390 grains to 1850. Six are circular, and the rim of each is capped
with a decorated disc let into it, and weighted below with lead,
probably according to the number of ounces or grains it represented.
The following cuts, the natural size, illustrate some of the most
remarkable of these articles. The first is that of a dog’s head, most
beautifully cut, and also tooled in brass, and highly gilt, No. 2389 in the
registry, and weighing in its present imperfect state 1547 grains. As,
however, some of the bottom lead from this and other specimens has
been removed, it is not now possible to say whether those weights are
multiples one of another. The eyes were originally jewelled; and the
QS
&
PSs > SP
pS SS
:
oe
No. 2392. No. 2393. No. 2394.
back portion of the frontal mitre-like projection is also highly decorated
with volutes, or Scandinavian scrolls, like that on the sides, and the
nostril projections were tipped with redenamel. The bronze portion
was riveted to the leaden disc.
19
Of a smaller size, but of the dog-head pattern, with projecting knobs,
and elliptical ornament, is No. 2390, which presents more of the Irish
than the Northern form of decoration. It weighs 410 grains, and was
originally gilt on the top.
Another description of weight decoration is that figured in the
cut of No. 2391, weighing 960 grains, which, when perfect, must
have been of exceeding beauty, and quite equal to anything capable
of being effected in enamel in the present day. Let into the copper
capsule is a circular plate, rising into a central cone, and cut out
into exceedingly fine lines on the flat surface, for holding placquets
of enamel, ten in number, and alternately plain yellow, and minute
white patterns on a blue ground, as shown in the cut. The central
boss is red enamel, and its apex blue. ‘Traces of the gilding can
also be observed on the rim and cone, which latter appears to have
had the gold applied before the enamel was laid on, no doubt for
some good artistic purpose. Interspaced with the yellow and blue are
a series of small chambers, also filled with enamel, which at present
presents a greenish-grey appearance, and no doubt encircled the disc.
This beautiful article is undoubtedly the finest specimen of minute ena-
melling that has been discovered in this country, and probably, for its
assumed age, in any other part of Europe; and must, when perfect, with
its five distinctly coloured and most accurately adjusted enamels, have
_ presented avery beautiful appearance. The idea presented by the form
is evidently that of a shield; and if a fac-simile of it could now be pro-
duced by any of our jewellers, it would form a most beautiful ornament.
The third cut, No. 2892, is of the same class, but neither so beau-
tifully designed, nor originally so effective in colour. The interspaces
were filled with crimson enamel surrounding the silver or white metal
pattern. It weighs 465 grains.
The fourth figure in the foregoing series of illustrations, No. 2398,
is a leaden weight, of 1850 grains, also drawn the full size; the top zig-
zag decoration is silver, most beautifully inlaid on a mixture of gold
and copper.
- The fifth, No. 2394, is of a different form and material from all the
others; the sides are formed of white metal, and the top of blue ribbed
glass. The interior is lead, which at the bottom presents two ancient
cruciform cuttings, as if made to lessen its weight, which at present is
537 grains. The four remaining weightsare circular. No. 2395, weigh-
ing 1225 grains, is most elaborately decorated at top with a scroll or
knotted pattern, highly gilt, and surrounding the remains of a central
jewel, probably an amethyst, of which a portion remains. Its decora-
tion is a mixture of Frankish and Irish art. No. 2396, weighing 631
grains, is smaller, and has a very elaborate scroll pattern raised above
the level of the sides. No. 2397 is an iron stud, evidently the base
or central portion of a weight, and which gives us a clue to the rusty
appearance observable on some of these weights, as well as the way
in which they were constructed, viz., the iron nucleus, surrounded with
a hoop, into which the decorated head or top disc was inserted, and then
20
the lead poured in to affix all three, and give the requisite weight, just
as lead has been similarly employed in bringing modern weights to their
standard value. No. 2398 is similar to No. 2396, but smaller, and de-
corated at top. It weighs 390 grains.
The personal ornaments found at Islandbridge, although not nume-
rous, are of great interest, and consist of mantle pins, brooches, and jew-
elled studs. Of the first class the most remarkable is that here figured,
the true size, and consisting of a miniature battle axe, of white metal,
no doubt representing the precise form
of the weapon then in use. Itis totally
different in shape from either the tuath,
or weapon-tool of the ancient Irish, or
the sharp broad-bladed hatchet of the
Gallowglass, of which there are several
specimens in the Museum, as well as
figured on our ancient monuments—for
example, on the tomb of O’Conor, at
Roscommon, and that of Cooey na Gal,
in Donegal. The bronze shank or pin
portion is slightly imperfect, but proba-
bly measured originally seven inches.
From time to time, in different loca-
: os lities in North-western Europe, in their
| 4 No. 2399. track through the Orkneys and Hebrides,
ie and wherever the Scandinavian race have
_ 4 left their traces, pairs of oval bronze brooches, similar to
' 4 that figured on the opposite page, have been discovered in con-
j
nexion with human remains, arms, and implements. Oval in
girth, and shaped hke the carapace of the small land tortoise,
with raised lines dividing the decorated external surface into
compartments, and where they intersect furnished with studs, fastened
on with fine iron pins, and the whole probably gilt originally, these
bosses must have been personal ornaments of great beauty. Probably the
shell of the tortoise itself was the original brooch from which the
idea of repeating 1t in metal was derived; and its form bespeaks a
more southern origin for the makers than the cold regions of Scandi-
navia.
They are formed out of pieces of bronze, hammered into curvatures,
and afterwards tooled, carved, and highly polished on the outer surface.
Within, each has an iron pin, hinged at one end, and looped into a catch
at the other. In the great majority of these shell-shaped brooches the
superadded studs have been lost; but in some found at Islandbridge a
few are still 7m situ. The character of their decorations is almost pecu-
liar to themselves, and is scarcely to be defined by words. It differs
in all; and, although each pair of breast clasps resemble each other in
general design, they often differ slightly in some particulars, but in this
instance they are identical.
21
These articles were probably worn one on each breast, and there-
fore deserve the name of mammillary brooches; and very likely they
“were connected by chains, like the pairs of dog-headed pins so fre-
quently found in Sweden. We are fortunate to possess so many as
seven of these articles in our
Museum—four of which, Nos.
2404 and ‘-5, 2420 and -21,
were found at Island bridge.
By those at all acquainted with
Trish archeology or history, the
following passage from Mr. Wor-
saae’s ‘‘ Primeval Antiquities of
Denmark,”’ in reference to these
brooches, will be read with as-
tonishment : —‘‘ That they are
positively to:be referred to the
last period of Paganism we know
with complete certainty, because
they are frequently found in
graves in Ireland, which coun-
try was first’peopled by Pagan
Norwegians at the close of the
ninth century.” Now, they have
never been found in Irish graves;
and, as to the question of this
country having been first ‘‘ peo-
pled” by Norwegians one thou-
sand years ago, it is quite un-
necessary to enter, as the state-
ment, if not an error of transla-
tion, is at utter variance with
history. The average size of the opening of these convex brooches 1s
four inches by two anda half. The decorative lines are usually straight,
and the figures angular; but in that represented in the cut No. 2420
we have a rude representation of a soldier on each side, already re-
ferred to. .
The accompanying illustration, the true size, presents us with the
reverse side of a highly ornamented bronze strap buckle, upon which
there is a special and peculiar form of straight-line ornamentation, here-
tofore but seldom observed in antiquities found in Ireland. ‘The front
presents a highly decorated casting, which was originally plated with
silver, and upon both sides the verdigris, with which it is partially
coated, is remarkably impressed with the indentation of a twilled woven
texture, probably woollen, and which possibly grew into it while the
garment of the wearer still retained its integrity. Among the other
articles that may be classed as personal ornaments, there were found
22
several beads of glass and enamel-paste bronze ring-pins, decorated
button-like studs, and small white metal tubes, &c.
on
~S——
=—
|
@ i!
(i
:
( Vi !
==
See, No. 2404.
With these and other miscellaneous articles collected in the Island-
bridge Find, and amounting to about 78 specimens, were found a large
quantity of human bones, but no perfect skull.
IIT.—On tHe Barrie or Moytura (in continuation). By Sir W. R.
WILDE.
[Read November 12, 1866. ]
He said that, in continuation of a paper which he brought forward at
the last meeting of the Academy in June, upon the subject of the battle-
field of Southern Moytura, county of Mayo, he divided his subject into a
geographical description of the great plain extending between the hill of
Knockmagh and Ben-Levi Mountain—an historic account of the battle—
and an identification of existing monuments with the record of the en-
gagement ; he now presented a small instalment of the last section, of
which the following 1s an abstract:—The manuscript account of the bat-
tle describes ‘‘ The Plain of the Hurlers,”? upon which there still stands
a vast cairn, which, if my topography be correct, was erected to com-
memorate the death of twenty-nine youths who were killed in a game
ot hurling the day before the battle; and many of the circumstances
connected with which, as tending to fix the precise locality of the bat-
tle, I laid before the Academy upon a former occasion. An incident
connected with this battle, which must have been fought 2000 years
ago, is thus related in the history of the engagement:—LEochy, son of
Erc, King of the Belge, or Firbolgs, upon the morning of the second
day of the battle, went down into a certain well to perform his ablu-
23
tions. Looking up, he perceived overhead three men of the Tuatha de
Dannan enemy, who were about to seek his life. One of his own at-
tendants, however, came to the rescue, fought with and killed his three
assailants upon an adjoining hillock, and there fell dead of his wounds.
The Firbolgs, coming up to look after their king, there and then in-
terred the hero who so bravely defended him; and each taking, it is
said, a stone in his hand, erected over him a monumental cairn. The
well is not named in the ancient account of the battle; but the little hill
on which the conflict took place is called Tullagh-an-Trir, ‘‘ The Hill of
the Three,’ and the monument erected thereon Carn-in-en Fir, ‘‘ The
Carn of the One Man.” Such is the simple narrative of the transaction sent
down to us through bards and wandering poets and chieftains’ laureates,
who perhaps recited it at feasts and in public assemblies—as the tales
of Troy were sung possibly before Homer was born—until the days
of letters, when the tradition was transmitted to writing, and the an-
nalist sped it on to the present time, although it has never yet been
printed.
Isit true? Can it be that a trifling incident of this nature, occur-
ring so far back in the night of history, can possibly bear the test of
topographical investigation, while many of our classic histories have
been questioned, and in some instances their statements disproved ?
Yes, there it stands at the present day-—the deep well in a chasm of
the limestone rock through which the high waters of Lough Mask per-
colate into Lough Corrib—the only drop of water that is to be found in
the neighbourhood—and so deep under the surface, that the king must
have looked upwards to see his enemies overhead. Adjoining it, on
the south-east, stands the hillock referred to in the manuscript, and
now crowned with a circle of standing stones, 176 feet in circumference,
in the centre of which are the remains of a cairn, as shown by the ac-
companying illustration. The wellis now called Meaneen uisge, ‘‘The
1)) 1 y
i AB ATARI
2 _~<44 - = fi
= aN Wea .
SS SSSR SN
FS = SSH
Ae
Small Water Place;” and the adjoining monument is still called Carn
Meaneen-uisge.
24
Directed to the spot by the manuscript, and feeling convinced of its
identity, I excavated the cairn, and found in the centre, beneath a vast
flagstone, 44 inches by 36 on the surface, a small chamber, somewhat
smaller than the covering flag, and 28 inches high, containing a single
urn, filled with incinerated human bones. Perhaps a more convincing
proof of the authenticity of history was never adduced.
O'Donovan, when examining the barony of Kilmain, in 1839, did
not visit any of these monuments, which exist in the hollow south-
east of Toneleane, the site of Cath na-Bunnen, or Dannan, on
which several of the battle monuments stand. But the transla-
tion which he has left of the Cath Magh Twreadth has directed
me to the discovery of this and several other monuments still ex-
isting, and which I hope to bring before the Academy on a future
occasion. J have also had the advantage of collating, with Mr.
O’Looney, O’Donovan’s translation with O’Curry’s transcript of the
Trinity College manuscript now in the Catholic University. I here
beg to present this very beautiful, and I may add historic urn, to the
museum of the Academy. Itis a very beautiful object, about five and
a half inches high, and six
inches wide in the mouth, ta-
pering gracefully to the bot-
tom, which is only two inches
broad. It is also highly deco-
rated all round the lip, and has
six decorated fillets beneath Ss =r =
the outer edge of the rim; and, * s\ ce EE
what is unique in vessels of
this description, four slightly
elevated knobs, like handles.
The lower plain surface be-
neath the fillets and handles
is covered with herring-bone
ornamentation. The surface of
the vessel is of a reddish-
brown colour, and the interior of its substance black, showing that it
was submitted to the process of baking or roasting, either i in its ; original
formation, or at the time of the pyre, or when the hot embers of the
human remains were placed within it. I may observe that it is a re-
markable circumstance that we have no word in Irish to express an urn;
and that, when found, the wondering people called it a ‘‘crucka beg,”’
or little crock. I beg also to express my obligation to Charles Blake,
Esq., of Tuam, the proprietor of the land, who had most kindly given
me permission to make whatever excavations I chose.
KKK
SSS
ESOL
y
bo
Or
TV.—Notes oN SOME OF THE ANCIENT VILLAGES IN THE ARAN ISLEs,
County or Gatway. By G. Henry Kinanan, F.R.G.S. I.
[Read December 10, 1866.]
Dunine a recent visit to the Islands of Aran, in Galway Bay, I
remarked some ancient habitations, a few only of which are engraved
on the Ordnance Map; and, as I believe they have not been previously
described, it may be as well to record them.
Batta-na-sEAN (Anglice, Village of the Ancient Ones).—Having heard
from the Rev. W. Kilbride, Vicar of Aran, that a village was supposed to
exist near the centre of Inishmore (the North Island of Aran), we went
to look for it, and found its site about a mile N.W. of the Light House.*
Generally speaking, only the foundations of the ruins remain; but after
our examination we came to the conclusion that the village consisted of
Doons; Cahers; Cloghauns, or stone cells with ‘‘ beehive” or arched stone
roofs; Cnocdns (pronounced knockauns), or beehive stone cells covered
with clay; Mosleac (pronounced Fusleak), or cells built of flagstones
placed on edge, and roofed with flags; and Orntegh (pronounced On- -tee),
or stone huts that have not arched stone roofs.
The Orntighs seem to be the most recent, as they approach in type
to the modern cabin. Most of the Cloghauns are of a similar type to
those on the Great Skellig, county of Kerry, viz., they have rectangular
bases, which rise a few feet above the surface before they slope in to
form the ‘‘ beehive roof.” The Cloghauns on the Great Skellig are sup-
posed to have been built by the monks, and therefore the rectangular
Cloghauns on Aran may also be of Christian origin, and more modern
than the Cnocdns. Moreover, the rectangular Cloghauns have two
doorways, similar to the cabins of the present day, while in none of
the circular Cloghauns or in the Cnocans was more than one observed.
In none of these ancient ruins was mortar apparent; but this may
not be a test of antiquity, as in most of the old Cyclopean churches on
the island, and in some of those which are more modern, no mortar was
used. This is easily accounted for, when we remember that on these
islands, as well as in the barony of Burren, county of Clare, fuel for
the manufacture of lime has always been scarce and costly, and the
people at the present day generally build their houses with dry walls.
On referring to the accompanying Map (see Map, Plate I.), the position
of the different old buildings will be apparent. t
* The easiest way to get to this village is along the boreen at the Roman Catholic
chapel. This lane, or rather bridle path, leads into its southern part. As the name
Cloghaun seems to be used for every kind of ancient mortarless stone house, I have used
in cae paper Mr. Kilbride’s names, which indicate the peculiar structure of each kind of
building.
+ The numbers on the various ruins are in the order in which we visited them. These
numbers are retained, although not in regular succession, because they are the numbers
on Mr. Kilbride’s Map.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. E
26
No. 1. (see Plate II., fig. a).—A rectangular Cloghaun, 21 feet long, by -
12 feet wide. The walls are 3 feet thick, and inside the corners are square
for a height of 3 feet; above that height the stones are laid transverse to
the angle, and made to overlap one above the other to form the beehive
roof, (sce Plate IV., fig. h).—There are two doorways to the Cloghaun,
one in each side wall, and thus facing to the N. N. E. and S. S. W.;
they are about 3 feet high, and 23 feet wide on the outside, narrowing
within to about 2°5 feet.
No. 2. This is supposed to be an Ointigh. It may not have had a
stone roof, and certainly never had the ‘‘ beehive roof” of a Cloghaun.*
No. 3. A circular ruin, 10 feet in diameter; possibly a Cloghaun.
No. 4. Ruin of a Cloghaun, of the same type as No. 1.
No. 5. A group of three mounds, which appear to be the relics of a
compound Cnocan (see No. 16).
No. 6. A small stone fort, about 70 feet in diameter. This was for-
merly surrounded by a stone wall, about 8 feet thick, in which was a
flagged rectangular doorway, 3 feet high, by 3 feet 5 inches wide,
facing to the 8S. EH.
No. 7. A Fosleac, or rectangular chamber, built of six large flags
placed on edge (see Plate III., fig. b): itis 8 feet long, by 3°5 feet wide,
and about 4 feet high.
No. 8. A group of three mounds, similar to No. 5 (see No. 16).
No. 9. Two Cnocans that have been dismantled, and the ruins of the
cells exposed. These cells were circular, 24 feet in diameter, and seem
to have been of aregular beehive shape. The walls are faced witha single
layer of stone, backed with clay; and at their base, on the inside, were
circles of flagstones placed on edge. Fig. c. Plate I., is the ground
plan of a Cnocan of a similar type.
No. 10. (see Plate II., fig. c). A Cnocan of a similar type to those
just mentioned (No 9). The inside circle of this is 15 feet in diameter ;
and around this, outside the clay backing, there is a circle, 27 feet in
diameter, of flagstones placed on edge.
No. 11. (see Plate III., fig. d). A rectangular Cnocan, divided into
two chambers. It seems to have had only one doorway, facing to the
south.
No. 12. Ruin of a circular Cloghaun.
No. 13. Stone and clay circle, 18 feet in the diameter ; it seems to
be the ruins of a Cnocan.
No. 14. (see Plate V., fig. g). Ruined mound, with part of a cir-
cular chamber 21 feet in diameter. Extending towards the east from
this chamber there is a passage, 18 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 feet
high, covered by large flags. Contiguous to the chamber, on the 8. EH.
is a circle of stones, 21 feet in diameter; these seem to be the ruins of
a large chambered Cnocan.
* In the neighbourhood of this there seem to be the remains of a kitchen midden, and
a recent potato garden. This structure may, therefore, be comparatively modern.
27
No. 15. Ruin of a Cnocan, of a similar type to No. 11, except that
it does not appear to have been divided into chambers (see Plate III.,
fig. d).
: ne 16. (see Plate IV., fig. e). A chambered Cnocan. The cham-
ber at the entrance is an oval, 15 feet long, by 8 feet wide, at theS. E.
end of which is the entrance passage, 3 feet square on the outside, and
narrowing in width to 2°75 feet on the inside. At the N. W. ofthe cham-
ber is a passage, 3 feet square, leading into acircular chamber, 12 feet in
diameter. From this circular chamber there is another passage, 15 feet
long, by 4 wide, 3°5 high, leading into the innermost chamber, which
is also circular, and 12 feet in diameter.
-All these chambers are surrounded internally by flags, backed with
rubble masonry, and faced externally with clay. Ateach side of the en-
trance the external clay wall is faced with flags. The two groups of
mounds before mentioned (Nos. 5 and 8) would seem to be Cnocans of
this type; for at both those places there are three mounds, two of which
join into one another; and the other, which is a little apart, is connected
to them by a low ridge, which may indicate the site of the connecting
passage.
No. 17. Ruined Cnocan.
No. 18. Ruined Cnocan.
No. 19. Ruins of two Fosleac and two Ointigh. The largest Fosleac
(see Plate III., fig. f) is 30 feet long, 6 feet wide, and about 4 feet high ;
it seems to have been covered by large flags. - Attached to it on the
N. W. side is a small rectangular chamber.
No. 20. A Cloghaun of the same type as No. 1. It is marked on
the Ordnance Map, and called Creg-a-blughaun. This is the most per-
fect example of its type at the locality, as a portion of the roof is still
seen to rise above the perpendicular walls. ‘There are two doorways
to this building—one facing north, and the other south, that are three
feet high, 2°5 feet wide on the outside, and 1°75 feet on the inside. At
the N. E. of the chamber there is a window, 1 foot square, and 3 feet
from the ground; the chamber is 16 feet long, by 8 feet wide.
No. 21. Ruined Cnocan.
No. 22. This may be the ruin of an Ointigh; but it seems % be of
modern construction. On the Ordnance Map it is marked, and called
Ballynamought (Anglice, Village of the Poor). It is 27 feet long, by 16
feet wide, and has north and south high doorways, 2 feet wide, and a fire-
place at the east end.
No. 23. Three circular Cnocans—these occur on the hill, south of
the hamlet called Ballynacragga, a little north of the trigonometrical
point 400. They liein a line contiguous to one another, and seem to be
the remains of a chambered Cnocan.
No. 24. On the crest of the hill, due south of the village called
Cowrugh, there is around and flat heap of stones, which seem to be the
ruins of a cluster of huts. Mr. Kilbride considers this to be the ruins
of a Coenobium of a colony of monks.
No. 25. Ruins of two Cloghauns, of a similar type to No. 1. The
i pee: ee en eS
28
most northern of these is marked on the Ordnance Map, and called
Cloghaun-a-phuca; part of the roof of the latter remains.
No. 26. A little 8. W. of Cloghaun-a-phuca there is the ruin of a
Cashel of about 60 feet in diameter. This seems to be of quite a dif-
ferent style of building to the Duns or Doons for which the Islands of
Aran‘are famous ; and it is considered by Mr. Kilbride to be of a much
more recent construction.
No. 27. Fosleac, or perhaps more correctly Ligattreabh, or pillar-
dwelling. This is marked on the Ordnance Map, and called Dermot and
Grania’s Bed.
No. 28. Ruin of a large Doon of an oval shape, its diameters being
220 and 110 feet; this is called by the inhabitants ‘‘ The Doon.”
No. 29. A little N. W. of ‘‘ The Doon” are two mounds, and the
remains of a circular chamber apparently the ruin of a three-chambered
Cnocan of a similar type to No. 16. Contiguous to them we found half
a ‘‘Bullaun,” or stone basin, of an oval shape, and made of granite. As
these are generally found near churches, and are supposed to have been
used for baptismal fonts, perhaps this may have been brought here from
Temple-an-chealhrairaluinn, the church which les a few hundred yards
lower down the hill towards the N. E.
No 30. Ruin of a Cloghaun, of a similar type to No. 1; part of its
roof remains. This is situated on the slope ofa hill, a ttle N. N. E. of
‘©The Doon.” Between it and ‘‘ The Doon” in one of the walls there are
the remains of a doorway, but whether it ismodern or ancient we could
not make out.
No. 81. The ruin of asmall circular Cnocan, marked on the Ordnance
Map, and called Cloghancalticaunien.
All the Cloghauns in Baila-na-sean are roofless; but there are two
such structures on the ridge of the hill, halfa mile 8. W. of the village
called Onaght, which are worthy of special note. The northern and
larger of these (see Plate VI., fig. 7) is rectangular, 18 feet long, 14 feet
wide, and 10 feet high. It has two doorways, onein the south, and the
other in the north wall. The former is larger than the latter, they being
respectively 3 feet square, and 2 feet by 2°5 feet : there is also a win-
dow, 1 foot square, in the south wall, 3 feet from the ground.
A large portion of the roof over the south doorway has been de-
stroyed.*
A little to the south of the large Cloghaun is the other (see Plate
VI., figs. & and 7). It is 15 feet long, by 12 feet wide, and 10 feet high,
except at the west end, where it is 9 feet high. It also has doorways
in the north and south walls; but its window is differently placed
to the others, being atthe S. W. corner of thechamber. As the founda-
tion for the west wall is a natural shelf of limestone, on the outside the
window is nearly level with the ground, but inside it is about three feet
* The old ruins on the Aran Islands are fast disappearing, principally thanks to the
rabbit shooters, who pull them down to bolt the rabbits.
29
above the floor of the cell. No appliances for hanging doors were ob-
served; but perhaps the inhabitants used rush or straw mats, similar to
those in use at the present time in the islands of Gorrumna and Letter-
mullen, on the north of Galway Bay. |
As the late Doctor Petrie, in his ‘‘ Round Towers of Ireland,’’ when
describing Cloghaun-a-carriaga (which is still the most perfect Cloghaun
on the island) has explained how the Cloghauns are roofed, I need not
go farther into details. I would remark, however, that this Cloghaun
has two doorways—a fact which that eminent antiquarian seems to have
overlooked.
The elevation of none of the Cnocans could be given, on account of
the dilapidated condition in which they now are; but much more might
be learned about them, if careful excavations were made around them ;
as, for instance, those numbered 5, 8, and 29.
CRAGBALLYWEE (Anglice, the Yellow Village of the Rock).—This lies
on the S. W. slope of Inishmaan (couuty of Galway, Sheet 119), the Middle
Island of Aran, about halfamileS. W. of Doon-Connor. Here the sites
of thirteen Cnocans and Cloghauns were observed, and a small stone fort,
about 60 feet in diameter. Of the Cnocans and Cloghauns only two
were rectangular; all the rest were circular. Only one now rises more
than three feet above the foundation, and that is marked on the Ord-
nance Map, and called Cragballywee: of this only half remains, but what
still exists shows a good example of a circular Cloghaun (see Plate VI.,
figs. m and n). very particle of the eastern half has been taken away,
even to the very foundation, and has been used to build two wing walls
to form a shelter for cattle.
OrntTIeHs witH KitcHen-Mrppens. On Inishmaan there are Oin-
tighs, close to which are kitchen-middens; these seem to be rather
modern, as in them are found coins and brass pins. These heaps are
principally formed of the bonnet shell and periwinkle, with occasionally
those of the mussel and scollop, along with bones of the cow, sheep, and
goose.
One of these Cintigh, marked on the Ordnance Map, and called
Ballylinaghaun, lies about 200 yards N. W. of the boreen that leads
from Sandhead Lough to the hamlet called Moher. Immediately east
of this ruin is an underground chamber; and on the north is a kitchen
midden, 12 yards long, by 9 yards wide, and 8 feet high; in this the
brass pin No. 1 was found.
West of the ruin called Templesaghtmaree (which to me appear
more like the ruins of a house than of a church, asit is divided into three
chambers, the centre one of which is a mere passage), there is a large
kitchen-midden, in which brass pins are said to have been found, but
none of these were forthcoming when I was on the island.
Two hundred yards due north of Doon-Connor there is an Ointigh,
with a kitchen-midden attached. In this the brass pin No. 2 was found;
and with it atoken, alittle larger than a farthing; on one side of this coin
~ was ‘“‘ Witson oF Dustin,” over a figure of St. George and the Dragon, and
under the figure wasthedate 1672; on thereverse was “‘ ONE HALrprenny,”
30
round some sort of trade mark. There is no evidence as to the stra-
tum of the kitchen-midden in which this coin was found, but it shows
that the spot was inhabited at the close of the seventeenth century.
The celt Soighead (pronounced scythe), Anglice, Darthead, marked
No. 3, was found by a man while digging in one of the small patches
of cultivated ground N. W. of Doon-Connor. It is made of black sili-
ceous limestone, beds of which occur in different places on the island.
These Soigheads are said to be very common, but are not easily procured ;
as the islanders, when they find them, keep them carefully, as they be-
heve that if they lose them they also lose their luck.* Seals were
formerly killed in great numbers by the Aranites (see O’Flaherty’s
History of Yar-Connaught); and the Rev. W. Kilbride suggests that the
Soigheads were used for skinning the seals and other animals, as they
are of too soft a nature to be put to such hard work as hewing wood
or breaking stone. A shallow groove in the flat side of the Soighead
in which to place the tops of the fingers would seem to confirm this
suggestion.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puatel., .... . . . . Map of Bail-ana-Sean, Inishmore.
Puate Il., Fig. a,. . . . The ground plan of a rectangular Cloughaun, or beehive-
cell, on a scale of eight feet to one inch.
Hp Fig.c, . . . . The ground plan of a circular Cnocan, or beehive cell, co-
vered with clay, on a scale. of eight feet to one inch.
Innermost is a circle of flagstones, placed on edge; out-
side there is a single-faced stone wall, that is backed with
clay ; aud surrounding allis another circle of flagstones.
Puate Ill., Fig. 6, . . . . The ground plan ofa Fosleac, or cell built of flags, on
a scale of eight feet to one inch.
ms Fig. d, . . . . The ground plan of a rectangular two-chambered Cnocan ;
scale, eight feet to one inch.
- Fig. f, . . . . The ground plan of a two-chambered Fosleac ; scale, eight
feet to one inch.
PratE IV. Fig.e, . . . . The ground plan of a three-chambered Cnocan; scale,
eleven feet to one inch. Round each chamber are flags,
placed on edge, behind which are single-faced walls, that
are backed with clay ; at each side of the entrance are
flags to keep in the backing.
Fig. hf, . . . . Sketch, showing the overlap in the corners of the rectan-
gular Cloghauns and Cnocans.
PVADE Wiss IS Gruman Ground plan of a ruined Cnocan ; scale, eight feet to one
inch.
Puate VI., Figs. 4,7, andy, Sketches of rectangular Cloghauns.
Figs. m andv,. Sketch and plan of a ruined circular Cloghaun; scale,
9?
eight feet to one inch.
* In the county of Mayo, and thereabouts, the natives, when they find these stone
hatchets, immediately bury them, as they believe that people who are ‘fairy struck” re-
ceive a blow of this kind of weapon from a Fairy hand.
bl
V.—Norers on a Crannoce rn Loven Nanervin. By G. H. Krnanan,
BF. RoGeS.-1.
[Read December 10, 1866. ]
I zec to call the attention of the Academy to an unrecorded Crannoge
in Lough Naneevin, townland of Gortacarnaun, parish of Killanin,
barony of Moycullen, and county of Galway—Ordnance Map, No. 67.
Last summer (1865) I remarked that this island seemed to be a
Crannoge, but did not land on it. This summer, hearing that there
were wooden piles around it, I had a boat conveyed to the lake, and, in
company with George O’Fflahertie, Esq., of Lemonfield, examined it.
i es
A:
o
PonG 5S DO mw
Fseeco SCO C CO COS OSs &
IDEAL SKETCH OF THE CRANNOGE, *
The near half of the huts being removed, to show the interior restored from the
discoveries in this and other Crannoges, more especially those in Loughs Rea and
Ballin. In most, if not in all, of these Crannoges, there seemed to have been a space
in the centre devoid of huts, which may have been used in common by the inhabitants, as
in it are found the remains of fires, with stone seats and kitchen middens near them. The
height of the huts seems to have been about five feet, as Mr. Hemsworth, of Loughrea,
-informed us that, when the large Crannoge there was first opened, ‘‘ on some of the vertical
beams were tenons fitting into mortises on horizontal beams;” and, as these latter were
about five feet above the basket floors, they point to the height of the chambers: more-
over, this is the average height of the subterranean dwellings or earth caves in the Raths,
Cahirs, Liss, &c. Whether the roofs sloped inwards or outwards has not been proved.
Deorways 2°5 feet wide were found in Shore Island Crannoge, Lough Rea: but their height
has not been proved ; in the sketch they are made low, similar to those found in Cloghauns,
Earth Caves, &c. No windows have been represented, as none up to the present have
been found; but it is not likely the huts were without them.
* The wood engraver has not been successful in his representation of the inhabitants
of the Crannoge, as they are very diminutive compared with the supposed height of the
huts; moreover, they are dressed similar to the people of the present day.
a Ne nS PE ee En eee ee a ae
32
The Crannoge (a in Map, Plate VII.) is of an oval shape, being about
150 feet long, and 75 feet wide. Onthe south a narrow causeway (con
Map), now partly submerged, joins it to the mainland, and from its
northern end a spit (6 on Map), about 6 feet wide, and 200 feet long,
extends into the lake. On a drift hillock, near the east margin of the
lake, there is the ruin of a Liss (d on Map), or clay fort.
That this island is artificial seems evident, as round the Crannoge
and the spit the water immediately becomes deep, and also on each side
of the causeway. No circles or lines of enclosing piles were observed,
although they may exist; but, if they do, they are covered with bog stuff,
and are under the present surface of the water. In the causeway no
piles or beams were found, but it seems to have been constructed as a
passage into the Crannoge.
Since the island was inhabited it seems to have been covered by
water to at least two feet higher than at present, as shell marl is found
on the parts that are below that level. On the south shore of the Cran-
noge there is a row of round oak piles, about four inches in diameter,
bearing N. 30 W.; on the S. W. shore are twos row of similar piles,
about five feet apart, and alongside them are oak beams, all bearing
N. 55 W. Opposite to these, near the centre of the island, a thick oak
beam, having a similar bearing, was found ; at the shore on the N. W.
there is a double row of piles, seemingly part of a wall, bearing north
and south. Near the junction of the island and the spit there are ash
beams, running S. 63 W. (mag. E. and W.) with the length of the latter ;
to the south of the spit are thick oak piles, bearing 8. 63 W., and dia-
gonally across it are ash (?) beams forming a flooring. The 8S. 63 W.
piles may be part of the south formation wall of the spit.
On the east of the Crannoge no piles were observed, but there was
an irregular flooring of ash, sallow, and oak beams and from the sallows,
trees have grown, which now form a fringe round the island.*
Six small excavations were made, and from them we proved that
under nearly the whole of the Crannoge there was a basket flooring,
about a foot below the present water level. In one of these sinkings,
near the centre of the island, the following section was found—in this
place the surface of the ground was about three feet higher than the
level of the water :—
Section of the Crannoge.
3. Bog stuff, with a few bones, some sticks and stones, . 3°5
A bed of regularly laid fern stalks and leaves ( Pteris auton or Brake
fern), on aflooring of wicker work, made of hazel rods, about an inch 0°5
in diameter. Over the ferns were a few bones, and a se of
nut shells, .
Bog stuff, mixed with branches of trees, and containing | a few stones
and logs of timber; this stuff was not bottomed, Over 5"
Zh
On
°
il
3:0
* These fringes of sallow trees I have remarked round many Crannoges, and in every
case they may have grown from some of the beams.
33
About eight yards on the north of this section there was a heap of
wood ashes, about eight feet in diameter, three feet deep in the
centre, and on it was a large flagstone, that had been used as a hearth.
This may have been the principal fireplace, the stone being raised as the
ashes accumulated ; for about four feet west of it was a long rude bench,
formed of stones. From the bench to the fireplace, and for some dis-
tance to the east of it, there was no wicker flooring. A little east of the
fireplace the polishing stone (¢. 1.), the Soeghead (pronounced scythe)
(c. 2.) a few sea shells, and stones, charred bones, and hazel nut shells
were found in what appeared to be a kitchen midden. Very few bones
were met with in any of the explorations, as no excavation could be
made near the outside of the Crannoge, on account of the height of the
water.
The implement numbered ¢. 1. may have been a polisher, as it has
on the small end a chisel-shaped point, one side of which seems to have
been used for burnishing; the other end is beak-shaped, and forms a
polishing point; the sides also seem to have been put to a similar pur-
pose, while the edges have been roughened with a rasp to give a grip
to the fingers.
The Soighead (Anglice, a dart-head), numbered c. 2. is made of the
Carboniferous Sandstone of the neighbourhood ; it seems to have been
last used as a sharpening stone.
The sea stones were small round pebbles of white quartz like what
the children of the present day use for playing ‘jack-stones’’ with.*
The bones consisted of those of the cow, sheep, pig, and goose, the latter
being rather numerous. Some sort of metal seems to have been in use
when this Crannoge was built, as the piles were pointed with a sharp
cutting instrument; the hazel rods also show a clean smooth cut.
Pieces of chert were rather frequent, especially in the neighbourhood of
the fire place. Off some of these, chips seem to have been knocked,
which would suggest that these had been brought here to manufacture
into arrow heads; but, unfortunately, none of the latter were found, and
therefore the supposed ‘‘cores’’ were not preserved.
* Tn a late visit to Inish Maan (the Middle Island of Aran), while sheltering in one
of the cabins, I observed the children playing with stones similar to these, and they keep
them in a hole in the chimney. The stones found in the Crannoge were also near the fire-
place.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X.. FE
a4
VI:
On THE ForMs OF ORDEAL ANCIENTLY PRACTISED IN IRELAND. By
Witiiam M. Hennessy.
[Read January 28, 1867. ]
Tue subject which I have ventured to bring under the notice of the
Academy this evening is one that, to illustrate it thoroughly, would
require a much longer dissertation than could be included within the
limits of a single paper. It is not, therefore, my intention at present
to submit any lengthened observations on the question of Ordeal in
general, as practised in various countries, especially as it has been de-
scribed by several writers, whose works are accessible to every inquirer.
Spelman and Du Cange have given pretty extensive lists of the diffe-
rent authorities on the origin and practice of the Ordeal, under the words
‘‘Ordalium,” ‘“‘ Judicium Dei,” or ‘‘ Judicium Divinum;”’ but the most
comprehensive and valuable guide to the subject will be found in Jacob
Grimm’s ‘‘ Deutsche Rechtsalterthtimer,’’ under the head of ‘‘ Gottes-
urtheil.”
My reason for bringing the question of the Ancient Irish system of
Ordeal under the notice of the Academy is, that in all the works which
I have consulted on the matter I have found little or no reference to any
of the forms used by the people of this country. It is true that Sir
James Ware has devoted a brief chapter to the subject; but he mostly
assumes that the English system of trial by Ordeal was introduced into
Ireland by the Anglo-Normans. It is strange that the original Irish
authority to which I shall presently refer should have escaped him,
especially as he had the assistance in his researches of one, at least, of
the best Irish scholars of his time—I mean, Duald Mac Firbis.
_ It is scarcely necessary to observe that many of the methods used to
distinguish between guilt and innocence, or truth and falsehood, which
passed under the general name of Ordeal (from urtheil, the German
word for judgment) were of Pagan origin, some of them being common
to most nations before the commencement of the Christian era.
Some authors assert that the trial by Ordeal was borrowed by the
European nations from the Jews, by whom it was practised at a very
early age, as appears from many passages in the Old Testament; but,
as the practice was common to all nations from the earliest times, it is
difficult to decide.
The oldest forms of Ordeal were apparently fire and water; 1. e.
red hot iron, or cinders, and cold water—the hot water being, as I
believe, a variation introduced within the Christian period. The in-
stances given in the Old Testament in the cases of Achan (Josue, vii.)
and Jonas (i.) indicate that the Ordeal by lot was also a very ancient
form; for the falling of the lot to a person then involved guilt. It is
alleged that the fire Ordeal was a luxury reserved to the noble, while the
ignoble proved their guilt or innocence by cold water; but this also
seems to be a change introduced during the Middle Ages, as many an-
30
-eient authorities represent menials as undergoing the Ordeal of fire.
In the tragedy of Antigone (v. 270) for instance, Sophocles makes an
humble character express his readiness to lift ‘‘ masses of red hot iron,
and pass through fire,’ to purge himself of a charge.
It is not easy at present to ascertain the number or variety of the
methods of Ordeal used by the different nations. All the Teutonic na-
tions seem to have had nine forms (if not twelve); the inhabitants of
India, according to Hastings, had nine also. The Greeks, if they had
not twelve forms, appear to have had regard to the number twelve; for
they used twelve hot ploughshares. The ploughshare seems to have
been the instrument by which the hot iron Ordeal was anciently most
usually practised. It is not in our Irish list, and I confess that its absence
therefrom is not without significance. Itis worthy of remark that there
is no reference to the subject of Ordeal in the ancient monuments of Norse
literature, except one allusion to the hot water test which occurs in the
«« Edda,” in the third Lay ofGodrun ; butthispoem bearsinternal evidence
of its German origin. Nevertheless, it would be strange if a people so
superstitious as the Pagan Norse should have been without some form
of it, particularly asit was a regular institution among their neighbours,
the Danes and Germans; although, indeed, from a passage in Helmold (1.
83) quoted by Leibnitz (p. 608), it would appear that the Sclavic nations
did not practise it until after their conversion to Christianity, when the
clergy interdicted them from swearing by trees, lakes, and stones, but
commanded that they should pass over burning ploughshares with naked
feet.
At a very early period in the history of the Christian Church we
find the Ordeal of fire and water practised on the Continent, even in the
ease of ecclesiastics. Gregory of Tours records that the fire Ordeal was
submitted to by St. Briccius, the successor of St. Martin, who died in
the year 412; and in the Tripartite Life of St. Patrick (p. 32 of the
Irish manuscript in the Royal Irish Academy), we are told that the
double Ordeal of fire and water was resorted to in the Saint’s contest
with the Druids of King Laeghaire. (Itiscurious, too, thatin the latter
case the Druids are represented as dissatisfied with the form suggested
by St. Patrick, as if it was not in accordance with the Irish system).
At a subsequent period, and during the Middle Ages, the forms most
in use throughout Europe were nine in number,—viz., hot iron, hot
water, cold water, the cross, consecrated cheese, the Eucharist, corsned,
offa gudicrais, and the duel, in which latter they all eventuated. I
have not met any well-authenticated instance of the use of any of these
forms by the purely Irish people, unless the duel; but the earliest in-
stance of this is not older than the year 1583.
It 1s possible, however, that the practice which is so frequently re-
ferred to in the lives of the Irish saints, under the name of cpor pigell,
may represent the ‘‘ /udicium Crucis.” The meaning of the words
cpor pigelt is explained by O’Clery as a “ vigil which a person makes
on his knees, his hands being extended in the form of a cross.”” Many
of the Irish saints are represented as possessing, among their other attri-
36
butes, the faculty of maintaining this attitude for a very long time;
and as this corresponded with the original nature of the Judiciwm Crucis,
according to which the person who could longest keep the arms extended
was adjudged innocent, it is possible that it implies the use of this form
of Ordeal by the Christian Irish.
The Irish had, however, many forms of their own: of these the
most accurate list that I have met with is contained im a tract in the
ancient ‘‘ Book of Ballymote,”’ fol. 143, sg. This list, couched in very
ancient language, is included in an historical sketch of Cormac Mac Airt,
monarch of Ireland in the third century, which is interspersed with some
very curious legends, particularly one very remarkable one, regarding a
magical branch having properties not unlike the golden branch men-
tioned in the sixth Book of the ‘‘Atneid.”” The story represents that —
a great assembly was convened by Cormac at Tara, for the purpose of re-
arranging the rights and privileges of the several classes of the people,
which had fallen into some confusion, owing to the encroachments of
the Irish poets; on which occasion the twelve ir Flatha were publicly
proclaimed before all. They were called Fir Flatha, or ‘‘ truth of sove-
reignty,” because the Irish anciently considered that the standard of
truth and morality depended on the character of the sovereign or prince,
the justice or injustice of whose rule was supposed to affect not only the
moral character of the people, but also the seasons, and even the very
productive powers of nature.
They are enumerated as follows, viz. :—
Oo bpeta, imoppo, in va Pip bec Placha op d4ipo aca. Aciac-
ploe no bioip ic ecipsleood Fip 7 bnece acco, 1ciGoPo 1aodPpein .1.
Cab Mochca, Cpepinm Mopaino, Cpanocan Seanéa, Leapcan
baouipn, Tpelia Mocdip, Com Pip, Seancnan Sin mic Qigi, lapn
Lucca, ainepom oc Clcoip, Cuac Conmaie.
“<The twelve ur Platha (‘ Truths of Sovereignty’) were publicly pro-
claimed by them. These were used by them to distinguish between
truth and falsehood. Here they are, viz. :—Tal Mochta (Mochta’s Adze),
Tresin Moraind (the triple-Sin, or Collar, of Morand), Crandchur Seancha
(the Lots of Seancha), Leastar Badhwrn (Badhuirn’s Goblet), Zrelia
Mohair (the Three Stones of Blackness), Cort-fir (True-cauldron), Sean-
crann Sin mic Avgi (the charmed branch of Sen Mac Aige), Jarn Luctha
(Luchta’s Iron), Arresom oc Altowr (Waiting at an Altar), Cuach Cor-
matic (Cormac’s Cup).”
Cal Mochza .1. cal uime po bai la Moéca paep, po cuptea a
ceinlo Oporsin he, 7 00 bepte Teanga caipip ; moi Lapambid co po
loipced ; inci ba hannaé ni Loipcedo icip.
“Tal Moctha, 1. e. a bronze adze which Mochta, a carpenter, had.
It was wont to be put into a fire made of blackthorn, and a tongue was
rubbed over it. It would burn the person who had falsehood; but the
person who was innocent 1t would not burn.”
Oo”
The axe or adze was, of course, an instrument held in high esteem
among all primitive people. Herodotus, Book iv., has a curious account
of an axe preserved with great veneration by the ancient Scythians,
in whose territory it fell from heaven in a glowing state, together with a
plough, yoke, and cup. I believe that the peasantry of the south and
west of Ireland still consider that the possibility of rubbing the tongue
over a red-hot iron is not to be doubted.
The next is the
Tpepin Mopaino, i.e. the triple Collar of Moran.
This Moran was the son of Cairbre Cinn-Cait (Carbreus Feliceps, or
Carbry the Cat-headed), who is stated to have usurped the throne of
Treland in the first century of the Christian era, on the success of the
rebellion of the Aithech-Tuatha, or plebeians, otherwise incorrectly
called the Attocotti.
O’Flaherty, in his corrected Chronology, refers the usurpation of
Carbry to the year A.D. 90. ‘The legend regarding the origin of the
first and most celebrated collar of Moran is rather wild. It represents
that Carbry was severely punished, in his offspring, for the excesses
committed under his leadership by the plebeians, who nearly extirpated
the governing classes. Every child born to him, the legend relates,
was so deformed, that it had to be destroyed. At the suggestion of his
wife, Carbry convened the Fes, or Assembly, of Tara, and requested all
present to prefer a supplication to their gods, to the end that he might be
favoured with a happy offspring. Subsequently, on the birth of Moran,
it was manifest, the legend proceeds, that supplications preferred in
favour of an iniquitous man hke Carbry amounted to an insult to the
gods; for the child was a hateful object, his features being enveloped in
a thick hairy circle. The king ordered him to be taken to a pond, and
drowned ; but a fear sidhe (fairy man) appeared to the queen, and com-
manded that the child should be taken to the sea, and that his head
should be held until nine waves passed over it. This command was
observed; and after the ninth wave had passed, the hairy circlet became
loosened, and formed a collar round his neck. The story goes on :—
Oo pigned cumoach op 7 aipsio lepin imon ppeabann pin,
copob 6 pm pin Mic Mdm iapum. In cincaé ma cabapta bnagaio
no caccaod. No piad, moppo, uime co lan oiambad eannoc.
‘“‘ A covering of gold and silver was made by him round this collar,
which was afterwards the Collar of Mac Main (another name for Moran).
The guilty person round whose neck it was put it would choke; it
would fall down to a man’s waist if he was innocent.”’
The traditions respecting the efficacy of this Moran’s Collar are still
fresh in the memory of the Irish-speaking population, and enter largely
into Irish romance.
With reference to the nine waves mentioned in the foregoing legend,
it is worthy of remark here (though I may again have occasion to ad-
38
vert to the subject), that the number nine was undoubtedly the mystic
number with the Pagan Irish, of which fact there is abundant evidence,
both in writing and tradition. But the property of a ninth wave seems
to have been regarded as of particular significance. Thus, our historical
writers assert that, on the landing ofthe Milesian colonists in this country,
the natives, by the advice of their Druids, stipulated that the strangers
should re-embark, and put out to sea to the distance of nine waves; and
if they succeeded in reaching land once more, they should have a portion
of the soil. Inthe neighbourhood of the shore where this trial is stated
to have taken place (Kenmare estuary), the inhabitants profess to believe
that the waves approach the land in successions of nine, and that the last
wave of the nine is always the largest.
The third is thus described :—
odi omn pin aile Mopaind and .i. luis Mopann mop bnestaée co
Pot abpcal, 7 vo bept eibipzil uad, 7] b16 ma bpargio. In can on
Wuto1o Mopan ofa oGn oc tinocud 6 pol Imanapnic oo FM cumaib
ola cumaldib oc dDopup In OGne. Oc Connaipc on In eipipoil ima
bpaisl0 Imcomapcaio de, cio pin, a Mopamo, ol pr? Code, ob
Caimin Opué. bid pin Mopnaind ono co bpaé he. Cn can, ono,
oo bepead Mopann bpesd, no sebed epipoil ima bpagaic, 4 ni
abpao 941 1apum.
‘‘Morann had, moreover, another collar, viz., Morann the great
judging went to the Apostle Paul, and brought from him an epistle,
which he used to have round his neck. As Morann went towards his
fort, on returning from Paul, he met a bondmaiden of his bondmaidens
at the door of the fort. When she saw the epistle round his neck, she
asked him, ‘ What is that, O Morann*?’ asked she. ‘ Egad,’ said the
fool Caimin, ‘it will be Morann’s Collar from this day forth. When
Morann delivered judgment, he put this epistle round his neck, and he
uttered not falsehood afterwards.”
In connexion with this epistle, it is curious that Achilles Tatius
(‘De Amoribus Clitophontis,” Lugd. Batav., 1640, p. 514) describes a
fountain near Ephesus which had the virtue of detecting falsehood in
this wise :—The oath which a person had sworn was written in a letter,
which was attached to his neck. On his descending up to his thighs in
the fountain, the water remained stationary if he had sworn truly ; but,
if falsely, the water rose up, and touched the epistle, or tablet (¢abel/a).
The fourth was another Collar of Moran :—
bai pin aile le Mopann 1. cuapoe bec bai tap amail cipcarll
peca. In cuaipo pin om, 00 beptpom oO ocamon Opus ap PO
* Sin (pron. sheen). This is a play on the word sia, the Irish dem. pron. ‘“ that” —
cid sin, ‘‘ what.is that?”
hy
apremin appocaptpem ipooain 7 00 munci mbecyin leip ap aoco-
naipe plum ipin pd bad ne pes 1pm oeiligio Pip 7 5a1 ano. Oo
beptea din nm munci Pin ™m Coip no 1m Laim in OUINe, 7 Non 1ada0
ulme co ceannad a Coir no a ldim oe mad Cuaé, nip nidd ume,
imopno, olambad ennac.
‘¢ Morann had another collar, viz., a little circlet which he had, like
a wooden collar. This circlet, then, he obtained from Ocamon, a fool,
on Sidh Arfemhin (the most celebrated fairy hill of Munster, near the
River Suir); for he sent him there to bring him this little circlet, which
he had seen used in the Sidh to distinguish [| between things] true and
false. This collar was [wont to be] put round a man’s hand, or leg,
and it would tighten until it would cut off the hand or leg if he were
criminal; it would not tighten if he were innocent.”
The fifth form is described as :—
Cpannéup Seanéai .1. Cnanchup bai ta Seancha mac Gilitla .1.
oa ¢nanod 00 cup .1. cpano o1b don Pig ] cnandod von liceaé; oa
mad cincaé vo leanad a cpann va boip. Oamado ennoc, mopno,
cIceaod FO cedoip a cnano arp. Ip amlaro oo 5snici pin .. o1deodal
piled 00 Cancain Poppo.
‘‘Crannchur Seanchai, i. e. a crannchur (casting of lots) which Se-
ancha, son of Ailill, had, viz. :—Two lots were put—one of them for the
king, and one for the litigant. If he|the latter] was guilty, his lot ad-
hered to his hand; if innocent, moreover, his lot did not adhere (Uit.,
came forth immediately). The way in which this was done was by
chaunting a poetical incantation over them.”
Seancha Mac Aililla is alleged to have lived in the first century of
this era. The present practice of casting lots 1s, no doubt, a relic of the
old Pagan custom ; but fortunately we do not at present attach crimi-
nality to the failure, as seems to have been the case with the Irish, in
common with the Jews, as appears from the instances already cited re-
garding Achan and Jonas.
The next is—
Leapcoap Daduipn .1. baduIpn pig. Luio in a bean pice don cib-
fao conacca 0a mnai of na pidaib ocun aibpaio ; 7 bai plabpao
cpeouma ecuppo. Oc concadap in mnai dia paigio locan fon
cibnaro ; Lulopioe on Nano1a1d Fon cTiIbpaic, conaca nampa 1Pin TPs
1. lepcan glan. Feap 00 bepead ceépa bpiatap 56a fap conpeapad
Fop aldim hi cpi ; peap acbepead ceopa bpiacpa pina poa con-
cesed apRe{ pi ipo. Salo vin bean baouipnin lepzap pin vo aep in
cise. Oo bepta offi moi pin; comba heaopin leapcap no vealat-
060 a1 ] FIp la Oaoupn.
‘“‘ Badhurn’s Leastar (or vessel), 1.e. King Badhurn. His wife went
to the well, and she saw two women from the Sidhe (fairy residences)
40
at the well, and they had a bronze chain between them. When they
saw the woman coming towards them, they went under the well. She
went after them under the well, when she saw a wondrous thing in the
Sidh, viz., a bright vessel. Ifa man uttered three false words over it,
it separated into three parts in his hand; if a man uttered three truth-
ful words over it, the parts became united again. Badhurn’s wife then
begged this vessel of the household. The article was given to her; so
that it was this vessel that distinguished between falsehood and truth
with Badhurn.”’
This article is precisely similar to the Cuach Cormaic, or Cormac’s
Cup, which forms the twelfth in the list. The account given by Hero-
dotus of the cup which fell from heaven in the country of the Scythians,
and was religiously preserved by them, is not sufficiently explicit to
enable us to compare it with Badhurn’s Goblet; but the magical cup
of Cham Chit, mentioned in the ‘‘Shah Nameh,” is probably of cognate
character, although the Persian cup had the power of imparting a fore-
knowledge of events, and may have been the origin of the practice of
cup tossing.
The next is the
Cpelia Mozcaip .1. 1ain do linca 00 Dubpocta 7 00 Sual 7 00 cac
cenel oulb olceana, ] pocepticip cpi lig ano .1. ba pmo j lia oub
7 lia bnec. No piged din neaé a laim ino, 7 00 bepead in lig Find
laip oambes Pip occa ; 00 bepead in Oulb Damad 60, 0o beped in
mbpic oamad Led cincaé.
‘< Trelia Mothair (Three Stones of Blackness), i.e., a pan that was
wont to be filled with dubh-rota (black ryestuff) and coal, and every
kind of black stuff besides; and they put three stones into it, viz. :—
a white stone, and a black stone, and a speckled stone. One would
then put his hand into it, and he would take out the white stone if he
had truth; he would bring the black if he had falsehood; he would
bring the speckled stone if half guilty.”
I have not been able to find any parallel for this test.
The following is the eighth form :—
Com pip.1. Lepcap aipsio 7 o1p 00 bid aga FM dealocad Fipinol
7 50a 1. no ce1so1 upe! ano combid ap Flucad 7 po cuczca lam ano
1apum ; o0amad cincaé 0o Loipetea in Laim ; minabez, 1monpo, cin
a5a, ni veanad upéoio vo. Up ba he in cTped1 ip mo no Snataice
o 5enncib .1. copa Pip. ] cpanocup cucpuina, 7 aipipium 1m alcoip.
Ip 6 pin, din 00 Pap cpand do Gop a Feclaib beup 1 saevoel.
‘““ Coirt fir (‘true cauldron’), 1.e., a vessel of silver and gold
they had to distinguish between truth and falsehood, viz. :—water was
heated in it until it was boiling, and a hand was afterwards introduced
into it. Ifthe person was guilty, the hand was burned; butif he had
not guilt, it injured him not. For the three things most used by the
4]
Gentiles were the Cowrt fir, and Crandcur Cutruma (mutual lots), and
Airisium 1m Altoir (waiting at an altar). Hence has arisen the custom
of putting lots in reliquaries, still practised by the Gaeidhel.”’
It is to be regretted that we are not able to fix the date of the ori-
ginal composition of the tract from which these passages have been
extracted; but probably the concluding sentence of the foregoing para-
graph is only an observation added by the scribe of ‘‘ The Book of Bal-
lymote,’’ who wrote about the year 1891. I am afraid the description
of the gold and silver vessel which was set to boil over a fire is rather
imaginative, and indeed I am inclined to doubt the alleged antiquity
of the hot water Ordeal in this country at all. The statement that the
*¢ Cauldron of Truth’’ was one of the three most usual forms of Ordeal
with Gentiles, I consider to refer to the Gentiles of other countries.
The next form is :—
Seanecnanod Sin .1. Cpanocup Sin mic i151 .1. tpi cpand do cup
an ue! .1. cnano na placha 7 cpand in ollamain j cnand in
lici5. Oa mbes cin aga teiszed a cpand an i¢tap; diamad
annoc, 1mopno, ceige0 an uactan.
“* Seancrand Sin, i.e., the charmed branch of Sen, son of Aige, viz. :—
Three lots were put in water—the Prince’s lot, the Olamh’s lot, and the
lot of the litigant. If the litigant was guilty, his lot went tothe bottom ;
but if indeed he was innocent, it came to the surface.”’
This Sen Mac Aige is mentioned in the Irish Law Tracts as a dis-
tinguished Judge, who lived before the time of St.“Patrick, and whose
judgments were necessarily delivered with care, because whenever he
delivered a false opinion his cheek became disfigured by three blotches.
The principle of the cold water Ordeal here indicated is directly opposed
to that which obtained in the other European countries. In Germany,
England, France, and the Continent generally, when this test was re-
sorted to, the accused, having a rope fastened round his body, was cast
into the water; if he floated on the surface, he was deemed guilty ; if he
sank, he was deemed innocent, and immediately drawn out. On this sub-
ject Grimm remarks :—‘¢ Herein an old Heathen superstition seems to
prevail, that the holy element, the pure stream, will receive within it
no misdoer” (“D. R. A.,” p. 998). It is possible, also, that the notion
that the criminal would not sink implied some subtle idea of demoniacal
possession, and of the nature of aspirit. The belief that a witch could
not sink was painfully illustrated in England about two years ago, in
the case of a poor man who, on suspicion of witchcraft, was worried to
death by a crowd of people, who threw him into the water to see if he
would sink,
But, if the Irish notion implied in the foregoing form differed
from the idea prevalent amongst the European nations, it seems to have
agreed with the opinion current among the Jews and other Eastern
peoples. It will be remembered, for instance, that the axe head which
R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. X. G
42
fell into the water, as mentioned in the 2nd Book of Kings (vi. 5.),
floated through the justice of Elisha. Many Pagan writers also relate
that, when the Ordeal by cold water was tried in parts of Asia, the
tablet on which an oath was inscribed sank in the water if the oath
was false, but floated on the surface if the oath was true.*
lapn bluéca «1. Lucoa ona oo chuaid 6a d6laim illeta, co-
naca ni ingnao occa ic oelusad fPininoi 7 bpéei5i, 1apn oo
renad li anoptioib 7 a Cop a ceimd iappin comad oeaps, | a
tabainc pop boip in lici5. No loipced, tmoppo, hé o1ambec cin
occa ; ni Oenad upcold 60 mina bed cincac. CUcbenci lucca
lappin Epipl, no picpaid a lear agam of Fin Epenn, pop pe, pud 00
oelugad ecip pipinol 7 bpe15. Oo bpeta luéca a 1apn penca laip
lancain combai ic ocelusad etip 5417 Pip, comd depin Leantap
1ann feln |ca beup ag saervelaib 00 5pép.
Another test is described as :—
‘¢ Tarn Luchta (Luchta’s Iron). 1.’e., Luchta, a Druid, went to learn
in Letha, where he saw a wonderful thing used by the people to dis-
criminate between truth and untruth. A piece of iron was charmed by
their Druids, and afterwards put into the fire until it was red, and it was
placed on the hand of the litigant. It would burn him if he had guilt; it
would not injure him unless he was guilty. Luchta subsequently said
that he would require it for the men of Erin, to distinguish between
truth and untruth. Luchta afterwards brought his charmed iron with
him, and had it determining between false and true; and hence it is
that charmed iron is still continually used by the Gaeidhel.”’
The Letha to which the Druid Luchta is stated to have gone for
the purpose of learning may doubtless be understood as representing
the present district of Brittany in France, which was anciently called
Letha by the Irish. Itis true that they also applied the name of Letha to
Italy, or Latium, and that the celebrated Druid, Mogh Ruith (Magus
Rotz), who lived in the third century, is asserted to have gone thither
to learn from Simon Magus. But, bearing in mind Cesar’s account of
the state of Druidism in Gaul in his time, it is more probable, if
Luchta ever left Ireland for the alleged purpose of improving his know-
ledge of the Druidic institutions, that he directed his journey towards
the Armoric Letha than to the Italian Letha.
The mode in which the hot iron Ordeal is said in the foregoing de-
scription to have been practised by the Irish agrees with the most ancient
accounts that we possess. I believe the earliest evidence of the use of
the hot iron is to be found in Sophocles, who, in his tragedy of Anti-
gone (verse 270), represents one of his characters as confessing himself
ready to lift masses of red hot iron, and appeal to the gods, to purge
himself of the suspicion of guilt.
* See Stephanus ‘‘ De Palicis,” and Aristotle’s Works.
The next form is :—
Gipipem ic Clcdéip 1. vepbad no bid acco fin aimpippin vo
velugad ecip sai 7] Fip J. aipipeam oc alcdin 1. cTeatc Fa «1%.
aciméeall na halcopa, 7 upei vobiappin cpia diceaoal Opuad faip.
ba foppel, 1mopno, comapta a peccalo Falp oamad ¢cinzac; ni
oenad, 1moppo, epco1d OO DaMAd anoac.
“« Airisem te Altoir (Waiting at an Altar), i.e. a proof they had
at that time to distinguish between false and true; 1. e. waiting at an
altar, viz. :—to go nine times round the altar, and to drink water after-
wards, Druidical incantations having been uttered over it. Manifest, in-
deed, was the sign of his transgressions on a man, if guilty; it harmed
him not, if innocent.”
This test, according to my original authority, was borrowed from
the- Israelites by Cai Cainbrethach, one of the companions of the sons
of Milesius, who introduced it into Ireland. He 1s also stated to have
introduced many other regulations, especially certain provisions in the
ancient laws and institutes of this country, which are asserted to have
been founded on the Recht Maoist, or Mosaic law, and are alleged to
have been observed until superseded by the laws enacted through the
influence of St. Patrick. The process certainly bears a striking resem-
blance to the ordeal described in Numbers, v., where the woman sus-
pected of adultery is made to drink bitter waters on which the priest
had heaped curses; and, if guilty, her flesh rotted.
It is asserted by some writers that'the ordeal was originally adopted
by Christian nations from the Jews; but I think thatit was common to
all primitive peoples, whether from any idea inherent in the human
mind that retribution in some shape or other was sure to follow crimi-
nality, I shall not take it upon me to say. The ceremonial of going
round a place or an object was Pagan, as it is Christian. The word
alto is no doubt a loan word, representing the Latin altare; but
this does not affect the subject much, as the Irish scribes were in the
habit of substituting modern expressions for ancient terms. It is
probable that the circuit was performed round a ‘‘cairn;” and St. Colum-
Cille may have referred to the practice in his invocation to God before
the battle of Cul Dremne, fought in 561, when he implores the Divine
protection against
“‘The host that marches round a cairn.”
The last of the fir Flatha enumerated in the list is the article called
Cuach Cormare, or ‘‘ Cormac’s Cup,” which broke into three pieces when
three false words were uttered over it; but became united again when
a similar number of true words were spoken. ‘The way in which King
Cormac obtained possession of this inestimable treasure is described in
a legend, which, as it contains some genuine elements of ancient Irish
romance, I would be tempted to quote, but it is altogether too long ;
besides, ithas been already partly published by Standish Hayes O’Grady,
Esq., in the ‘‘ Transactions of the Ossianic Society,” vol, iii., p. 212.
as
VII.—On Bicrrcvtar Quartics. By Jonn Caszy, A.B. [ Abstract. |
[Read February 10, 1867.]
Ir we take the most general equation of the second degree in a, Bf, ¥,
where these variables denote circles in place of lines
(4, b, ef; 9; h,) (c, B, 1)" 00
we get the most general form in which the equation of a bicircular
quartic can be written.
Setting out with this equation, I have proved that a bicircular
quartic is the envelope of a variable circle which cuts the Jacobian (J)
of a, B, y, orthogonally, and whose centre moves on a given conic /’;
the equation of the conic F' in three point co-ordinates being exactly
the same in form as the equation of the quartic, the a, B, y of the
quartic being replaced by X, m, v of the conic, where X, mu, v are the
perpendiculars from given points on any variable tangent to the conic.
IT have further proved that the same quartic may be described in
more ways than one, in this manner, according to its class. Thus, if
the quartic be of the eighth class, there are four conics, F, F’, fF", F”,
and corresponding to them four circles, J, J’, J’, J’”; and the same
quartic may be described indifferently as the envelope of a variable
circle whose centre moves along any of these conics, which cuts the
corresponding circle orthogonally.
T have proved that each of the four circles, J, J’, J’, J”, inverts the
quartic into itself.
If the quartic be of the sixth class, there are but three director
conics, Ff’, &’, F’’; and three circles of inversion, J, J’, J”. In this
case I have proved that the quartic must be the inverse of an ellipse
or hyperbola, being the one or the other according as the double point
it must have in addition to the circular points at infinity is a conjugate
point, or a real double point.
If the quartic be of the fifth class, I have proved that it must be the
inverse of a parabola; that it has but two director conics, ¥, F’, and
two circles of inversion.
For the quartics of each class, I have proved that the conics, Ff, Ff’,
&e., are confocal, their common foci being the double foci of the quartic;
and that their points of intersection with their respective correspond-
ing circles, J, J’, &, are the single foci of the quartic; so that the
sixteen single foci of a bicircular quartic of the eighth class he in fours
on four confocal conics, whose common foci are the double foci of the
uartic.
- The conics, #, #’, £'”, F’’’, which, on account of the property just
stated, I have called the focal conics of the quartic, are intimately con-
nected with the whole theory. Thus, if /, /’, &c., become circles, the
quartics become Cartesian ovals; and if parabolas, the quartics reduce
to circular cubics.
[have discussed Cartesian ovals from a new point of view, and have
entered rather fully into their properties. Thus, being given two circles,
=5 45
F and J, then, if a variable S, cutting J orthogonally, has its centre on
F, its envelope is a Cartesian oval. The centre of / will be the triple
focus of the oval; and the three single collinear foci will be the centre
of J, and the two limiting points of J and #. Ihave shown, also,
that the oval has six other foci, which he two by two on three lines
perpendicular to the line of collinearity of the single foci.
T have entered at some length into the properties of circular cubics.
All the properties of these curves which I give in this paper I believe
to benew. Thus, ‘‘being given four concyclic points,” I have proved that
‘the two circular cubics which can be described having these points as
single foci are such that the point where each intersects its asymptote
is the double focus of the other ;”’ and, again, that ‘‘ the circle which has
the distance between these double foci as diameter is the ‘nine points’
circle’ of the triangle formed by any three of the four centres of inver-
sion of either.”
I have next discussed the characteristics of the various curves treated
of in the paper, and of their evolutes, not only determining them for
the quartics and cubics of each class, but showing the exact points and
lines which are cusps, double tangents, stationary tangents, &c. and
have arrived at some new theorems respecting the osculating circles of
conics as well as bicircular quartics. Thus, ‘‘ through any point not
on an ellipse or hyperbola can be described six circles to osculate the
ellipse or hyperbola, and through any point not on a bicircular quartic
of the eighth class can be described twelve circles to osculate the
quartic.”
A very considerable portion of the paper is occupied with the appli-
cation of the methods of conics to bicircular quartics. In fact, since
the general equation of the second degree in a, B, y which I employ
is the same as the general equation of aconic, only that in my method
the variables denote circles in place of lines, it will at once occur to
any one that the methods used in the higher parts of conics apply also to
bicircular quartics. I have entered very fully into this part of the
subject, and have shown that the theories of invariants and covariants,
reciprocation, and anharmonic ratio in conic sections, not only have
their analogues in bicircular quartics, but that the very same equations
and modes of proof which are employed in the one hold also in the
other. In fact, this part of the paper may be regarded as an exposition
of a new method of geometrical transformation; and it is shown that
every graphic property of a conic section has an analogous property
in bicircular quartics. Thus, ‘‘The four conics having double contact
with a given conic U, which can be drawn through three given points,
are all touched by four other conics having also double contact with U7.”
Corresponding to this we have the following theorem in bicircular
quartics :—‘‘ The four bicircular quartics having quartic contact with a
given bicircular quartic U, which can be described so as to have double
contact with three given circles, have all double contact with four other
bicircular quartics having also quartic contact with U7.”
T intend to follow up the mode of investigation employed in this
paper in kindred parts of geometry.
oe oe we ee ee ae eS ee
Re | OP -
46
VIII.—On tue Lire anp Lasours or THE LATE Joun D’ Arron, Esa.
By Mr. J. R. O’Franaaan.
[Read February 25, 1867. ]
Tue death of the late Mr. D’ Alton, who justly ranked among the most
eminent Irish historians of our day, and who obtained distinguished
honours from the Royal Irish Academy in bygone years, has already
been mentioned in suitable language by our President. As I had the
honour and advantage of being linked to him by ties of intimate friend-
ship for a quarter of a century, and, as I was well acquainted with the
nature and extent of his literary labours, it occurred to me that I might
do some service to his memory, and to the Academy, by bringing those
labours before the members somewhat in detail.
The late John D’Alton was born at Bessville, county of Westmeath,
the seat of his father, William D’Alton, Esq., on the 29th of June, 1792.
His mother, also of highly respectable family, was named Elizabeth
Leyne. He was educated in Dublin, whither he was sent, in his ninth
year, to the school of the Rev. Joseph Hutton, on Summer-hill, not far
from the abode in which he passed his life; and, as an early indication
of his devotion to the labour of many a year, the work he selected as his
first premium, won at the age of ten, was Leland’s ‘‘ History of Ire-
land.’”’ He continued at the school of Mr. Hutton until ready to enter
College, which he did in his fourteenth year, in July, 1806. He
was an excellent classical scholar, and, even at this early age, gave
indications of those literary tastes which clung to him during his life-
time.
Mr. D’ Alton, in the year 1808, was elected a member of a society
which, for now close upon a hundred years, has been the cradle
wherein Irish eloquence has been rocked into a vigorous and steady
maturity—the College Historical Society.
Mr. D’Alton early signalized himself, and his success was not eva-
nescent. His step was always in the arena, his shield always hung on
the lists; and for, I may venture to say, the whole ofhis years of mem-
bership, he successively was awarded the prizes for Poetry in the Col-
lege Historical Society.
In May, 1811, he commenced the study of a profession which is,
with no good reason, supposed antagonistic to poetry—the law. We
had no later than our last night of meeting a signal proof of the co-
existence of the most profound and exact professional erudition in the
mind of one whose poetry infuses delight wherever the English lan-
guage is known; and the Regius Professor of Civil Law in the Univer-
sity of Dublin is certainly more widely known as the exquisite trans-
lator of ‘‘ Faust.” Mr. D’Alton was a student of the Middle Temple,
London, and our King’s Inns, and, having duly kept his terms, was called
to the Irish Bar in 1818.
The course of his professional career does not warrant me occupying
your time. He published a ‘‘ Treatise on the Law of Tithes,” went
AT
the Connaught Circuit, and had extensive practice in cases wherein
questions of title and pedigree had to be traced. He was retained in
the well-known cases of Malone v. O'Connor, Leany v. Smith, Jago v.
Hungerford, and others of that class. In 1834 he was appointed by
Government a Commissioner of the Loan Fund Board, and this is all I
deem it necessary to mention in reference to Mr. D’Alton’s professional
career.
Mr. D’Alton’s first production as an author was a poem of an ambi-
tious character, entitled, ‘‘ Dermid, or Erin in the Days of Boru,” pub-
lished in 1814. This bold attempt at fame, considering his success
while a member of the College Historical Society, was perhaps quite
natural. The literary taste of the age was poetry. The pulse of the
empire was quickened by the Peninsular War, and the exciting mea-
sure of the inspired bard was more in unison with the prevailing temper
of the nation than tamer productions in prose. The demand was
promptly met. Never did more glorious stars shine in the poetical fir-
mament—Byron and Shelley, Coleridge and Southey, Wordsworth and
Crabbe, Campbell and Moore were enriching, in prodigal profusion, the
libraries with every species of poetical composition. Our National
Bard had already gained such renown, that, before a line of a
poem he meditated was composed, a London publisher—Longman—
agreed to pay him for it 3000 guineas. Then, amidst the snows
of a winter in Derbyshire, Moore was weaving the gorgeous tissue
of ‘‘ Lalla Rookh,” and by the light of his own brilliant imagination
conjuring up those sunny scenes of the Orient, which were afterwards
welcomed in India as indigenous to its clime. . In Caledonia, a Scott by
name and Scot by nature—loving intensely the rugged land of his
birth, well read in her traditions—conceived the high and generous
purpose of displaying patriotism in song. We know the result. The
hills and dales, the lochs and mountains of Scotland have become fami-
liar in our homes as household words; and ‘‘ The Lady of the Lake,”’
*¢ Marmion,” ‘“‘ The Lord of the Isles,’ and ‘‘ The Lay of the Last Min-
strel,’’ rendered their author famous before the wonderful tide of his
novels, which in later years almost rivalled wave following wave of the
sea, had commenced to flow. The success of Walter Scott aroused the
ambition of John D’ Alton; he felt that Ireland had many interesting
epochs in her history, which afforded subjects for the muse; he consi-
dered the lakes and rivers, the hills and dales of Erinin no way inferior
in scenic beauty to these which the genius of Scott had invested with
another charm; and thus it was that Mr. D’ Alton composed his metrical
poem—‘‘ Dermid, or the Days of Boru.”
It is of the quarto size, then deemed the orthodox size in poetry,
and divided into twelve cantos. ‘‘ The period of the following ro-
mance,” he informs us, ‘‘ is that interesting epoch in the history of
Treland, when Danish oppression was driven from that country by the
check which it received in the memorable battle of Clontarf.’ He
paid particular attention to preserve faithful descriptions of the man-
ners and customs of the time; and, while historic truth was adhered to,
48
the plot was designed to present the most picturesque scenery of Ire- -
land. The Festivals of the Church mark the time of each canto—twelve
in number; while the Danes, not being entirely converted to Chris-
tianity, afforded him the opportunity of describing the rites of Odin, and
other deities of Scandinavian mythology.
Although I had marked many passages for extracting, time only
allows me to select one. It describes scenery familiar, I am sure, to
most of my hearers, and therefore the general fidelity of the descriptive
passages can be fairly tested —Hz uno disce omnes.
Dermid, having escaped to the Wicklow coast from captivity in the
Isle of Man, meets with a widowed lady on St. Patrick’s Day, who gives
him much-needed sustenance :—
‘“* While Eveleen, with humble food,
Refreshed him in her solitude,
Often his wistful eye would steal
Along the windings of the vale,
Where, girt by many a mountain grey,
Rolled in itself unsociably,
The valley of the lakes displayed
Its shrines, embrowned in thickest shade
Of circling mountains, that appeared,
With rude stupendous height, to guard
This hallowed region of repose.
Here in dark horror Lugduff rose —
The southern sentinel—beside
Towered Derrybawn, in waving pride ;
Between them, o’er its rocky bed,
By woods embrowned, a torrent sped ;
While with contrasted brightness fell
From hills, that westward bound the vale,
Glaneola’s cascade; and, north,
Broccagh his mountain mists sent forth ;
But in the east no envious height
Shut out the golden flood of light ;
No interposing forest stood
To veil the rising orb—that rode
Full in the breach—e’en now, as fate
Had placed it there a golden gate,
To guard and gild this sacred ground;
While, brightly arched o’er all, and wound
About the mountains’ tops, the sky _
Closed up the enchanted scenery.”
This poem won a hearty tribute of praise from Scott, and was not
unknown to Moore and Byron.
A few years after the publication of his poem, Mr. D’Alton mar-
ried Miss Phillips—a lady of good family, whose amiable disposition
and domestic virtues constituted the chief charms of his hospitable home
for the greater part of his life.
In 1827, the Royal Irish Academy, desirous of directing attention
to the too much neglected history of Ireland, offered a prize of £80 for
the best essay on the social and political state of the people of Ireland,
4§
from the commencement of the Christian era to the twefth century;
their advancement or retrogression in science, literature, and the arts;
and the character of their moral and religious opinions, as connected with
their civil and ecclesiastical institutions, so far as they could be gleaned
from any original writings prior to the commencement of the sixteenth
century, exclusive of those in the Irish or other Celtic languages, as
such documents might on a future occasion be proposed by the Aca-
demy as a subject for investigation. very statement was required to
be supported, not by reference only, but by extracts, in the form of
notes or an appendix; and it was expected that every accessible source
of information should be examined, under the above limitation. Besides
the sum of money, the Cunningham Gold Medal was to be given for the
best essay, and additional premiums awarded to others possessing less
positive merit. Mr. D’Alton’s essay obtained the highest prize, with
the Gold Medal; and to Thomas Carroll, M. D., was awarded £40 for
his essay on the same subject. Mr. D’Alton’s essay, which was read
24th November, 1828, occupies nearly the entire of the first part of
vol. xvi. of the ‘‘ Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.”’
In the year 1831, he again entered the lists for the prize offered by
this Academy for an ‘‘ Account of the Reign of Henry II. in Ireland,’
and was again victorious.
Thenceforth he earnestly set to work, collecting all that was written,
and within reach of his busy pen, about Druidical stones, the earth
works of early colonists, the fortresses of the Anglo-Norman invaders,
the stately towers of the Plantagenets, the more habitable and commo-
dious dwellings of the Tudors’ reigns, the stern and massive stone-built
keeps of the Cromwellians. These he noted, and they formed materials
for future use. The beautiful ruins of abbeys and other buildings de-
voted to religious purposes were carefully inspected, while his freedom
of action was unimpeded by an infirmity which confined him very much
to his room in after years.
In 1838 he published his ‘“‘ Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin.”
The concluding passage of this work is creditable to his memory, and
characteristic of his disposition :—‘‘ The course of the author’s life has
been studiously removed from party excitements and unholy bigotries ;
and he fondly indulges the hope he may live to see the day when, on
their utter extinction, peace, brotherly love, industry, and universal li-
berty, may smile upon his native land.”
The same year, 1838, witnessed the publication of the ‘‘ History of
the County of Dublin.”
A few years then elapsed—not idly spent, however; for in 1844
Mr. D’Alton published two illustrated volumes: ‘‘ The History of
Drogheda, with its Environs,” and an ‘‘ Introductory Memoir of the
Dublin and Drogheda Railway.’”’ This introductory memoir gives a
sketch of the progress of locomotion, the condition of the roads, vehicles,
mails, and travelling in Ireland, from the earliest ages.
Shortly after the ‘‘ History of Drogheda,” appeared the ‘‘ Annals
R. FE. A. PROC.—VOL. X. i
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50
of Boyle.’’ To aid the publication, he told me Lord Lorton contributed -
£300.
He was still amassing and arranging, when he was invited to print
some record of the families indigenous to, or long naturalized in, Ire-
land. He found among his relics ‘“‘ King James the Second’s Irish Army
List,” giving the names of the several other officers of the regiments in
his service who were of families of the aristocracy of Ireland at that time.
This was the nucleus of two large volumes, intituled, ‘‘ Illustrations,
Historical and Genealogical, of King James’s Irish Army List, 1689,”
published in 1855. He mentions the very great kindness he received,
when compiling this work, from our present Viceroy, the Marquis of
Abercorn. It was about this period Her Majesty was pleased to assign
him a small pension, as an acknowledgment of his literary merits.
In 1864 the “‘ History of Dundalk” was published, under the joint
names of Mr. D’ Alton and myself; and in the preface he states the por-
tions contributed by each.
Mr. D’ Alton had great business qualities as the order and metho-
dical arrangement of his numerous works show. Having been as-
sociated with him in publication, I can testify to the care with which
he revised the proofs, and the watchful attention he bestowed upon mi-
nute typographical details. He carried his notions of the naked truth
in which history should appear, perhaps, too far. His dry narratives
of facts are unrelieved by any picturesque description—not from his
want of appreciating a pleasing style, but from his anxiety not to mis-
represent, or conceal the course of events. Any attempt at what is
termed fine writing, but more especially humour, he considered out of
place, and unworthy the dignity of history. Latterly his infirmities
confined him to his chair; but he loved the society of his friends, and
was always gay and cheerful.
Mr. D’ Alton was very entertaining—noted in convivial hours for his
vocal power, and loved to narrate anecdotes of his youth, which he told
with great humour. He never allowed his mind torest. About a year
or two since, our late President, accompanied by Sir Bernard Burke,
called on him to examine his manuscripts. Mr. D’Alton showed them
to his visitors. As no reference has since been made to him respecting
them, I am not able to state whether they are likely to become public
property, or not.
T have little more to add. The severe weather of last month termi-
nated, on the 20th January, 1867, a career which counted seventy-four
years. For some time lately Mr. D’Alton was diligently employed on
his autobiography. From my knowledge of his kindness of heart, and
happy social temperament, I feel sure his reminiscences of former years
will be genial and pleasant. This work, I make bold to predict, will
be a becoming termination to a life of labour—of toil not without use—
and of success worthily won.
d1
1X.—On Zrpuivs SowERsBIensis. By Witt1am Anprews, Ese.
[ Abstract. ]
[Read April 8, 1867. ]
In the year 1800 was cast ashore on the coast of Elginshire, Scotland,
a fine specimen of a Cetacean, which Mr. Brodie, of Brodie House, near
whose place it was stranded, considered to be so novel, and so strange
in its characters, that he sent a description of the animal, with the
skull, jaws, and teeth, to Mr. James Sowerby, of London.
This led to a most interesting discussion among the savans at a
soiree at Sir Joseph Banks’; and, as no Cetacean of the kind had ever
been recorded, it was named ‘‘ Physeter bidens,’’ from the peculiarity
of having only two teeth—one in the central part of each inferior max-
illary. This rare Cetacean proved to be a male.
In the year 1804 was discovered on the coast of Provence, in the
fossil state, a portion of the skull and jaws ofa dolphin, which the
eminent Cuvier decided to be a species that had no recent existence,
but was a relic of a destroyed creation. From that specimen Cuvier
formed the genus Ziphius, terming the species cavirostris.
In 1809 were detected, when digging the basin at Antwerp, other
fossils allied to the same genus. The portions of the rostri or beaks,
having, however, some characteristic differences, caused Cuvier to con-
stitute two other species ‘‘longirostris,” and ‘‘ planirostris.”
The skull, with the jaws of Sowerby’s Cetacean, had been placed
in the Museum at Oxford. From that specimen Doctor J. E. Gray,
F. R. 8., of the British Museum, and who has published so valuable a
catalogue of all known Cetacea, had figured, Physeter bidens, in the
Zoology of the ‘‘ Erebus’ and “‘ Terror.’? De Blainville, when visiting
England, on seeing those figures, at once recognised Sowerby’s animal as
identical with Cuvier’s fossils genus Ziphius; and the fact was so com-
pletely established, as to decide that Physeter bidens was an original dis-
covery in the living state of a Cetacean that was supposed to have had no
existence. Hence became recorded in our Fauna the genus Ziphius,
and the species Sowerbiensis.
In September, 1825, was stranded at Havre a species of dolphin
new to science, which M. de Blainville described, as Delphinorhynchus
daler ; and the following year, 1826, was cast ashore at the mouth of the
Orne, Calvados, another of the same species.
Du Mortier described as Delphinorhynchus micropterus one that
had been cast ashore in August, 1835, near the port of Ostend. Ano-
ther, agreeing with Cuvier’s Delphinorhynchus micropterus, was taken
at the mouth of the Seine.
These were all females, and have been described by Continental
authorities under different generic and specific appellations.
It is, however, clearly seen that they are all of the same genus and
species; and, although recorded by French zoologists as distinct from
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Sowerbiensis, yet it is with some reason considered that Ziphius Sower-
bvensis, the only male specimen that had at the time been discovered, —
was the male species of that genus, and that the species micropterus
was the female; the difference in the great development of the teeth
in the male specimen, and the non-existence or rudimentary state of
the teeth in the other, being viewed as sexual.
The subject of the discovery now recorded was obtained stranded
on the shore of Brandon Bay, coast of Kerry, Ireland, on the 9th of
March, 1864.
The skull and jaws, with the teeth, are identical in every respect
with the specimen in the Museum at Oxford; it is remarkable as
being only the second male specimen known to the European Fauna.
The most valuable points in the details given of this discovery are
the photographs that were taken of the head of the animal in the
recent state, and which have enabled many most important and unre-
eorded observations to have been made and confirmed, with regard to
the peculiar characteristics of the formation of the jaws, and action of
the teeth, of this very rare Cetacean.
Thus, of six of these animals that have been recorded as European,
four were females, and two were males; the two latter having only
been met with on the shores of Scotland and Ireland.
X.—OnN THE Formation or Grounp Ice In THE BED oF THE RIVER
DoppEer. By Proressor Hennessy, F. &. 8.
[Read April 8, 1867.]
Tue formation of ice under flowing water seems to have been long
known to boatmen engaged in navigating the rivers of northern and
central Europe. At first it was regarded with doubt by many physical
inquirers, and its universal recognition as a well-established natural
phenomenon has taken place only within a comparatively recent period.
Among the properties of water, it would be impossible to name one
more remarkable or better known than its loss of density in passing
from the liquid to the solid state. The precise determination of the
maximum density of water at nearly eight degrees (Fahrenheit) above
the freezing point appears still further to interpose a difficulty with
regard to the growth of true subaqueous ice; but, when all the circum-
stances under which such ice is stated to have been formed are fully
taken into consideration, this difficulty disappears, and ground ice is
seen to be the result of general physical laws.
At the beginning of January in the present year, an instance of the
formation of ground ice in the bed of the Dodder* came under my ob-
* For the information of readers who are not acquainted with the neighbourhood of
. Dublin, it may be necessary to state that the Dodder is a stream which rises among the
mountains, at a distance, measured in a straight line, of about twelve miles S. 8. W. from
thecity; and that, after sweeping round the south suburban villages for three miles of
its course, it falls into the bay, close to the mouth of the Liffey.
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servation, which, not only on account of the rarely recorded occurrence
of such ice in our island, but from the manner in which all the accom-
panying circumstances combine to throw a clear light upon the real
causes of the phenomenon, induces me to communicate to the Academy
the facts which I observed, and the conclusions to which I have been
led. It is important to distinguish two well-defined periods of cold
weather which occurred in the month of January, 1867: the earliest
was continued from the first to the fifth; the second occupied the in-
terval from the tenth to the nineteenth. The ice formed on ponds dur-
ing the longer period having been more permanent, this period was
popularly considered as that of the greatest frost. Thermometrical
results show that the lowest temperature was attained during the first
period.
Observations taken within the city of Dublin, or at a station close
to the sea, would not furnish results from which we could draw any just
conclusions as to the lowest temperature to which the Dodder was
exposed. Observations taken at a station situated about the same dis-
tance from the sea, and at nearly the same height as the middle portion
of the course of the river, would give the nearest approximation to the
information required. In the ‘‘ Transactions of the Association for Pro-
moting Social Science,” for 1860, p. 662, [have shown that the winter
temperature of a large town must sensibly increase in going from the
outskirts towards the centre. This conclusion was first established by
observations made in London; and it seems to be fully confirmed with
regard to Dublin by a comparison of observations, recorded at Trinity
College, and the Phoenix Park, and especially from those made by Mr.
‘Yates, in Grafton-street, with similar results obtained in the suburbs.*
The observations on the low temperature of January by Mr. Arthur Pim,
at Monkstown, which he has kindly communicated to me, fully esta-
blish the correctness of the remark as to the influence of the sea on
winter temperature; and the Monkstown results seem also to show
that the minima temperatures decrease very rapidly in going from the
sea inland.+ About seven miles and a quarter measured along the course
of the river above the point where I observed the ground ice, the
level of the water in the Dodder is 474 above the sea; and the station
which from its position most nearly realizes our requirements is the
Ordnance Meteorological Observatory at the west end of the Phoenix
Park. Thisis 159 feet above the sea level—a height which corresponds
to a part of the Dodder near Bushy Park, about one mile and three
quarters above the place where the ground ice was observed. It also
seems that the observations on minima temperatures at the Phoenix
Park were made under circumstances approaching more closely to the
actual conditions of a thermometer over an open stream, than those
made at other stations in Dublin and its environs.
* | find that the same general law has been long since distinctly recognised by Dr.
Lamont at Munich. See his essay ‘‘ Ueber die Temperatur-Verhaltnisse in Bayern,”
‘* Annalen der k. Sternwarte bei Munchen,”’ vol. iii.
+ See “On the Distribution of Heat over Islands,” ‘‘ Atlantis,” vol. i., p. 396,
ASS Sn
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The results which I have selected are taken from the weekly
records furnished by Captain Wilkinson, R. E., and published by
the Registrar-General, and I have also ventured to append a column
of mean temperatures calculated by the formula,
Mean = min + 0.48 (max. — min.).*
The results in this Table differ very httle from the means of maxima |
and minima, otherwise I should give them with much more diffidence,
as Tam not yet perfectly satisfied as to the general applicability of the
above formula to the determination of mean temperatures.
TEMPERATURE TABLE AT THE PHGNIX PARK.
Mean of | Mean
Date. Minimum. | Maximum.| Max. and | by Remarks,
Minimum.) Formula.
Dec. 26, 38°7 49°7 44°2 44-0
See 42°5 47-7 45-1 45-0
ce tO 44-0 49°3 46°6 46°5
NemeeaOs 374 18) 49-9 41°2 39-9
me BP Ae) 5) 38°7 34°1 33°9
| Heavy fall of snow, which re-
Bee oul Div B70) 30°2 UB Y) | | mained unmelted until the
; 5th and 6th.
PANE ele 24°5 33 °4 Zag) 8) 28°8
3 ‘ : 4 Prevailing wind during the
» | wwe | 29-4 | 20-8 | 20-5 EOE neriod of fost, Ne
4 ; Ground ice observed on weir,
5 4, 5) 36°3 D2 sou and close to bank of river.
: P °712 inch of melted snow
oy wee eae eae BP 2 2c 9 | since January 1.
t d _q {| Rain °220 inch, and rapid
es Oy 43°8 50°5 at il 47 Oy Shae
a le 43°8 DUS) 45-9 45°7
Bi 8, 36°5 44°7 40°6 40°4
hs Si 25 43 °3 Be 28 37°7
; Prevailing wind during the
a ay 26-8 ee e240 ot 8 | second period of frost, N. W.
oe ell, 24 0 32°0 28°0 27°8
Pee Aly: IG eR 28°5 23°5 3°6
Sie aos 24°2 31 2 ZAG 2 2016
mee 13°0 33 °2 23°1 22°7
ues 21 °8 31:2 26°5 26°3
yn Gs 12°5 3) 8) 2s 19) Zita
Aye allay 15°8 26°5 2 20°9
Saeeliss 13°2 33 °8 23°5 23°1
BA OS ape BOO) 36°5 33 °5 33 °4
7 ZO eS O)O 372 33 °6 33 °5
Ae pall Zo) 15) 39-0 34°2 34:1
de zs. 29)°5 50°0 39°7 39-1
yy PAB 43°4 53 °2 48 °3 48-1
alge Das 37°38 | 54°5 46-1 45°83
* For a discussion of formule suitable to the observations in question, see the folio
volume of “‘ Ordnance Meteorological Observations :” Dublin, 1856, p. 473.
y9)
~ In order to make the connexion between the results recorded in this
Table and the formation of the ground ice more clearly manifest, I
append a graphical representation, in which the dotted broken line re-
presents the march of mean temperature, and the undotted line the
march of minimum temperature. The two cold periods are well defined
by the rising and falling of the curves above or below the line of frost.
A remarkable feature in the first period is the sudden great rise of
temperature from the 3rd of January to the 6th; whence resulted a
sudden thaw, which had an important influence in bringing very sig-
nificant phenomena distinctly under observation.
Towards the close of the first week in January, I frequently walked
on the right bank of the Dodder between Rathgar and Rathfarnham
bridges. The greater partof this portion of the streamremained unfrozen;
and wherever the current was extremely rapid, the ice was restricted
to a thin edging along the banks. On breaking a portion of this edg-
ing where there was a swift current, I found rough pieces of ice, with
long needle-shaped crystals, jutting beneath the water. Water was
flowing over some of these pieces, but they were easily hooked up with
a stick, Ona weir situated farther up stream I noticed many icicles
attached to the stones over which the water was dashing. Still more
decisive proofs of the existence of true ground ice under the stream
were furnished soon after the commencement of the thaw.
On the morning of Sunday, the 6th, when the thaw was fully
developed, I took a position a little above one of the weirs, and watched
the breaking up and removal of the ice which overspread the river at
this point. After a short interval I noticed, in addition to the smooth
angular and uniformly thick slabs resulting from the breaking of the
surface ice, several rough spongy pieces, more or less discoloured by
mud, and having in some instances sand or small gravel attached to
them. I could not at first discover whence these singular-looking
pieces of ice had come; but after another short interval I saw similar
fragments rise in succession to the surface of the water from below.
This occurrence was repeated more than once, and it attracted the
attention of other observers. I recently verified my impression of the
facts by asking gentlemen* who were present as to what they had seen,
and their reply completely accords with what I relate. Whenever a
large sheet of surface ice was burst by the rapidly rising waters of the
stream, rough lumps of the spongy ice were generally disclosed beneath.
These could not have arrived at their position by drifting down the
river ; for the drifted fragments were heaped over the upper edge of the
yet unbroken sheets of ice. The rough pieces must have floated up
from the bed to the under side of the surface ice, and they were dis-
closed to view on the removal of the latter from the position it had held
anterior to the thaw. The mud with which most of these fragments were
* Among these I may especially refer to Messrs. Joseph and John Hanley, both of
whom reside close to the right bank of the Dodder.
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discoloured indicated, moreover, that they must have come from a com- ©
paratively tranquil portion of the river bed—a condition which is found
precisely at the place where they were observed. Mud can deposit in
the Dodder only for a short distance at the backs of weirs and dams;
at all other portions of its middle and upper course, the bed is coated
with gravel or rock. As the rising of the spongy-looking fragments of
ice took place about the middle of the stream, and as the pieces were
afterwards rapidly carried over the weir, I made no attempt to obtain
a specimen. It was, however, easy to see that their structure
approached as closely to the rough pieces with projecting crystals which
I had broken from the edge of the stream under water, as it deviated
from that of the slabs of ice belonging to the surface.
The true cause of the formation of ground ice could not be more
clearly illustrated than by the phenomena here adduced. The con-
ditions which promote freezing, cited in the order of their relative im-
portance, are—(1) low temperature ; (2) stillness of the liquid; and (3)
contact of rough solid substances. On the surface of a pond or lake,
when the temperature falls below 32° F., the first two and most im-
portant conditions are both perfectly fulfilled. In a deep lake the two
last conditions can in general alone prevail near the bottom, while the
first and indispensable condition will not be sufficiently intense. In
the middle of rapidly running water the first condition may exist; but,
as it must then be alone, we never see ice formed in the axis ofa
swiftly flowing stream. Ice may be found in a shallow and rapid river
along the banks, and on stones at the bottom, because in these positions
the velocity of the cold current becomes sufficiently reduced to allow
of the operation of condition (2), while the growth of ice crystals is
directly promoted by the existence of condition (3), at the points of
contact between the river and its bed. Condition (8) is in general
most likely to exist in perfection in short rivers descending from an
elevated source into the plains; and, as such rivers are always shallow
except immediately after rain or the melting of snow, the water flowing
in their beds will usually be very fully exposed to any cooling influences
which may result from the weather.
Let us more closely examine what takes place in a small river, such
as the Dodder, when the temperature falls considerably below the freez-
ing point of still water. This stream has a rapid fall, and its longitu-
dinal section presents a series of great and small inequalities. which
essentially promote the thorough refrigeration of water flowing
over them. The following numbers will make this more clearly
understood :
o7
Height of Water
ane see in Distances from Weir above which Gronnd Ice was observed rising.
1D eee Weir from which distances are counted.
OW ae 1825 feet, where crystals of Ice were found.
3550 feet, Weir with Ice on stones.
125301. 4375 feet, Rathfarnham bridge.
12 mile, a cascade.
ties. « 24 miles, Templeogue bridge.
238 . 33 miles, Weir at Firhouse.
304... 47 miles, Oldbawn bridge.
364. . 52 miles, opposite site of parchment mill.
A474. 7z miles, near Ballynascorney Gap.
If, in addition to the rough section which may be formed from these
numbers, the reader bears in mind that the bed of the Dodder contains
masses of gravel, granite boulders, and projecting rocks, he will be
satisfied that the conditions required for perfectly mingling the flowing
water are all abundantly present. The Dodder is usually shallow, and
it was in this state before the frost of January ; thus the water, in fall-
ing over the weirs and torrential parts of its Course, presented a very
thin sheet of liquid to the refrigerating influences of the air, and iosses
of heat by surface radiation. Wherever the river flows most rapidly,
it is also shallowest and most disturbed, and the water is therefore
exposed at such places to the full intensity of the refrigerating actions.
The colder particles at surface exchange their positions and tempera-
tures with the particles at bottom, and a forced convection is thus
brought about, which reduces the temperature of the entire mass below
the freezing point. Another feature in the structure of the bed of the
river now operates to bring about condition (2). This occurs whenever
the water reduced below the freezing temperature arrives at the back
of a weir or mill dam. In this position, the water at surface partakes
both of conditions (1) and (2); but, while it freely loses its heat, it still
retains a small velocity. The water at bottom is now almost perfectly
still, and conditions (2) and (3) are much better fulfilled than at the
surface. In this way ground ice and surface ice may both be formed
nearly in the same cross section of the river.
It may be asked, why should not freezing take place in the water
flowing between the bottom ice and surface ice, as well as above and
below? This suggests the utility of attending more precisely to the
physical conditions of the growth of ice crystals. The general influence
of rough solid substances in promoting crystallization is well recognised,
and the familiar experiment of plunging a vessel containing water into
a freezing mixture shows the tendency of ice to commence its forma-
tion from even the most minute projections on the inside of the vessel.
Some experiments recently described by M. Fred. Engelhardt bear
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. if
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still more conclusively on this point.* He poured water into iron boilers
which were insulated from the influence of soil temperature by being -
elevated on trestles, and they were at the same time fully exposed on
all sides to the action of a freezing temperature. The inside of one
boiler was smooth, while another was interiorly coated with a few chips
of iron and wood. Ice was formed in both boilers along the sides and
bottoms, as well as on the surface, while the middle was still occupied
with unfrozen quid. From a comparison of both vessels, it seemed
that the inequalities on the interior of the second greatly favoured the
formation of rough crystalline bunches of ice. The residual unfrozen
liquid suggests an explanation of the difficulty to which I have alluded
with reference to the exclusive freezing of a river at surface and on its
bed. This phenomenon is indeed only a particular instance of a
general thermological law—namely, that all substances in passing from
the liquid to the solid state evolve a certain amount of latent heat. It
is thus, after various metals, sulphur, and other substances commence to
crystallize from a state of fusion, we find, on breaking the crust of solid
matter first formed, that a residuum of liquid enclosed in a solidified
matrix may be decanted off. With regard to water, this process has
been very clearly described by Professor Curtis, of Queen’s College,
Galway ;} and, he refers, moreover, to the low conductivity of water for
heat as an agency for confining the communication of the latent heat
of congelation to the adjacent particles. If, therefore, from the pre-
valence of conditions favourable to freezing both at surface and along
the bed of the still parts of such a river as the Dodder, ice should be
formed in these positions, its growth will in itself interpose obstacles
to the freezing of the middle waters.
The explanation here given of the formation of ground ice is, in
substance, the same as that propounded several years ago by the late
M. Arago;t but I venture to believe that there are some peculiar fea-
tures in the phenomena which I have described, which may further
elucidate the whole question. It cannot be maintained, as has been
done, according to Arago,§ by one of our countrymen, that freezing at
the bottom of cold still and clear water arises from the greater facility
presented by still water as compared to moving water for the trans-
mission of radiant heat from the underlying bed. Ina discussion of
the physical properties of water with reference to terrestrial climate at
different geological epochs, published in 1859,|| I alluded to the manner
* “Memoires de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Strasbourg,” tome vi.
+ ‘On the Freezing of Water at Temperatures lower than 32° F. :” ‘‘ Philosophical
Magazine” for December, 1866.
+ Arago, ‘‘ iuvres,”’ vol. viii. § Loe. cit., p. 176.
|| ‘‘ Atlantis,” vol. ii., p. 208, January, 1859. Some of my conclusions regarding
climate having been lately reproduced as new, I may be excused for briefly stating the
properties of water to which I appealed when attempting to establish these conclusions :-—
1, its great capacity for heat; 2, its mobility; 3, the influence of evaporation and con-
densation; 4, the impermeability of water to obscure heat. The first three are distinctly
adduced in section 2 of my essay (p. 210); while the 4th, now noticed in the text, is
Oi ee eM i
og
in which, from its imperfect permeability to the feeble rays of obscure
heat, water acts as a kind of trap for the heat 1t acquires from sunshine.
The same property allows the beds of still water reservoirs to retain
their temperature, while the bottoms of running streams are cooled by
the constant mingling of the upper and lower waters according to the
forced convective action already mentioned.
If we reflect on the physical structure of the bed of the Dodder
while looking over the graphical representation of temperature during
the periods of frost, we cannot entertain a reasonable doubt as to the
sufficiency of the physical conditions which produced the ground ice
observed in the first week of January. On the 3lst of December the
mean temperature was below the freezing point; and from the Ist of
January, when it was 28°: 9 it fell to 11°°1 on the third. The fluctuations
of minimum temperature are yet more remarkable. On the second of
January the minimum temperature was nearly 20° below freezing,
while on the third it descended to more than 29° below the same
point. On the fifth a thaw commenced, but it proceeded slowly until
midnight; and it was not fully developed until Sunday morning, when
I witnessed the uprising through the water of fragments of ground ice
which had been detached from the bottom. It remains to account for
the action of the thaw in raising these pieces of ice. A reference to
the remarks on the margin of the Temperature Table opposite January
5 and 6, shows that the aggregate result of the snow melted and of the
rain which fell on these days was °940 inch at the Phoenix Park. Itis
reasonable to suppose that the fall of snow and rain in the basin of the
Dodder, owing to its greater elevation, was somewhat larger than this
number would indicate. On the night of Saturday the minimum
temperature was 43° -8 and the mean temperature of Sunday was 48°;
and thus one of the first effects of the resulting thaw was a sudden and
very considerable accession of water to the Dodder from its feeding
streamlets. ‘The coating of surface ice was thus burst from below up-
wards, and the slabs were rapidly swept along by the current, which, in
accordance with a law of hydraulics, was gaining in velocity while in-
creasing in volume. While the down scour of the river in its channel
was thus considerably strengthened, the density of the water increased
as its temperature rose with the progress of the thaw towards 40°.
The combined operation of these causes would necessarily facilitate the
detachment and floatation of those fragments of ground ice which were
observed emerging at the surface of the river, and bringing with them
manifest traces of their origin.
During the second period of frost I observed ice attached to stones
over which water was flowing on the weirs, and also a few specimens
of crystalline ice at the edges of the river, and under the current, such
as I had noticed during the first period. I had no opportunity for
alluded to in these words :—‘‘ The heat which it [water] has acquired during the day
shall have penetrated so deeply as to be incapable of being radiated backwards into space
during the night.” (See ‘‘ Philosophical Magazine” for February and March, 1867.)
60
observing the breaking up of the ice at the second thaw; but, if | am
correctly informed, it seems that the rough spongy and discoloured
fragments of bottom ice did not make their appearance. The difference
between the minima temperatures of the two periods of frost was nearly
ten degrees; for the lowest temperature of the second period, which
occurred on the 16th of January, was12°°5; while the lowest of the first,
which occurred on the third, was 2°°8. The difference in the resulting
effects of the two periods with reference to the formation of ground
ice may, therefore, be inferred to have arisen both from the inferior
temperature of the first period and the suddenness of the thermal
changes by which it was preceded and terminated.
XI.—Rovunp Towser or ArnpmMorE. By Hopper M. Wesrrorp, Esa.
[Read April 8, 1867. ]
THE summit of the cone of the tower of Ardmore was formed of two
stones fitted together. There is scarcely any trace of carving or sculp-
ture on them, they are so worn by the weather and defaced by time.
On the side of the larger stone is a kind of groove or fluting, very per-
fect for about six inches; a corresponding ornamentation was evidently
on the other side. On the upper part is a slight projection, which ori-
ginally may have been a carved ornament. ‘The immediate top bears
evident traces of something having been broken off. The lower inner por-
tion of each stone is hollowed out into a kind of angle, evidently to meet
a corresponding rise in the platform stone they rested upon. No iron
bolt or rivet was used to firm them in their position. The two stones
fitted together, and formed the apex of the conical top of the tower.
Some of the old people of Ardmore recollect seeing a cross on the top
of it, which, it is said, was shot off some forty years ago by a gentleman
firing at a crow perched on the top: Croker makes mention of it as
being like acrutch. This very probably was the remaining portion of
an Irish wheel cross, such as is seen over the door of the tower at
Antrim.
XII.— Description oF ContENTS oF A Cairn AT Hyat NuceEr, IN THE
Dexuan. By Coronet Meapvows Tayuor. [ Abstract}.
[Read April 22, 1867. ]
Tue articles enumerated in the accompanying list were found by
Sir George Yule, K.8.1., late Resident at Hyderabad, and now a
Member of the Council of India, in a cairn which formed one of a
group near the town of Hyat Nugger, which is situated on the high
road to Masulipatam, ten miles E.S.E. of the city of Hyderabad
in the Dekhan. In my paper of 12th May, 1862, I brought to the
notice of the Academy that the environs of Hyderabad afforded some
61
very remarkable groups of cairns; and that, during examinations in
several instances, by General J. 8. Fraser, Captain, now Colonel Doria,
and others, bells, iron weapons, and pottery, deposited in the Mu-
seum of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bombay, had been exhumed. In
compliance with my request, Sir George Yule personally superintended
the excavation of the cairn I now allude to, and has kindly sent me
what he foundinit. I have only to regret that no notes of the pro-
ceeding were taken ; for it would have been interesting to know the size
and configuration of this cairn, and the depth at which the remains
were found, &c. Such particulars will, I trust be supplied to me
hereafter, in regard to other cairns examined at Hyderabad or other
localities in the Dekhan ; and for the present I have only to offer a few
remarks upon the character of the articles sent to me, which I present
to the Academy.
IRON WEAPONS.
These are not so perfect as some obtained,by me from Shorapoor cairns,
but they are in some instances in fair preservation. The best are two
triangular arrow heads of large size, figs. 1, 2. Others appear to have
been smaller, and more pointed—round, perhaps, or four-sided : of these
figs. 3, 4, and 5 are specimens. A rod of iron or steel, twenty-five
inches in length, was no doubt the blade of a javelin, such as is used at
the present day by Brinjarries, or grain carriers, who are descended
from some ancient nomadic tribe. Two small lance or spear heads are very
perfect, viz., figs. 6, 7; and there are some portions of what perhaps
was originally a sword or dagger blade, fig. 8. The rest of the iron
articles are, no doubt, portions of larger weapons, probably spears, but
they are much decayed and broken.
BRONZE.
Although specimens of bronze in bells, cups, &c., were found in Hy-
derabad cairns, none were discovered by me in the examination of those
of the Shorapoor district, which only yielded iron and pottery. It is
difficult to determine what the precise use of the article now exhibited
may have been; but it has a greater resemblance to a cover than any-
thing else, (vzde fig. 9). When received, the handle, which is in the
form of a deer or a sheep, though most probably intended for the
former, was separate from the cover; but it was discovered that the
broken portions at the feet of the animal fitted exactly into a fracture at
the top of the round portion ; and they have been joined as represented.
The diameter of the lower portion of the article is eleven inches, and
the centre rises three and a half inches from the rim. The thickness
ofthe metal is one-tenth of an inch, equable throughout; and it
has been very carefully cast and finished, if not polished. The handle
was evidently cast separately, and joined to the lower piece by solder.
The quality of the metal does not appear to have been affected by
time, and it is of a clear bright colour under the crust which covers it.
This very unique specimen of bronze work adds, I consider, very
a ae
Abenns,
Se ee ee ee ee ea, Oe ae, ee ee
4 tae + Oo lee < Set he Sa oe ee oe ee
Conant ete EM tp
= AMON, fo gmc
62
materially to the antiquarian interest which attends the Dekhan Cairns;
and, with the bells, cups, and other articles in the Bombay Museum, ~
affords evidence of aperiod at which remarkable skill existed in the
casting of this metal. Whether in India it was used previously to iron,
may perhaps be discussed; but that iron and bronze periods existed
there, as well asin Europe, there can be no reasonable doubt; and I
esteem myself peculiarly fortunate in being able to submit for ex-
amination by the Academy the first specimen of Cairn bronze which
has, to the best of my knowledge, been transmitted to England.
Having thus evidence of iron and bronze periods in India, the
Academy is already in possession of proof of a flint period in the remark-
able specimens of chipped flints, agates, chalcedonies, and jaspers pre-
sented to it on the 10th April, 1865, by Mr. John Evans, at the instance
of Sir Charles Lyell, F. R. 8., which were found near Jubbulpoor, in
Central India, by the late Lieut. Swiney. I have recently also seen
a letter from Mr. Blandford, a deputy-superintendent of the Geolo-
gical Survey, in which he states that in certain localities of the
province of Nagpoor chipped flint articles have been found by him.
I can state also, under my own knowledge, that at Lingsoogoor—a
military station of the Hyderabad Contingent, thirty miles south of Shora-
poor—numbers of flint (chert), agate, and chalcedony knives, resem-
bling those of Mexico, arrow heads, &c., were found by the late Sur-
geon Primrose, near a large artificial tumulus upon which the mess
house of the station was built in 1841. Dr. Primrose had previously
resided in Mexico, and was struck with the identity of what he found
at Lingsoogoor with the flint and obsidian knives he had seen in
Mexico. His collection was a considerable one, and I believe was pre-
sented by him to the Museum of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta. I
am at present endeavouring to obtain further specimens from Ling-
soogoor for the Museum of the Academy.
SHELLS AND NECKLACE.
In the Hyat Nugger cairn, five shells of the species Zurbinella
pyrum were found. They are perforated at the top, so as to be
suspended, and the apices of the shells have been removed. Whether
these were intended to be used as conchs, or worn as ornaments, it
is impossible to decide. From the largest of them all the whorls
have been removed, as well as the central axis or column; and the
necklace, fig. 18, proves the use that such columns were put to. It
consists of six portions, which have been perforated longitudinally, in
order to be strung—a small portion of shell, pierced with two holes,
being evidently intended as a fastening for the ends of the cord on
which the pieces of shell were strung. With the necklace was found
what appears to be the upper tusk of a wild boar: it is not perforated.
The use of shell necklaces by ancient races in Europe is evident from
that in the Academy’s Museum; but Iam not aware that any of the
kind now exhibited have been found before, nor did the Shorapoor
or other cairns afford any. 3
63
POTTERY.
Of the specimens of pottery, one, a small red cup, three and a half
inches in diameter, and two and a half inches in depth, is very perfect,
fig. 10. Two other vessels, figs. 10, 11, both tolerably perfect, are of an
hour-glass shape, and were, I conceive, the bodies of small hand drums,
parchment or skin being fastened on the ends. The upper portion being
larger in diameter than the lower would give a difference of sound to
each end of the drum; and the hour glass shape for small hand drums
of wood or copper is still in use in India. Another entire vessel is a
cup, with a black glaze uponit, fig. 12. It is 42 inches in diameter, and
42 in depth, narrowing to the bottom, which is 42 in. in diameter. There
are also two pieces of thick heavy pottery, which must have been parts of
large vessels. One of these is a portion of the lip or upper edge of the
vessel, which turns outward—the other also ofa lp which turns inward.
The small round cup may have been made by hand; but there are in-
dications of the other vessels having been turned on a wheel which can-
not be mistaken.
HUMAN AND ANIMAL REMAINS.
Of the bones transmitted to me, which were found in the Hyat
Nugger Cairn, I am not competent to speak. Some are evidently hu-
man ; and one elbow joint, apparently that of a woman, is very perfect.
Others are those of animals; and perhaps some of the scientific anato-
mists of the Academy may be disposed to examine and report upon
them all. It is at least certain that the cairn belonged to that section
of the ancient race which buried their dead, as there were no traces of
cremation in this cairn. Itis not from a mere motive of curiosity that I
propose scientific examination of the bones ; for it has become a very im-
portant point, in determining the identity of the Indian Cairn construc-
tors with those of Great Britain and of Europe to establish the fact of hu-
man sacrifice having accompanied interments. This will form an especial
point in any future explorations with which I may be assisted by my
Indian friends, and will be of the utmost interest in regard to those
very unmistakeable evidences of human sacrifice which were brought |
to light by the Rev. W. Greenwell, of Durham, in the excavation of the
Scamridge Barrow, Yorkshire, and described in the “‘ Proceedings of the
-Archeological Institute,’ No. 86, of 1865, which were corroborated by
discoveries of a similar character, by Dr. Thurnam, of Devizes, in
Wiltshire Barrows; and when I compare the results attained by these
gentlemen with my own experience in opening the cairns at J ewurgl
and Andola, in the district of Shorapoor, itis impossible not to be struck
with the more than mere coincidence—the absolute identity of the
character of human sacrifice in localities so widely separated as York-
shire and the Dekhan.
IT am glad to observe that considerable interest has been excited in
India cn this subject; and any means of identification between the re-
mains of Cairn races in England and India will go far to connect both
with the dispersion of the nomadic Aryan race, which is already esta-
64
blished by affinities of language. By an Indian newspaper of March 9th,
I observe that, at a meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bombay, on ~
14th February, 1867, Mr. Rivett Carnac brought to notice the results
of the examination of barrows, supposed to be Scythian, at the village of
Junapanee, near Nagpoor. Here pottery, spear and arrow heads, battle
axes, and, perhaps the most curious of all, a horse’s snaffle bit, and a
small model in iron of a Scythian bow and arrow were found. Two
pieces of curved iron, with loops at either end, were no doubt stirrup
irons. Mr. Carnac states that similar barrows exist in other localities
of Central India; and it is very satisfactory to know that the Antiqua-
rian Society of the Central Provinces is taking great interest in the
examination of these ancient remains.
XIII.—On tee Histotocy or tHe Test or tHe Crass PALLIoBRAN-
cHIATA. By Proressor W. Kine, QuzEn’s CottecEe, Gatway. [ Ab-
stract. |
[Read April 22, 1867. ]
Ir is well known that a ‘“‘canal system’ characterizes many Pallio-
branchs—the valves being perforated obliquely, or perpendicularly, to
their surfaces; and that, on dissolving the shell substance of the valves,
each perforation is found to enclose amembraneous or fleshy cylindrical
body, called a ‘‘ cxecal appendage.”’
In the present paper the valves are shown to be covered with a cel-
lular (‘‘ not a structureless’’) epidermis. Hitherto the perforations have
been represented as showing themselves on the surfaces of the valves
through openings in this covering; but such cannot be the case, inas-
much as the epidermis is absolutely imperforate and entire, like that of
ordinary Molluscs.
According to previous observers, the presumed openings in the epi-
dermis are each “closed in” by a ‘‘ membranous disc,” or ‘‘ discoi-
doidal operculum :” it so happens, however, that what have been taken
for bodies of the kind are the flattened extremities of the cecal appen-
dages (the former often broken off from the latter), lying against or ad-
hering to the under side of the epidermis.
Under a hand magnifier the outer surface of the valves appear to be
thickly studded with minute opaque spots. Examined with an ordinary
microscope, each spot is resolved into a brush-like bundle, composed of
short crowded lines, or rather tubules, radially arranged around a va-
cant centre. The tubules (which belong to, and penetrate, a thin cal-
careous layer, situated immediately beneath the epidermis) are confined
to the apical portion of the perforations.
When a fragment of terebratula shell is dissolved, the flattened ex-
tremity of the cxcal appendages is found to be encircled with slender
membraneous filaments diverging outwardly. The filaments are sup-
posed by most observers to be “‘ cilia,’ which served the purpose of
driving currents of water through the perforations or cecal appendages.
65
Professor King contends that, what whatever office the filaments may
subserve, the cireumstances under which they occur are obviously in-
compatible with their supposed ciliary function; and in his opinion the
evidence he has adduced shows that they are the ultimate subdivisions of
eeecal appendages.
The perforations themselves, or rather their trunks, are generally
simple; but in Zerebratulina caput-serpentis, hitherto stated to have
them of the usual form, they are singularly branched, or antler-
shaped.
Although something has long been known of the branching cha-
racter which distinguishes the canal system of Crania anomala, addi-
tienal information on this point is given in the paper. Each trunk is
at first divided somewhat as in Zerebratulina caput-serpentis ; but the
branches, instead of ending each ina brush-like bundle, are individually
terminated with a tuft of branchlets, sub-radially disposed. ‘The
former, as commonly seen, no doubt differs considerably from the latter:
this is not so, however, when the respective bundles of various species
are examined with powers magnifying from 150 to 300 diameters :—
for example, in Terebratula vitrea the radiating lines or tubules, besides
seemingly branching, shoot right across the comparatively wide inter-
spaces, thereby causing the bundles to resemble long-spined acari, and
to assume a feature which shows that there is nothing real or absolute
in the difference above alluded to.
As the branchlet-tufts of Crania anomala are obviously the ultimate
subdivisions of the perforations, the same conclusion may be predicated
of the brush-lke bundles belonging to the so-ealled “ ciliated discoidal
opercula’’ of other Palliobranchs: in short, according to Professor King,
both are strictly homologous structures.
The paper notices some other points, which, along with those just
stated, show that, although much has been published on the history
of the Palliobranchiata, the subject has been far from exhausted.
XTV.—Ow Anmat Hear. By W. H. O'Leary, Ese. [ Abstract. ]
[Read May 13, 1867.]
THERE are, broadly speaking, three great sources whence we derive
materials which, by being oxidized, produce Animal Heat :—
First. Calorifacient foods, fats, &c., ingested by the intestinal
canal ;
Second. Disintegrated material derived from muscular and other
tissues, as a result of activity ;
Third. Reserved calorifacient materials stored up in the hving
system—namely adipose, &e.
The result of a number of experiments detailed in this paper (some
of which I would wish to repeat in order to verify the results), tend to
conclusively prove that the production of Animal Heat by oxidation of
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. K
se,
ee ee a eee
66
the above materials, is accomplished in the circulation, and not in the
tissues ; that it is chiefly produced in the arterial system, and com-
mences from the moment oxygen is received in the lungs, such action
continuing throughout its whole extent; that such action takes place
also in the veins, but toa much less degree; that the heat necessary to
maintain muscular and other tissues at the normal temperature is de-
rived from the arterial blood passing through them, and not from any
oxidation taking place in their proper tissues; and that such tempera-
ture of individual parts bears a direct ratio to the diameter, or sum of
the diameters, of such arteries.
The means by which the materials, derived from the three separate
sources alluded to above gain access to the circulation, I shall consider
under three separate heads :-—
First. Ingested fatty foods are delivered into the circulation through
the thoracic duct, before reaching the termination of which they have
much diminished, the white nucleated cells having absorbed them to a
corresponding extent, carrying them into the circulation in an altered
condition.
Second. For the removal of the debris of the tissues—such as active
muscular tissue, &c., into the circulation—lI attribute to the white cells
in the capillaries (whose office has been a rather fertile source of specu-
lation), the fulfilment of that important function.
Third. Such calorifacient materials as exist free in the circulation,
whether derived from the ingested food, or stored up adipose tissue—
as when the system is labouring under a deficiency of food—the white
nucleated cells absorb them into their interior for calorifying pur-
oses.
In fulfilling this secretive function they are converted into the fully
formed red cells of the blood, which thereby become the active calori-
fying agents of the system—the laboratories, in fact, within which
oxidation is rapidly effected, producing asa result carbonic acid, water,
and various eliminative compounds, and the evolution of Animal Heat.
A portion of the oxygen of the red cell substitutes the iron of the
hematine; the iron thus set free acts as the exciting or catalytic cause
of union between the remaining free oxygen and such elements of the
blood cell as, by oxidation, produce Animal Heat.
XV.—On THE OricIn oF THE SoutH KvrRopran Plants FOUND GROW-
ING IN THE West AND SoutH oF [Retanp. By Prorussor HeEn-
nessy, F.R.S. [ Abstract. ]
[Read May 27, 1867.]
Tuer author accounted for the circumstance that he brought this subject
under the notice of the Academy by the fact, that although he had no
pretensions as a botanist, his inquiries regarding the climatology of the
67
British Islands, and of Ireland especially, had induced him to examine
into the influence exercised by climate on vital phenomena. In 1860*
he had already called attention to the relations between the peculhar dis-
tribution of the Flora in the western districts of Ireland and the po-
sition of the isothermal lines in the Map which he had previously
published.t These relations have been pointed out more recently, and
with more precision, in the Map appended toa paper by Dr. David
Moore, and Mr. A. G. More, ‘‘ On the Climate, Flora, and Crops of Ire-
land,”’ in the Report of the International Horticultural Exhibition and
Botanical Congress, held in London, during May, 1866. The author
briefly presented geological and geographical grounds for rejecting the
hypothesis of the late eminent naturalist, Professor E. Forbes, and he
also adduced similar criticisms from other inquirers.t
The author next presented a summary of all the South European
Plants found in the West and South-West of Ireland, specifying mi-
nutely their localities both in Ireland and on the Continent. The
former are limited to two districts of comparatively moderate extent—
namely, first among the western baronies of the counties of Galway and
Mayo; and, secondly, the greater part of Kerry, together with the
South-Western extremity of Cork. The nearest part of the Continent
where the plants in question are found is, as already remarked by
Forbes, the northern part of Spain, and especially the province of Astu-
rias. The author calls these Plants, for brevity, the Asturian Flora;
and the two districts where they are found in Ireland, the West Astu-
rian and South-West Asturian districts, respectively. It has been ad-
mitted by Forbes, that there does not seem to be evidence of any local
assemblage of animals in these districts corresponding to the Asturian
Flora, and the inquiry is therefore entirely limited to discover the origin
of the Plants. The physical conditions accompanying the growth of the
Asturian Flora, both in Spain and in Ireland, are fully discussed. The
climate of the province of Asturias is characterized by great moisture
and a mild winter temperature; thus, at Oviedo, which is about the
centre of the province, the mean annual fall of rain is nearly 75 inches,
and the wettest months are April and May. The mean annual tempe-
raturess 55°. 4 F.; the mean winter temperature, from 45°. 4; the mean
summer temperature is 65°.2; the mean yearly maximum is 88°, the
mean yearly minimum from 31° to 34°.
The prevalent geological formations are stated to be Devonian and
Silurian, and the soil is said to be generally retentive of moisture. A1-
though the geology of the other provinces in the North of Spain is in
some respects essentially different, there are good grounds for believing
* “Transactions of the National Association for Promoting Social Science,” 1860,
p. 733.
+ ‘ Atlantis,’’ vol.i., p. 396.
t See ‘‘ D’Archiac Hist. des Progres de la Geologie, publiée par la Société Geolo-
gigque de France sous les Auspices du Ministre de 1’Instruction publique,” vol. ii., pp. 128=
137; also Darwin’s ‘‘ Origin of Species,” p. 354.
Oe ee Ne NT 8 Se Fete
ae a ae a
eae ae a oe
ee OO ae
PS ner ee
68
that their climate is similar to that of the Asturias. When we turn to
the Asturian districts of Ireland, we find more features of geological and
physical resemblance to the North of Spain than in any other districts
of equal area in Ireland. The influence of climate, which seems of pa-
ramount importance in relation to Plants, is very remarkable in the Irish
Asturian districts. The author illustrated his views by reference to a
Map on which were projected the isothermal lines of mean annual and
mean winter temperature for Ireland. These lines were drawn by the
aid of observations made at some new stations, in addition to those on
which he had to rely when projecting the isothermals already published.
Among these stations he especially referred to Galway, from its posi-
tion in the West Asturian district. From the Map, it appears that the
greater part of the areas of both of the Asturian districts he between
the annual isothermals of 52° and 51°, and between the winter isother-
mals of 45° and 44°. These are the lines of highest temperature in
freland, and the winter lines correspond almost identically with those
belonging to the middle of the province of Asturias itself. On the other
hand, the summer temperature of the Irish Asturian districts is from
57°. 5 to 59°. 3 respectively, and therefore from 6° to 8° lower than that
of the North of Spain; whence it follows, that, if Plants were intro-
duced into an Asturian district from Spain, some of which required a
warm summer, while others required only a mild winter, the former
would die, while the latter might survive, and even spread over exten-
sive areas. The condition of great summer warmth seems to be espe-
cially required for annuals belonging to southern climes, as the ripening
of the seeds would be inevitably checked by a single cold and wet sum-
mer. The growth of perennials appears to depend principally on the
condition of winter temperature, as these Plants may spread by roots
and suckers. After referring to the generally admitted fact of the
moisture of the climate of Ireland, the author concludes, from observa-
tions made at Galway, Innishgort, in Clew Bay, and Lough Corrib, that
the annual rainfall in the West Asturian district must at least exceed
fifty inches; while observations made at Valentia, Killarney, Cahir-
civeen, and Castletownsend show that the fall is probably still greater
in the South-West district.
Corresponding conditions exist with regard to the relative hu-
midity of the air. If, as before supposed, different varieties of Plants
from a southern clime were by accident introduced into our Asturian
districts, for some of which moisture was more favourable than to
others, the former would have a far greater chance of becoming widely
spread, while the growth of the latter might be checked instead of being
promoted.
The influence of cultivation in promoting or checking the introduc-
tion of wild Plants into the Asturian districts was next discussed.. It
appears from returns furnished to the Registrar-General of Ireland dur-
ing five years, that the greatest proportion of weedy ground was ob-
served in the Asturian districts; and from returns made during several
years of the relative areas under tillage, pasturage, and in a totally un-
q
'
¢
69
cultivated condition, that the Asturian districts were the lowest in ge-
neral cultivation among districts of equal extent.
Although annuals and the class of weeds generally accompanying
erops are at first favoured by culture, which opens the soil for their pro-
pagation, it seems that the tranquil development of perennial wild
Plants takes place most completely where culture is imperfect, or en-
tirely suspended : whence it follows, that, if any perennial wild Plants
suited by their habits to the Asturian district happened to be introduced
into them, their chance of existing and spreading would be greater than in
other districts of Ireland. In addition to the evidence furnished by the re-
turns of the Registrar-General, the author referred to the writings of
Arthur Young, and to the Agricultural Surveys of the Counties of Ireland,
in order to show that the same relative condition of the Asturian districts
with reference to cultivation had been in existence as long as the sub-
ject had attracted any notice. It was shown by numerous references,
that a great many well-authenticated instances of the introduction of
Plants through commercial and general intercourse have greatly
changed the Flora of different countries. These changes were often ef-
fected within a comparatively short period of time, and they were more
or less complete in proportion to the more or less favourableness of the
climatic condition of the new stations of the introduced: Plants. After
fully discussing these results, the author puts forward his views in the
following propositions :—
During two periods of prolonged and intimate intercourse between
the northern coast of Spain and the whole of Ireland, the conditions for
bringing the seeds of various Plants into the latter country from the former
probably existed; and during the more recent of these periods, the exist-
ence of such trading and fishing intercourse between Spain and the Astu-
rian districts of Ireland is so well established, and was of such a kind as to
render the introduction of accidental seeds almost certain. Such seeds
as required a warmer climate than that of Ireland for their germination
necessarily failed, while those which were suited to the physical condi-
tions into which they were thrown became naturalized. The winter
isothermals, and the correspouding distribution of minimum temperature,
confined the range of these Plants to the two narrow littoral districts where
they are found. ‘The cold and wet summers which often exist in Ire-
land would speedily destroy such annuals as happened to be introduced
from the warmer summer climate of the North of Spain; but a few of
the perennials might still continue to exist, owing to the favourable con-
ditions of winter temperature in the West of Ireland.
The author briefly discussed the grounds which we possess for be-
lieving in a former intercourse between Spain and Ireland at a very re-
mote epoch; and he examines, with great minuteness and detail, the
evidence of such intercourse during a more modern period. It appears
that from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, inclusive, the West
and South-West of Ireland were in close communication with the ports
of Biscay and the Asturias. Local histories and traditions, popular
poetry, and unpublished documents were referred to in support of this
le tet at te a a ae .
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;
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70
conclusion; and it appears that many of the stations of the Asturian |
Flora, where plants are actually found, were also trading or fishing sta-
tions of Asturian or Biscayan mariners. It is also remarkable, that
one of the Plants of the Asturian Flora has been observed in other parts of
Northern Europe—namely, Belgium and the islands off the coast of Fries-
land, districts where the Spaniards had considerable intercourse before the
Netherlands had finally achieved their independence. The winter cli-
mate of the Netherlands was probably not sufficiently favourable to the
development of the other Plants belonging to’the Asturian Flora, and
these are therefore confined only to those parts of Ireland where all the
physical and social causes favouring their growth have long existed in a
sufficiently high degree of intensity.
XVI.—NoTE on THE IRISH GLOSSES RECENTLY FOUND IN THE LIBRARY
oF Nancy. By Henri Garpoz.
[Read June 10, 1867.]
THeEre have been recently found some old-Irish Glosses, written on the
inside of the cover of a Manuscript, in the Library of Nancy. M.
D’ Arbois de Jubainville, the scholar by whom they were discovered, has
published them in the ‘‘ Bibliotheque de l’Ecole des Chartes,’”’ of June,
1866. This eminent French paleographer considers that they are of
the ninth century. It is impossible to say from what volume was taken
so small a piece of parchment, which was judged of so little importance
as to be used in the binding of another manuscript. We may suppose,
however, that this leaf came either from Luxeuil in the Vosges,
or from one of the numerous monasteries to which religion and learning
were brought from the Isle of the Saints.
These Glosses, unfortunately few in number, belong to a treatise on
the computus (1. e., Chronological Rules—-vid. Ducange). M. D’ Arbois
de Jubainville has only printed them. I shall try to translate them as
far as I am able.
The first is: dotds evdlae saecht fora mbt Kl. Jan. Dotos is certainly
an abbreviation for dotoscelad, which was found in a similar formula
by Zeuss: dothoscelad ais ésci bis for kl. cach mis (‘* Grammatica
Celtica,’’ p. 1074). I assume this foscelad to be the same as the modern
taisceallad. Cid is the interrogative pronoun, of which many instances
are given by Zeuss (p. 861). Lae is an old nominative of Ja, day. Ac-
cording to Pictet, this word is found in none of the Indo-European lan-
guages, With the exception of the Laghmani language of Cabul, which
furnishes us with daé, day (‘‘ Origines Indo-Europzeennes,”’ II. p. 588, 7.)
I suppose that in the MS. there was a stroke on the ¢ of saecht, as on
the secht of the fifth gloss. It is for saechtmaine or sechtmaine (cf.
Zeuss, p. 280.) Sechtmaine is, according to Ebel (‘ Beitraege zur
vergleichenden Sprachforschung,” IV., p. 378), the genitive of an
71
hypothetic sechtman, ‘‘ week.” or is the old-Irish preposition mean-
ing ‘“‘above.’’ Am is the relative pronoun an, which becomes am be-
fore 6 (cf. Zeuss. p. 848), and which is supposed by Cuno (Beitr. z.
vel. Spr. IV., p. 228) to be acorruption of sam. Cf. for-sam-bz, ‘‘ super
quod est,’’ in Zeuss, p. 970. 2 is the 8rd p.s. of the verb substan-
tive (cf. Zeuss, p. 479).
I propose to read: do toscelad cid lae saechtmaine, for am bi Calendae
Januarw, ‘ to ascertain what [is the | day of the week on which are the
calends of January.”
In the second gloss: dotés cidaes nercat biss for Kl. Jan., aes or ais
is, according to Ebel (‘‘ Beitr. z. vgl. Sprach.”’ I., p. 159), connected with
the Sancrit dyus, ‘‘ aetas.”” Nercat is probably misread for nescaz, and
must be divided n-escat. This old-Irish word for ‘‘ moon” is found in
Zeuss (p. 247 and 1074), in the Irish Glosses published by Whitley
Stokes, and in middle-Irish, although it is extinct now. vss is what
Zeuss calls the relative form of the verb substantive (p. 487). There-
fore I read, do toscelad cid aes n-escar biss for Calendas Januaru, ‘ to
ascertain what age of the moon is on the calends of January.”
The third Gloss is—dotds aepecht for Kl. xi. mens, which I trans-
late, ‘‘ to ascertain the epact on the calends of the twelve months.”
The fourth Gloss is—dotés aissescat for xi. K1. ap. tribli inchol.
Tri is au old Irish preposition (cf. Zeuss, p. 610) connected with the
Latin trans. 6/7 1s an abbreviation for bliadan, acc. of the subst. fem.
bliadan, ‘‘ year.”? I suppose that zxchol is an abbreviation for én chol-
migtho, gen. sing. of colnigud, ‘‘ Incarnation” (cf. Zeuss, p. 255), all the
more that in the Latin text which accompanies the first gloss we have
the words ‘‘ab incarnatione.” I read therefore: do toscelad aiss escae
for undecomum diem Calendarum Aprilis tri bliadan in cholnigtho—“ to
ascertain the age of the moon on the 11th day of the calends of April,
through the year of the Incarnation.”
Some word is wanting in the fifth Gloss—dotos laisecht forambi . . .
xii. men.——t. . do toscelad lar sechtmaine for am bt... ‘* to ascertain the
day of the week on which is... .”
In the sixth gloss we find the same forms again—dotés aisescat
super «it. Ki men—<‘ to ascertain the age of the moon....”
The only value of these Glosses is to furnish some examples of old-
Irish forms. It is to be hoped that these Glosses will not be the last
found in the Continental libraries. Irish monks were so numerous on
the Continent, ten centuries ago, that they must have left more traces
of their diligence and of their learning than Celtic scholars have been able
to find up to this time.
ca
;
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oa Rae
eh An Sheela teen tain Sr TS ye
Qanas tae
Fat it sf
rT D> . eee,
ee aa
——
72
XVITI.—An Account oF A SOUTERRAIN DISCOVERED AT CURRAGHELY, NEAR
Kriicrea, Co. Corx. By R. B. Brasu, M.R.I. A. [ Abstract. ]
[Read June 24, 1867. ]
On Saturday, May 18, as Mr. Daniel Kane, farmer, residing on the
townland of Curraghely, parish of Aglsh, and county of Cork, was
earthing potatoes in a field adjoining his house, his spade struck a flag-
stone, which, emitting a hollow sound, roused his curiosity. Having
cleared the ground round it, he found it to be a flat slab, of about three
feet, by two feet six inches; and, having raised it, he discovered a small
well hole, of about five feet in depth, but partially filled with earth and
débris ; on clearing out this, he discovered a human skull, in an ad:
vanced stage of decomposition. In the side of this pit was found an
irregular circular passage, of about two feet in diameter, and three feet
in length, leading into a series of caves, excavated out of the Old Red
Sandstone rock, of which this ridge of hills is composed. These were
examined by the farmer and his men, with the expectation of finding
treasure; but, from all the inquiries I have made, I am of opinion that
no ornaments or implements of any metallic or other substance were
found.
A few days after the opening of these caves the fact was communi-
cated to Mr. Robert Day, of Cork, an indefatigable collector of Irish
antiquities, who visited the spot, and made a careful examination. A
few days subsequently, the same gentleman, accompanied by Dr.
Caulfield, F. S. A., and Mr. Thomas Wright, F. G. 8, paid them
another visit, the result of which was published in the ‘‘ Cork Con-
stitution.”’ Nothing, however, was found, excepting some portions
of bone, horse teeth, and charcoal. On the first of June I visited the caves,
which I found situated in an open field, on the summit of a hill, about
two miles north-west of the Kilcrea station of the Cork and Macroom
Railway. I fortunately met the occupier of the land on the spot, who
kindly assisted me in my examinations, and gave me every information
respecting their discovery ; having also with me one of my office assis-
tants, and lights, I was enabled, though not without some difficulty, to
get a plan and measurements of the excavations, which I now submit
for the inspection of the Academy. By an examination of the plan it
will be seen that the whole series of chambers are quite irregular and
without order, no two being of the same form or dimensions. The
well hole at the mouth of the entrance on my visit was broken down,
and without shape, from the number of persons who had visited it.
The entrance faces nearly east, and is a circular hole of twenty inches
diameter, and three feet in length, through which you force yourself
into the chamber marked No.1, which is in length fifteen feet, the
width four feet seven inches, and height four feet, as shown by a cross
section, taken on the line ¢, u, which shows the form of the cave, with
its irregularly arched ceiling. This chamber, as well as the cther cham-
73
bers and passages, is excavated out of the Old Red Sandstone, and
being cut in the top of the rock, the material is of slaty texture, and
consequently the interior surfaces are rough and irregular, and in some
places soft and crumbling. The passage marked 5 leads into chamber
No. 2. This passage is nine feet in length, and two feet in diameter.
The chamber No. 2 is of very irregular shape: its breadth, as
shown on section line £, F, 1s four feet six inches, and height five feet.
There is a recess, or side chamber, to the right, the extremity of which
is closed up with earth and stones, where shown by the dark shading.
Whether this closes a chamber beyond we had no mode of ascertaining.
The passage No. 6 is five feet in length, and two feet in diameter at one
end, and eighteen inches at the other; it leads inte chamber No. 3, also
of irregular form and dimensions; on the section line ¢, p, it is four feet
wide, and four feet three inches high; it diminishes to a narrow passage,
marked 7 on plan, which at its narrowest part is only sixteen inches
wide, and can with difficulty be passed. Chamber No. 3 has also one
of the side recesses, as in No. 2. Chamber No. 4 is, as will be seen, of
a crescent shape; on the section line 4, B, itis four feet wide, and three
feet six inches high; on the right-hand side is also one of the before-
named recesses, but deeper and more spacious; in its arched roof is a
flue, or air shaft, nine inches square, and running to the surface in an
oblique direction. This chamber also terminates in another narrow
passage, eighteen inches in diameter, outside of which a pit has been
sunk by Mr. Kane, so that a person can pass through all the chambers
without being obliged to return.
The plan being laid down to scale, the dimensions of any part can
be ascertained.
It will be seen by the sections that all the chambers are of an irre-
gularly arched form: the recessed parts are also arched; and the
intersections form rude groims. The floors are strewed with many
large flat stones; and a quantity of hard vitrified material—in fact,
regular clinkers—were found; as also many half calcined pieces of
limestone, or what is known as the core of badly burned lime. The
difficulty in an archzological point of view is the appropriation of
this singular excavation, which is evidently not eonsiructed upon any
regular plan.
- Being aware that most of our forts have eatiaell erypts beneath
them, I made most diligent inquiry as to whether one existed on the
site of the caves; but the universal answer was, that neither in me-
mory nor tradition was a fort ever known there. I also examined
the ground most carefully, but could not find in its configuration any
evidence of such. A couple of hundred yards distant I found a fort cut
through by a very ancient mountain road. Is it possible that two ex-
isted in such close proximity ?
The gentlemen who preceded me in the ecninaied of these caves
appeared very doubtful as to the finding of the skull. 1 questioned
Mr. Kane and two of his labourers very closely on the subject, and
B. 1. A. PROC.—VOL. X. aa
a eee ae a ee ee era ee ee ee
74.
they all declared that a human skull was found; that they had it in
their hands; that it was in a very decayed state; that it was handled ©
by such a number of the peasantry, and so knocked about, that it
went to pieces before it had been seen by any reliable person: these
men had evidently no object in stating an untruth, and they spoke with
every appearance of honest veracity.
The finding of the clinkers and limestone cores may at first sight
seem to indicate a modern date for these excavations; but we should
be slow to accept such as evidence. Lime, for some considerable time
back, has been the plentiful and common manure of the country ; andit
is quite usual to see the clinkers intermixed with the lime spread out
on the fields. I am confident that Mr. Kane’s discovery was not the
first: doubtless the caves had been broken into on previous occa-
sions; and the above materials had found their way in, being found
plentifully intermixed with the soil. What, then, the uses of these
caves were, and by whom excavated, will in all probability remain a
mystery; the labour of excavating them in the rock, and the removing
of the debris through passages that a slight man could scarcely drag him-
self through, must have been immense; the motive for doing so must
have been strong indeed. ‘The darkness and closeness of these caves,
and the difficult communications from one to the other, preclude at
once the idea of their ever having been habitations. The same objec-
tions will arise to the theory of their having been granaries or store-
houses; men would not have devised such tortuous chambers, and so
difficult of access, for such a purpose, when they could have constructed
one simple receptacle of more capacity than all these put together. I
am more inclined to the opinion that they were sepulchral. Some
strange and universal belief respecting the bestowal of the dead existed
in remote ages; it led to the construction of the Pyramids, those mon-
strous erections, that covered very small sepulchral chambers, entered by
narrow and difficult passages. It led to the construction of the strange
cemeteries of Etruria, whose intricate galleries, and narrow and difficult
passages, as depicted by Dennis (‘‘ Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria’’),
bear a startling resemblance to the Souterrains of our own country.
Again, could they have been used for strange and mysterious rites of
initiation ? Such were common amongst those Eastern races with whom
the Irish Celt claims affinity. These rites—if we are to believe classic
authorities—were always administered in caves, and the relics of them
have come down to nearly our own day in the ordeals of St. Patrick’s
Purgatory, and the Scellig pilgrimages. I am not here advancing any
theory. In our present stage of limited knowledge it would be prema-
ture; Iam merely throwing out hints that may be kept in view, and
pondered over, and which may be found useful in analyzing new
discoveries.
79
XVITI.--On somz Retarionsuies oF InFLorEscENcES. By G.SIGERSON,
M. D., Cu. M., F.L.8. [Abstract. ]
[Read June 10, 1867.] |
16
Tue relationship which exists between the inflorescences of plants is a
subject of not a little importance, for several reasons, and yet it is one
which has not hitherto received much attention from scientific botanists.
As helping to throw light upon obscure affinities of orders, and as
symptomatic of the position and subordination of plants and divisions, it
appears to merit more consideration than it yet has received, and on
this account I have ventured to put together some suggestions on the
subject. These remarks, however, must be regarded as merely an out-
line or an abstract, more or less imperfect, of that mode of dealing with
the question which has appeared to give the surest clue to some of its
intricacies.
Heretofore, observers appear to have taken the capitulum as their start-
ing point in dealing with some relationships which are not obscurely ap-
parent, as wellas with afew other quasi-relationships, the correctness of
which does not seem clear and evident. In the capitulum the florets are
sessile. If we suppose them elevated upon footstalks, it has been said,
an umbel will be the result. Again, if the receptacle of the capitulum
be supposed sufficiently elongated, we shall have the spike produced as
a consequence; and from the spike, by the development of the flower
stalks, the raceme may be supposed to be formed. If, however, the
inferior peduncles be prolonged to a greater extent than the upper
ones, then we shall have the corymb; whilst, supposing the peduncles
to branch, the panicle becomes evident asa result of the ramification of
this form.
To this it has been added, that the cone is a modification of the
spike, the rachis in -this instance bearing persistent scales; and the
spadix is said to result from the rachis of the spike becoming fleshy,
and bearing the flowers more or less imbedded in it.
Whilst many of the above relationships appear to be natural enough,
there are some, especially the latter suppositions, which cannot well be
regarded as unexceptionable. There is no particular order of subordi-
nation marked out ; whilst, in assuming the capitulum as asort of start-
ing point or centre, whence the several inflorescences are supposed to
have radiated, we must ignore those forms which preceded it, and
consequently neglect many relationships by which they are allied with
higher forms.
After a careful analysis of the lower forms of inflorescence
amongst Phanerogamia, from which many of the more complex forms
may be deduced, it appeared to me necessary to revert to cryptogamic
- —-——-. «
A eft ae A
76
plants, in order to ascertain their antecedents. These two sub-
kingdoms have been popularly regarded as so essentially separated —
and distinct, that an apology for so doing might be by some con-
sidered necessary. But with the advance of the science, and the greater
knowledge possessed of the inferior section, so many close affinities
have been traced, and so many ties of relationship made evident,
that a reference to new points of likeness cannot well be regarded
as intrinsically erroneous, or out of the line of progress. The object
of the present paper being chiefly to endeavour to clear up some of the
relationships of the inflorescences among phanerogamous plants, and
settle their subordination, those of the Cryptogamia are but incidentally
alluded to, and only in so far as they may contribute to make these
relationships more evident, and tend to illustrate their natural sequence.
On referring, then, to the manner in which the reproductive
organus.are borne in the Fucacese, we find that here they are gathered
together into cavities or conceptacles, which are collected into heads
or receptacles at the extremity of fronds. The conceptacle communi-
cates with the external medium by an opening or pore. ‘The central
portion or axis of the receptacle is frequently formed of mucus and
long-jointed cells; but occasionally, however, as in Pycnophycus tu-
berculatus, the interior is more solid, and is occupied by a denser
cellular tissue, which may be taken as representing the pith of
higher plants. Some of the Fucacese are dicecious, others diclinous,
anda like arrangement occurs not unfrequently among the lower Pha-
nerogamia.
On examining one of these conceptacles, it is seen that the re-
productive organs within it arise from the walls or parietes, and
that it contains besides a number of filaments or paraphyses, which
in the female conceptacles surround the spores. The filaments are
not always sterile. Occasionally they form antheridia, and these may
be in separate conceptacles, or in the same. Whilst the antheridia,
therefore, are analogous to the stamens, the filaments may be re-
garded as analogous to the staminodes, or the filaments of stamens,
when barren, and consequently to the floral envelopes, however
great the apparent difference, because the stamens are admittedly
capable of being transmuted into such appendages. In certain Pha-
nerogamous plants, indeed, the limb of the floral organs is so much
depauperated as to make the difference seem much less; thus occasion-
ally the calyx is represented merely by a circle of hairs, which bear a
close morphological resemblance to the filaments alluded to. The floral
envelopes of Phanerogamia may therefore be regarded as represented
in an extremely rudimentary state* in the conceptacles of Fucacez.
* As the floral envelopes may pass into bracts, and even into leaves, it may possibly
happen that hereafter botanists, in pushing forward the theory of development, will come
to regard the cryptomatic frond, bearing within it means of reproduction and rudi-
mentary floral envelopes and leaves, as represented by the cotyledonous growth of higher
plants, which enclose the possible plant, with its higher organs, floral envelopes, and
vty
In mosses, the paraphyses, which generally accompany the an-
theridia, at once suggest the usual position of the floral envelopes with
regard to the stamens, and represent them.
In certain of the Rhizogene the seeds are imbedded in filaments or
setee, which may be likened to these paraphyses. Here, indeed, my
views are fortified by the observation of Mr. Griffith, who remarked
that the hairs in which the fruit were imbedded in the genus
Pheocordylis present a striking analogy to the paraphyses of Drepano-
phyllum and certain Neckeree, and also with the antheridia of ferns.
Bearing these things in mind, and recollecting that the tendency
of development is generally to division, and advance from simple forms
to complex, might not even the pericheetial leaves of mosses be regarded
as representative of the parietes of a conceptacle fissured and divided
into parts ?
II.
Suppose, now, that we take the receptacle of a Fucus, which con-
sists of numerous conceptacles, and imagine that this tendency to di-
vision has caused the pores to be extended and united to each other
by lines of suture (as in figure 2), the form which we then obtain will
be found to be an antetype of the strobilus or cone. It is hardly neces-
sary to indicate how strictly the analogy can be carried out, or do more
than remark that the reproductive organs are situated in a similar way
in both forms. They are enclosed in peculiar processes, and these in the
young cone are in close approximation, so as to leave merely the sutural
lines evident ; but, as they develope, they divide, and, separating when
they grow older, leave the resemblance naturally less evident.
The development of sutures isolates the processes of the axis; and ob-
servers who looked at them superficially, and out of this connexion, have
been tempted to call their further removed forms ‘‘ scales,” and to regard
them as modified leaves. It might be urged that analogous processes
are present in Equisetaceee, which show branches rather then leaves
as appendages ; and, perhaps, the generally unbranched condition of the
fertile stems, as compared with the barren ones, might be partially ac-
counted for by accepting these processes in the cone as a cluster
of transformed branches.
It is of the essential character of these axial processes that in some
way they shall bear the organs of reproduction, whether as in Fucacee
leaves. In the lower section, that which represents the cotyledon, 7.¢. the frond, is the part
most developed, whilst the other is rudimentary ; in the superior section the frond is seen
reduced to a minimum in the cotyledor, sufficient simply to assist the organism in its first
stage, whilst the more highly organized portion here is more highly developed. Thus a
possible mode of development or passage from the Cryptogamia into Phanerogamia might
be obtained, which would account, without violent and unnatural changes of plan, for the
geological revelations of plant growth, and which would likewise account for the apparent
absence in Cryptogamia of cotyledons (the frond actually serving as such), and for their
presence in Phanerogamia, where they still remain as relics of the frond, and as indica-
tions of an anterior stage of growth.
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Fi RTL OS eg se EE KE
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78
they be united so as to form cups or conceptacles, or separated by
fissures so as to be more or less isolated. These organs may be borne -
all over the parietes, as in the Fucaceee—within the rim of the isolated
peltate process, as in Equisetacee—on the upper surface of the process
near the axis in some Pinacese, or beneath, as in the peltate scale of
Cycadacese, or on the sides, as in their leaf-like processes. Then the
anthers are on the under surface of certain male cone scales; and
beneath, likewise, in the peltate male scales of the Taxacee. Thus,
whilst in Fucaces they are borne all over the parietes, their arrangement
in higher plants shows that there is no part of the parietes of the
isolated processes on which they may not likewise be found.
The so-called ‘‘ scales” therefore are, in point of fact, essentially
reproductive organ bearers, and hence should properly be regarded as
peduncles. Peduncles, it is admitted, are not unfrequently various in
form; they are not always stalk-like and round, but are occasionally
flattened and fasciated. ;
in certain plants, such as Ruscus aculeatus, they even assume the
appearance of leaves ; and, when this is seen to be the case, there is no
reason forfeeling a difficulty, when in cones the processes become flattened
and scale-like.
Taking these things into consideration, it is impossible to agree with
Dr. Lindley, when he contends that cone scales are metamorphosed
leaves. Whilst they differ from true leaves in function, in form, and
in structure, they differ also in occasionally arising, as in Prnus silves-
tris, from the axils of degraded or rudimentary leaves. This is what
occurs likewise in the case of &. aculeatus ; and, whilst Dr. Lindley
argues that leaves may arise in the axils of leaves, it cannot be denied
that it is not what usually happens. Schleiden, indeed, in putting for-
ward the view that these peduncle processes of the cone were axillary
buds of carpellary scales, broadly stated that foliwm in axillé folia would
be without example in the vegetable world.
Accepting the cone as a form of inflorescence composed of a number of
peduneles arranged in a peculiar manner, and remembering the tendency
to separation of parts in development, certain forms will be seen to fallin
easily as more highly modified forms of this. For instance, we may place
here, in relationship to it, the superficially dissimilar, but really analo-
gous, many-branched spadix of Palmacee ; and, in fact, if we look at a
compound fruit of one of the Pandanacez, where the flowers are borne on
a spadix, we discover (as in Preycinetia imbricata) a superficially striking
resemblance to the strobilus, arisimg from the manner in which the
peduncles are arranged.
iN
For a better understanding of the author’s views, reference is re-
quested to the accompanying illustrations. .
In Fig. 1, Plate I., the receptacle of a Fucus is represented in ver-
tical section. The reproductive organs are contained in the conceptacles,
which, communicating outwards by pores, give the margin an indented
|
9
appearance. Looking at this receptacle from another point of view, we
shall find it to be composed of a central axis, which divides out into
short processes that bear the reproductive organs. This is their essential
function in common with that portion of the axis included between their
bases. These axial processes in the present instance are not isolated,
but united together ; so that, looked at from without, only an oval body,
pierced with pores, is observed.
Development, however, is accompanied by the division and separa-
tion of parts. This we may suppose to happen here by the gradual
isolation of the axial processes already mentioned. The united exterior
of the receptacle is split up by fissures, running from pore to pore, as
imagined in Fig. 2; and we have then the axial processes isolated from
each other and distinct. What was essential with them—the bearing
of the reproductive organs—remains constant ; though these, instead of
being spread over the whole interior surface, may be restricted to par-
ticular parts.
The division and isolation spoken of do not take place in the Fucacee.
We must look for it in a higher order, and shall readily discover it
in the strobilus of the Equisetaceew. In Fig. 3 we have a vertical
section of this cone. Considered in this light, its affinities with the re-
ceptacle of the Fucus become obvious, and scarcely require to be pointed
out. Everything remains the same, except that the spores are not dis-
persed over the whole interior of a conceptacle, but restricted to the
inner rim of the peltate head of the axial process. Of course, as these
processes are isolated, a view of the exterior of the perfect cone does
not show pores, but fissures. In point of fact, it is identical with the
fissured receptacle as imagined in Fig. 2.
Having arrived at this stage, the next modifications are accomplished
by simple changes in the axial processes, taken by themselves, or with
regard to the axis. In the first instance, the receptacle is wholly cel-
lular, as is the plant which bears it. Some difference has been observed
between the laxer cell tissue of the centre and the denser parenchyma
which surrounds it. In more highly organized plants a similar rela-
tionship is preserved between the axial and the peripherical tissues.
Passing from the preceding examples to Figs. 4 and 5, we come
to explicable developments of those forms in the higher order of
the Pmaceze. In the first-named figure we have a vertical section of
a galbulus (of Cupressus sempervirens); in the second, a similar sec-
tion of the strobilus or cone (of Pinus sylvestris). Inthe galbulus the
axial processes are not so remote in form from what we have seen them
in the cone of Equisetum as not to allow of the relationship being re-
cognised without difficulty. Here also they are peltate; and the only
remarkable difference is, that the ovules are not borne exactly in the
same spot as the spores, but a little removed from it. ‘This, however,
was mentioned as to be expected.* In the Pine cone (Fig. 5) the axial
* These female cones are strictly analogous to the ovaries of Angiospermia, being in
fact ovaries. Considering them as such, it is interesting to note that the diverse distri-
80
processes have become more elongated, but they still have something in
their thickened extremities to remind us of the more primitive forms.
This is lost or modified in other members of the same family.
Recollecting that these axial processes are peduncles, we may dis-
cover them in Angiospermia, under various modifications. For instance,
in Fig. 6, we have a fruit which bears an external resemblance to a
cone, in consequence of the axial processes coming off in a somewhat
similar manner. This is the fruit of Preycinetia imbricata, one of the
Pandanacez, or Screw Pines. Isolation and separation of parts pro-
ceeding still, we shall have the branched spadix of Palms as a resulting
form, the spathe perhaps standing for the involucre present in the com-
posite and umbelliferous plants.
In the lowest forms mentioned the extreme receptacles are occasion-
ally outgrown; and where in the Pine we have the compound or male
cone, the axis is sometimes prolonged into a tuft of leaves. Now, in some
Arads we have this condition of things visible in a modified manner.
In Arum maculatum, for instance, the axis or spadix bears the female
and the male organs, next a few ‘‘nectaries,’’ rudimentary leaves pro-
bably, and finally is prolonged into a cellular or fleshy club.
Fig. 7 represents a vertical section of the czenanthium of the Fig.
The peduncle has been said to be ‘‘ excavated,” the flowers being inside.
Might we not, however, rather regard a conceptacle of the Fucus as
a distant antetype of this inflorescence ? That also may properly be called
a cenanthium; for the ‘ flowers’—~.e., the reproductive organs and
their filaments—abide together in community. Both are cavities con-
taining these, and opening to the air, each by a pore, be it large or
small. Around this opening are filaments, sometimes protruding in one
instance, and scales to represent them in the case of the Fig. These in
further developed forms receive the name of involucres.
The direction of growth being coincident with the direction of
the axis, the tendency here is to push up the bottom of the cavity, and,
in fact, to turn the cenanthium inside out. In Dorstenta contrayerva
(Fig. 8) it will be noticed that this process has gone so far as to level
up the cavity, disparting its edges. In Fig. 9, the female capitulum of
Artocarpus incisa, the process has been fully completed. These three
are instances from plants closely allied. The capitulum of a Composite
shows the tendency described, changing the form of the peduncle extre-
mity as it flowers and ripens. In Fig. 10, for instance, the common Dande-
lion flower and peduncle extremity are shown. The peduncle is “‘ exca-
vated” occasionally more deeply than what is seen in this hasty sketch ;
as it flowers and ripens, however, the centre rises into a conical form,
and the globular shape of the head of the perfectly ripened seed is well
known. On following this process attentively, it will be seen that the
scales around the mouth of the czenanthium have been displaced so as to
become the involucre of the capitulum.
bution of what represent the ovules in the loculi is explicable by what we see there.
Taken in this connexion, Schleiden’s opposition to the theory of marginal placentation
receiyes support.
81
Isolation and separation continuing, we have the simple umbel
(Fig. 11) arising from the capitulum by the development of foot stalks
to the flowers. This natural advance suggested itself to my mind before I
was aware that it had been previously noticed. Compound umbels, from
ramification of the peduncles of their simple umbels, seem to follow as
a matter of course, and have been so set down. However, I am not
convinced that the peduncles ramify into pedicels, and produce involu-
cels occasionally. The true course of development is otherwise. Ifan
umbel come from a capitulum, and that from a concave cenanthium,
whose antetype is a conceptacle, we must return back for a clue and an
illustration. Take an inflorescence, such as Fig. 4, and say that
here there are five conceptacles. Each of these five cavities, being
turned inside out, so as to form conical heads (as shown with regard to
the Fig), we shall have five capitula. Let them have a peduncle deve-
loped to each, and we shall have an inflorescence, such as that seen in
Fig. 12, Watricaria camomilla—a loose corymb, bearing composite fiow-
ers. Ifthose peduncles should arise at one point, and the sessile flowers of
the capitula get stalked, we should have a compound umbel of five prin-
cipal radiating peduncles. The involucres of the composite capitula
become the involucels of the umbellules, and the leaves in whose axils
these peduncles arise cluster together to form the general involucre.
Supposing the axis of the composite flower to be prolonged, the
spike (Fig. 13) might be the result, as has been stated. It might even
have been added that the scales found often between the florets become
bracts. But what of the involucre? Until the absence of anything to
represent it be explained, I shall believe it more natural to deduce the
spike as well as the spadix from the simpler forms; as, for instance,
through the cone the abortive leaves, in whose axils (Fig. 5) the pe-
duncles arise, becoming bracts in the spike ; then, as the axis was men-
tioned as prolonged into a tuft of leayes beyond the male cone of Pinus
sylvestris, so in Fig. 14 we have the axis prolonged beyond the flower
head, leaving it as a glomerulus. This is a cymose circle of definite in-
florescence.
What form anterior to, and yet foreshadowing the cyme of definite
infloresence, is to be observed? At the extremity of the axis here the
reproductive organs are produced, and the plant becomes forked, con-
tinuing to develope by axillary growth. Now, this is precisely what we
have in Ceramium (Fig. 16), one of the Florideew, or red sea weeds.
Their favelle terminate axial growth there, and are subtended by axil-
lary ramuli in the same way. Any one who compares Figs. 15 ( Ceras-
tium) and 16, will at once observe their essential identity. This is
additional proof from morphology that the favelle are reproductive
organs, whilst the tetraspores, immersed in the ramuli, should be re-
garded as analogous to bulbels.
r EY:
This arrangement of affinities appears corroborated by the acknow-
ledged relationships of certain families to certain others; and likewise
R. 1, A. PROC.—VOL. X. Mu
82
by the position and priority of vegetable groups as revealed by geolo-
gical research. ‘Thus it brings into some sort of progressive connexion —
Fucoids, Equisetacese, Coniferse, and Palmaceee. Even in members of
the same family corroboration is received from previously recognised
peculiarities. Thus in the Ash order we have the Ash having apetalous
flowers, and the Privet having flowers with petals. The inflorescence
in the first case is a raceme, in the second it is the more developed
panicle. This, however, is a portion of the subject to which I have not
had time to give sufficient attention; and the developments of parts
may not always be coequal.
Considered from a geological point of view this arrangement of
affinities fairly coincides with scientific discoveries. For, in the Lower
and Middle Paleozoic epochs, Fucoids, Equisetaceze, and Gymnosperms
are first found ; whilst in the Upper Paleozoic some doubtful Monocotyle-
dons begin to present themselves. When, afterwards, the Dicotyledons
make their appearance, the Amentacesze are amongst the earliest to
show themselves. In conclusion, I wish to remark that, where the
word “ type” or ‘‘antetype’”’ has been used, I have not meant to indi-
cate a fixed form, but merely a remarkable stage, which may be a rest-
ing point in transitional development.
* 83
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY
SESSION OF 1867-68.
X1IX.—On tHe Puystotocy or Prorrusion oF THE TONGUE, AND ITS
DeEvIATION to THE AFFECTED Sipe in Unitaterat Paratysis. Br
Tomas Haypren, M.D., M.R.I.A.
[Read June 11, 1866.*]
In the communication which I have the honour of submitting to the
Academy I pr opose to discuss the physiology of protrusion of the
tongue, and to endeavour to explain the apparent enomaly by which, in
unilateral paralysis of that organ, as exemplified in hemiplegia, it
deviates in protrusion to the paraly zed side, whereas the features, as
is well known, move to the opposite or unaffected side, as does likewise
the tongue itself in all its movements save that of protrusion.
In order to render intelligible what follows, it will be necessary to
start with a few general propositions in reference to the action of vo-
luntary muscles.
Muscular contraction consists essentially in intrinsic molecular ap-
proximation, by which the constituent particles of the muscle, its
sarcous elements, are brought into closer mutual proximity, and the
extremities of the muscle itself are drawn towards one another.
The range of contraction of a muscle is directly as the length of its
fibres, irrespectively of tendon and all other extrinsic substances, and
has been variously estimated at one-half to two-thirds of their length.
The force of the contraction of a muscle is as the number and dia-
meter of its fibres, irrespectively of their length; and its effect depends
mainly upon the angle at which it is inserted into the osseous lever;
the order of lever used; and the point of attachment.
In no instance can a muscle in contraction carry its moveable, be-
yond its fixed point of attachment.
A muscle acting upon a lever at an acute angle, and movingit in the
direction of its axis, may, however, carry:the proximal extremity of
the lever far beyond its own fixed point of attachment, the distance
being regulated by the length e the lever, and the length of the fibres
of the muscle (see diagram No.1, Pl. XIII.).
_ Two levers so acted upon “s two coequal forces, and moving at an
acute angle, say of 45°, would have a tendency to intersect at their
point of mutual contract; if inflexible, and offering equal resistance,
they would both be arrested at this point; but if flexible, of equal
‘power of resistance, and propelled by equal forces, they would advance,
* This paper was held over for the ‘‘ Transactions,” but the author not wishing to
leave it any longer unpublished, it is printed here, though not properly belonging to the
Session of 1867-68.
ed A PROC.——V Oly, xX, L N
* z ee 5 & ee cS 2. teers 23
ost ttha tciinki lta a Ai at lta
Ln La | Oa Yn ny SeTESI Tent omy CORRS SNE Pt Gs) a A PY a SN
84
not in the axis of either, but in a line bisecting the angle formed by
their prolonged axes (see diagram No. 2, Pl. XIII.).
If, however, the propelling forces be unequal, both levers will de-
viate to the side of that which is the weaker; and if either force be
entirely annihilated, then the two levers, though with diminished im-
petus, will advance in the prolonged axis of the lever of the unaffected
side (see diagram No. 3, Pl. XIII.).
The tongue, as a muscular organ, consists of intrinsic and extrinsic
muscles. It would be easy to show, were that necessary to my present
purpose, that the principal of the intrinsic muscles—namely, the lin-.
gualis of Douglas, is connected with the os hyoides. The function of
these muscles is to impart to the tongue intrinsic motions, by which its
shape and consistence are altered; whilst that of the extrinsic muscles
is to communicate to it movements of place and direction, to modify its
figure; and likewise of necessity its density.
The extrinsic muscles of the tongue are the stylo-glossus, the hyo-
glossus, the palato-glossus, and the gento-hyo-glossus; these muscles are
connected, as their names imply, with the styloid process of the tem-
poral bone ; the os hyoides; the soft palate, and the chin, or body
of the inferior maxilla, respectively. The stylo-glossus retracts the
tongue, draws it towards the corresponding side, deflects its apex to
the same side, and acting in conjunction with the corresponding mus-
cle of the opposite side, may expand it transversely, and raise it
to the palate. The hyo-glossi retract the protruded tongue whilst
contracting it in its transverse diameter, and by depressing its edges
they may render its upper surface convex. The palato-glossus may raise
the edge of the tongue, and, with the muscle of the opposite side, render
its superior surface transversely concave.
The action of the genio-hyo-glossi is that to which I would invite
the special attention of the Academy. ‘These muscles arise from the
superior genial eminence of the inferior maxilla, by a common tuft-like
tendon, from which the fibres of each muscle expand like the rays of a
fan; the posterior fibres pass backwards and downwards, to be inserted
into the body of the os hyoides; all the other fibres pass through the
substance of the tongue, at each side of the middle line, from its in-
ferior, towards its superior surface, with various, but successively-
diminishing degrees of obliquity from behind forwards; the anterior
fibres, after transversing the substance of the tongue in the direction
upwards and backwards for some distance, are curved forward; whilst
those immediately in front, which reach the apex of the tongue, are
likewise curved slightly downwards in the terminal portion of their
course (see diagram No.4, Pl. XIII.).
The aipelnne recon of the fibres, from origin to insertion, will
be found to vary according to the position of the homers When that
organ is entirely confined within the intra-dental portion of the mouth,
all the fibres of the genio-hyo-glossus, with the exception of the ex-
treme anterior, pass backwards and downwards; but when the tongue
is protruded, or forcibly drawn forwards out of the mouth, the fibres
85
of the anterior half of the muscle pass upwards, and the greater portion
of them likewise forwards.
I am not now concerned with the so-called genio-pharyngeus,
which has been described as an offset from the genio-hyo-glossus,
passing from the edge of the tongue to the mylo-hyoid ridge, and
constituting the glossal attachment of the superior constrictor of the
pharynx.
If the relative disposition of the inner or opposed surfaces of the
genio-hyo-glossi muscles of opposite sides be carefully examined, it
will be found that they are not parallel, as usually described in works
on anatomy, but disposed, relatively to one another, at an acute angle,
salient forwards.
This angle is maintained, and the intervening space is filled up, by
a soft, granular, adipose substance, which exists in greatest quantity
behind, in the vicinity of the os hyoides, where the interspace between
the muscles is widest. To this substance Haller attributes: the func-
tion of lubricating the muscular fibres, and thus obviating the effects of
mutual friction ; but this purpose we know to be served by a fine fluid,
which during life, and at the temperature of the body, is probably in a
state of halitus; besides, in other muscles and muscular organs, for
example the heart, where action 1s not less vigorous, fat does not exist’
in the healthy state. ;
The principal, if not the only purpose of the lingual fat or smegma
seems to be, to divarigate the genio-hyo-glossi muscles in conformity
with the figure of the tongue, and thereby confer upon that organ
greater precision and concentration of force in its forward movements.
Haller, in his treatise De Fabrica et usu Lingue, whilst attributing to
this fat the purpose already mentioned, admits that it exists in greatest
quantity near the os hyoides, where obviously muscular movement is
least active, and where, consequently, the function he assigns to it
would be least required: he says—‘“ Interstitia enim hujusmodi fibrarum
ad basin lingue, qua ossi hyoidi adheeret, preecipue copiosa pinguedine
replentur.’’*
Malpighi,+ whilst admitting that the principal situation of the lin-
gual adeps is at the base of the organ, assigns to it no particular use.
As Yegards the agency by which the tongue is protruded from the
mouth, all anatomists are agreed in regarding the genio-hyo-glossi
muscles as the sole active agents in that movement. MHallert says,
“valet hic musculus (viz. genio-glossus) linguam in anteriora trahere,
et simul ex ore protrahere.”’ j
This, it will be perceived, is a very vague and indefinite account of
the action of these muscles, and still less satisfactory is it, as will
appear in the sequel, as an explanation of the mode in which protru-
sion of the tongue is accomplished. Yet, in no work preceding that
of Haller, nor in any written since his time that I have had an oppor-
* Haller ‘‘ De fabrica et usu Lingue,” c. XXXViil. .
+ Marcelli Malpighi exercitas epistolica de lingua ad Alphonsum Borellium 1664,
p. 38. : £“ Opus citat.,” c. xviii.
86
tunity of consulting, is a more full or definite exposition of this sub-
ject to be found than is contained in the short passage just quoted.
That the ordinary rules which govern muscular action are not ap-
plicable to the genio-hyo-glossi muscles, as protrusors of the tongue,
will appear from two considerations :—
Ist. There is no example in the body, unless that furnished by
these muscles can be admitted as such, of a muscle carrying its
moveable point of attachment beyond its fixed point, by its own
contraction. ;
2nd. There is absolutely no example in the body, except in the
instance of the tongue, of a symmetrical organ, paralysed on one side,
and moving, by contraction of its muscles, towards the side of
paralysis.
The point of origin of the genio-hyo-glossus being the superior genial
eminence, the course of all its fibres, from origin to insertion, when the
tongue is lodged within the mouth, must be more or less directly back-
wards, owing to the prominence of the chin (see diagram No. 4). The
initiatory stage of the advancement of the tongue, therefore, involves
no difficulty of comprehension ; it is effected in accordance with the
law of muscular dynamics, by which the extremities of a muscle
in contraction tend to approach one another.
The progress of the tongue beyond the line of the teeth cannot be
explained under this law, for it involves the transgression of the fixed
point of attachment of the muscles engaged, by their moveable points,
and in a ratio proportionate to its advancement; but without infring-
ing this law, the fibres of a muscle inserted at an acute angle into
a distant point of a lever may advance that lever in the direction of
its axis, or at an angle with it, and in proportion to their length, as has
been already shown, and will be understood by reference to diagram
No. 1. In this law, I conceive, les the explanation ofthe protrusion of
the tongue uuder the action of the genio-hyo-glossi muscles, to which I-
now invite the attention of the Academy.
It has been already shown that these muscles, radiating from a
common point of origin on the posterior surface of the body of the _
inferior maxilla, are inserted into the os hyoides and inferior surface of
the tongue along its middle line from base to apex, penetrating its sub-
stance even to its dorsum. . For the present I leave out of consi-
deration the angularity of the planes of the two muscles, as being
‘unnecessary to the subject under discussion, namely, the protrusion
of the tongue, and in no way qualifying my argument. In the initia-
tory stage of protrusion the fibres of the two muscles, having all a
direction more or less backwards (see diagram No. 4), co-operate
_ to pull the tongue out of the mouth; the dorsum is depressed and ren-
dered flat; the tongue becomes rigid and straight; the os hyoides is
raised towards the mouth, and the tip advances beyond the line of the
teeth. In the further progress of the tongue the anterior fibres cease
to co-operate, maintaining only a state of tonic contraction, and regu-
lating the direction of the apex under the guidance of volition. In
proportion as the tongue advances a greater number of the fasciculi of
37
the muscles become inert as regards protrusion, till the final stage
is arrived at, which is accomplished by the posterior fibres only, and
therefore with greatly diminished force. Retraction of the tongue
is now effected by all the fibres of these muscles, whose point of inser-
tion is in front of their point of origin, assisted by the special retrac-
tors, namely, the hyo, and stylo-glossi (see diagram No. 4). During
the progress of the tongue forwards the organ is converted into a solid
and rigid lever by the antagonistic action of the stylo-glossi, palato-
glossi, and hyo-glossi muscles, the two former of which tend to elevate,
and the latter to depress it; whilst the stylo-glossi, by their course
along the margins of the tongue to its apex, and acting in equilibrium,
render it straight and rigid in its entire length. In this explanation
it is impossible to ignore the wonderful selective power which the will
possesses, of directing upon special groups of muscles, upon individual
muscles, and even upon particular parts of the same muscle, the
stimulus of contraction, and in greater or less degree according to
circumstances.
Owing to the fan-like arrangement of the fibres of the genio-hyo-
glossi, the anterior fasciculi of the muscles must successively pass out
of action as protrusors, according as their points of insertion are carried
in front of the teeth by the advancing tongue; hence the progress of
the tongue forwards must be effected with progressively diminishing
power (see diagram No. 4). I have verified this observation in my
own person by the following simple experiment :—
A light wooden cylinder was introduced into my mouth, within
the range of my teeth; the opposite end of the cylinder rested on
a balance; the balance was now weighted, and I found that by pressing
the point of my tongue against the end of the cylinder in my mouth,
with all the force I was capable of exercising, I could lift a weight
of 4Ibs. When the tongue was advanced a quarter of an inch in front
of the teeth, I could lift 23lbs., and when three-quarters of an inch
only 2lbs.
No doubt this result may be in some measure explained in another
way. It has been shown by Schwann that muscles contract with
' maximum power in the acme of extension, and with a force diminishing
in a progressive ratio as contraction proceeds; but manifestly so great
a difference in the lifting force of the tongue, as that between 4lbs. and
24lbs., cannot be accounted for in this way. In other words, a loss of
nearly one-half the protrusive force of the tongue could not be occa-
sioned by a contraction of a quarter of an inch in the posterior fibres of
its protrusor muscles.
In the exhaustive treatise of Bourgery and Jacob,* I find the follow-
ing statement :—‘‘ As to the comparison of the two genio-glossi mus-
cles, since they are united along the middle plane, it will be difficult to
apprehend a very perceptible difference between their isolated and
simultaneous contraction.”
* Traité Complet de ’Anatomie de Homme, vol. ii., page 53.
88
Ifthe muscles were united along the middle plane as described, or if
they were parallel by their opposed surfaces, then, no doubt, they would —
simply reinforce one another ; and, considering the direction in which
their force is applied, it would be difficult to conceive how, under these
circumstances, they could serve as reciprocal antagonists, as is the case
with all other duplicate muscles disposed at opposite sides of the median
line.
But anatomy shows that they are not parallel; they are disposed at
a very acute angle, salient forwards, and are separated behind by a mass
of soft adipose tissue as already described.
The triangular interval between the muscles, as likewise the adipose
substance which occupies it, will be readily perceived on making a
horizontal section of the boiled tongue of the sheep, or other mammal,
near its inferior surface, and through its entire length.
Pathology shows no less conclusively a marked difference as between
the isolated and combined action of the Genio-hyo-glossi muscles, and
the existence of a very decided antagonism between them.
In complete hemiplegia involving the face and tongue, the features,
as is well known, are drawn towards the unaffected side, whilst the
tongue in protrusion deviates to the side of paralysis; this shows, as
regards the tongue, an antagonism between its protrusor muscles, but
of a very peculiar and exceptional character, and at the same time seems
to be in contravention of the law, that muscles, when paralyzed, are
overpowered by their antagonists, and drawn in the direction of the
fixed attachments of the latter. In protrusion of the tongue the muscles
engaged are mutually co-operative, and corrective ofone another; they
act upon the tongue as upon a rigid lever, but acting at an angle, each
tends to carry it forwards and to the opposite side; acting, however,
simultaneously, and with equal force, they correct one another, and
carry the tongue directly forwards, that is to say, in a line intermediate
between their respective axes (see diagram No. 2).
In the event of one of these two forces being suspended, as occurs in
hemiplegia, the opposing force being now the sole agent in protrusion,
and free to act without correction, will carry the tongue forwards and
to the opposite or paralyzed side, that is to say, in the axis of its own
proper motion (see diagram No. 3).
In case of partial paralysis of one of the opposing muscles, the tongue,
being in some degree governed by the weaker force, will advance in a
direction less decidedly lateral, or at an angle with the common axis of
motion of the two muscles, determined by their relative contractile
force, and directly as the difference in force between them (see diagram
No. 38).
ee that the genio-hyo-glossi muscles are the sole protrusors of
the tongue ; I submit— pi:
ist. That their action is peculiar in this; that whilst in the first
stage of protrusion they act, like other muscles, by traction; in the latter
stages they act by propulsion. .
2nd. That in propelling the tongue forwards they act upon it as a_
ae
we
89
lever of the first order, the anterior extremity of which projects from
the mouth; the posterior extremity within the mouth being acted upon
by the protrusors, and the fulcrum constituted by the palato-glossi
muscles (see diagram No. 4).
3rd. The Genio-hyo-glossi muscles are disposed relatively to one
another at a very acute angle, salient forwards, and therefore taken
separately they act upon the tongue in protrusion, not in the direction
of its axis, but at an acute angle with it, carrying it to the opposite
side; but acting conjointly, and with equal force, they are mutually
corrective of one another, and carry the tongue directly forwards.
And, 4th. As a necessary consequence, when the protrusor muscle
of one side is paralyzed, the other, acting without correction, will pro-
trude the tongue towards the side of paralysis.
XX.—Cartatocue or 101 Drawrynes ofr ARcHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES,
FROM ORIGINAL SKETCHES, PRESENTED TO THE LIBRARY OF THE RoyYAL
Irish Acapemy. By Grorez V. Du Norer, M.R.I.A., &c., District
Surveyor, Geological Survey of Ireland, to form Vol. IX. of a
similar donation.
[Read November 11, 1867. ]
Mellifont Abbey, Co. Louth.
No. 1. View, looking N. N. W., of the choir of the great church.
This building has been erroneously regarded by recent writers as ‘‘ the
great church of Mellifont Abbey,”’ and surprise is expressed that it could
have contained the eleven high altars recorded to have been within it.
To any careful observer, it is evident that the building in question is
merely a chowr of what may have been a church of noble proportions,
possibly of forty feet in width, and twice or more that in length.
No. 2. Plan of the choir of the great church. From this it is evi-
dent that the so-called ‘‘ doorway” is in reality the choir arch; its
recessed pilasters being all on the interior face of the wall, the external
portion being flat—a style of architecture unkuown in the construction
of church doorways.
The remarkable narrowness of this choir arch is no doubt the re-
sult of careful design, with a view to render the choir as sacred as
possible, and allow but a glimpse from the body of the church into that
more sacred portion of it, which glittered with stained glass, gold, and
fresco painting.*
No. 3. Choir arch.
No. 4. Window in south wall of the choir.
No. 5. Quaint figure of an animal carved in high relief on the key-
stone of the outer arch. East window, from the same.
No. 6. Pilasters, N. W. angle of the choir.
oe Tra ee i ee
* See ‘‘ Wilde’s Beauties of the Boyne and Blackwater.” 2nd edition. ©
90
No. 7. Pilasters, interior of the choir.
No. 8. Pilasters, interior of the choir.
No. 9. Base of pilasters, angle of choir.
No. 10. Base of angle pilasters, N. window, choir.
No. 11. Base and capital of angle pilaster, south window, choir.
From the peculiar grace of form, and deep under- -cutting of the |
foliated capitals of the pilasters supporting the groined roof of the
building I am illustrating, as well as from the presence of a broad flat
rib running down the external face of each of the pilasters and their
bases, as well as along the upper margin of the abacus of the capitals, it
is evident that this work is not older than the beginning of the 138th
century. Bloxham, and all writers on English Ecclesiastical Architec-
ture, direct especial attention to this marked feature, as being one which
is of the utmost value in determining the approximate age ofa building ;
and it is a surer guide in this respect, than even the form of the associ-
ated arch, as we shall see presently when describing the octagonal build-
ing called ‘‘ the Baptistry,’’ and which is one of the most interesting of
the ruins at Mellifont.
No. 12. Plan of the octagonal building erroneously called ‘“‘The Bap-
tistry,’’ S.W. of, and close to the choir. Itis absurd to suppose that an
abbey should be possessed of a building the use of which was prohibited
to the monks. We have here undoubtedly the chapter house of the com-
munity, with an apartment over it, as at Wells cathedral, and else-
wherein England. Itis perhaps worthy of note, that when the masonry
reached to the height of a few feet above the crown of the semicircular
arches on which the upper floor of the building stood, the architect ap-
pears to have checked the accuracy of his work by laying an octagonal
frame of timber over the arches, and to have enclosed it in the masonry ;
where the building is broken through, on the south side, the presence of
this massive frame work is indicated by a square hollow in the thick-
ness of the wall. This is at least the most apparent explanation for the
existence of this singular square horizontal tube in the thickness of the
walls over the semicircular arches. It may, however, be an horizontal
flue for warming the groined floor over the arches, and was connected
with some fireplace in that portion of the building now destroyed.
What yet remains ofthis octagonal building shows that it was open
to the air at its basement, but groined with stone: the upper story
thus formed having been lighted by a large aperture in each side of the
octagon. Access to this floor must have been by a passage from the
main buildings on the southern side of the octagon, every trace of which
is now gone. ‘Traces of blue and vermilion may yet be seen on the capitals.
No. 18. Plan of the abutment and arches at the base of the octago-
nal building.
No. 14. Cap of pilasters at the basement of the octagonal building.
Nos. 15-17. Cap of pilaster from the same. _
No. 18. Base of pilaster.
It is worthy of note that the style and character of the caps of
the pilasters from this building are precisely those of the caps of
Ot
the pilasters from the interior of the choir of the great church of the
associated abbey, though the arches are semicircular; while those
of the choir are acutely pointed ; the same narrow flat rib (Fig. 11)
runs down the outside of the pilasters of the octagonal structure, and
is prolonged into their bases, and the same effect of ight and shade in
the decorations of the capitals of the pilasters in both buildings is
frequently produced, by drilling holes into the stone ; the mere form of
the arch is, therefore, no indication of comparative age, as some recent
writers on this building would have us suppose. The semicircular
arch has been selected in the construction of the octagonal building,
simply to keep the structure to the required lowness of height; while
the architect may possibly have supposed that this form of the arch was
stronger or more effective than that acutely pointed. Be that as it
may, the decorations of the caps of the pilasters, both externally and
internally, with the occurrence of the flat rib on the columns, proves
to a demonstration that the octagonal building at Mellifont is of the
same age as the choir of the great church of the same establishment.
Nos. 19-21. Caps of pilasters, groining of the octagonal building.
No. 22. View of the northern gateway tower of the abbey.
No. 23. Plan of the same.
No. 24. Tomb slab with foliated cross, from the graveyard of St.
Bernard’s chapel.
Ardsallagh Old Church, Navan.
No. 25. Arches at basement of the octagonal building at Mellifort,
and choir arch, Ardsallagh old church, Navan, for comparison. -
No. 26. Capital of pilasters, choir of the great church, Mellifont,
and capital of pilasters, choir arch Ardsallagh old church, Navan, for com-
parison.
To any one who has studied the salient points of construction and
decoration in ecclesiastical architecture, the similarity of design and
skill evinced in these two capitals of engaged columns is sufficiently
striking to assure us that they are the work of the same school, and
the same century. The ancient parish church of Ardsallagh or Ard-
Saileach (the height ofthe swallows) is of two ages. The choir, includ-
ing the arch, is of the 13th century, as is evinced by its semicircular
form, its segmental and deeply undercut mouldings, with the narrow
flat band running down their external surfaces, and that of the pilasters
at its sides, the smallness and careful dressing of the stones forming it,
and the casings of the windows in the N. and S. walls of the choirs, as
well as the oblique peepholes which pierce the walls of the choir arch
and east wall of the choir itself. Nor should we overlook the fact that
the ‘‘dog’s tooth” moulding is present on the capitals of the choir-arch
pilasters, and the same ornament forms a marked feature in the
ao of the windows in the choir of the Abbey church at Melli-
ont.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 0
A a sp ie A et we Se a Nae a
cE See a eg OTe Tey ee
~~
e
a
ts a Cee ee ani tease ieee tnt eines tars leet ain of ne
92
As an example of the exuberant fancy of the sculptors of the 13th
century, I may mention that, at the springing of the choir arch mould- |
ings, south side, we see a clever representation of the celebration
of the Last Supper, our Lord being the central figure, and represented
as holding up a knife in his right hand, in the act of cutting the bread,
while the figure on his right is about to take up the cup of wine from
the table which extends in front of the three figures. ‘The correspond-
ing carving represents an otter hunt, and is a most spirited design; three
dogs are crowding eagerly over each other, and seize a female otter by
the head and neck, the animal being in the act of protecting its cub, by
clasping it tightly to its side by its right paw (that farthest from its
pursuers), and close to some protecting bullrushes. Itis difficult to un-
derstand what connexion there could be between these two designs, and
we must therefore attribute this incongruity to the fancy of the
sculptor.
No. 27. Plan of the old church of Ardsallagh, Co. Meath.
No. 28. Cap of pilaster in choir, showing the Otter hunt.
No. 29. Window in the west gable, which wal gueelly lighted the
apartment or dwelling-place of the resident ecclesiastic.*
Slane Abbey, S¢., Co. Meath.
No. 30. View of two rough upright slabs of silurian grit in the grave-
yard of Slane Abbcy, Co. Meath. In the centre of each slab a calcarious
layer has weathered out down their edges, thus forming a rude groove.
A recent writer on the antiquities of Slane calls this an ancient grave, and
asserts that the stones are six feet apart, and states that the rough
grooves I have described were intended to receive the ends of flat flags,
to form a kind of roof to the structure. Setting aside the inaccuracy of
the first statement—for the slabs are only three feet ten inches apart—I
do not hesitate to say that I believe these rough flags once formed the
doorway to a large stone beehive-shaped hut, or cloghaun, possibly
the original house and church of St. Erc, the patron saint of the
place. Doorways of this rude character are still to be seen in the
primitive beehive-shaped churches on the Islands of Arran, and on
Church Island in Lough Curram, Co. Kerry, as figured and described by
the late Dr. Petrie in his work on the ‘‘ Round Towers of Ireland.”
The writer has also figured and described similar remains, as St.
Kevin’s house at Reafert, Glendalough, St. Gobonet’s house or church
at Ballyvourney, Co. Cork, and St. Bridget’s house at Faughart, Co.
Louth.+ One large rough slab belonging to this ancient structure is
yet to be seen in the interior of the abbey church adjoining, the remain-
* See paper by the writer in the ‘‘ Kilkenny Archeological Journal,” vol. v., p. 27,
On some Peculiarities in Ancient and Medieval Irish Ecclesiastical Architecture.
+ See preceding volume of these Antiquarian Sketches, Library of the Royal Irish
Academy.
93
ing stones having doubtless been used as head-stones on account of
their recognized antiquity.
No. 31. Carving in sandstone; intricate interlaced pattern of pre-
Anglo-Norman age, possibly 10th or 11th century, from the wall at the
rere of Mr. Macken’s house, Slane, said to have been found in the grave-
yard of Slane Abbey.
No. 32. Ground plan of Slane Abbey.
No. 33. Ground plan of Slane Abbey church.
No. 34. West door and window. ‘Tower of ditto.
No. 35. Shield bearing the royal arms of England, from the ex-
terior of the south wall of the abbot’s apartments, Slane Abbey.
This carving tends to fix the date of the erection of Slane Abbey
as it now stands, and for the following reason: The shield is quartered
—lst and 4th semé fleur-de-lis; 2nd and 3rd three lions “passant”
‘‘ardant.”” We know from various sources, coins, &c., that Henry IV.,
1399 to 1412, was the last of the English kings who quartered for his
arms the field ‘‘semé”’ of fleur-de-lis for France ; and this fact taken in
connexion with the occurrence of the chestnut flower ornament at the
base of the shield, is well nigh sufficient proof that the building dates
no further back than the end of the 14th century. If any additional
evidence for the probable accuracy of this statement was wanting, we
have it supplied to us in the form and mouldings of the windows and
doorway in the south wall of the abbey.
No. 86. Window, from the south wall of the abbey.
The broadly foliated termination to the drip moulding of this win-
dow is very characteristic of the period to which I refer the erection of
the present building.
No. 37. Fireplace, from the same abbey.
No. 88. Large oval opening near the summit of the side aisle wall ;
abbey church.
No. 39. The Priest’s tomb, from the graveyard of Slane Abbey
church. The name on this tomb slab is REN@AAN, though arecent
writer on the antiquities of this district calls it Kerwan—an error
of no great importance, yet one which a writer on antiquitics should
not have made.
No. 40. Decorated key-stone to an arch, now built up in the gate-
post to the graveyard of the abbey church.
No. 41. View of the decoration on the left side of ornamental key-
stone, gatepost to the graveyard, Slane Abbey church.
No. 42. View of the right side of same stone.
A recent writer calls this “a face of a nun,” though for no appa-
rent reason, as the religious establishment with which it is associated
was occupied by canons regular. Possibly this carving represents a
female face, though it may be that of a youthful chorister. The high
foliated ornament over the head is purely architectural, and the decora-
tions at either side of the head represent grotesque animals with large
claws and richly foliated tails.
No. 43. Corbel representing the bust of a bishop, or mitred abbot,
:
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a Te ee ee eS a he Si
94
now placed in the wall of the national schoolhouse, Slane village.
The rose ornament on the breast of the figure shows it to be of Tudor -
age, and the coat of arms on the adjoining shield—a saltier engrailed
with an ermine tail in each point—should aid in determining the family
name of the ecclesiastic.
No. 44. Opposite view of the same corbel, showing the head of the
pastoral staff.
No. 45. Plan of the small monastery of St. Erc in Slane demesne.
No. 46. Ornamented key-stone, from the doorway of the same mo-
nastery. | :
A recent writer describes this ornament as a “‘ fleur-de-lis,” to which
it has not the slightest resemblance, it being in fact two Tudor leaves of
rectangular outline branching from a short stem.
These, and the foregoing critical remarks, may be by some consi-
dered as of little importance, yet they correct printed and widely circu-
lated errors, and show with what materials some of our guide-books
are decorated.
No. 47. Window in west gable, and lighting the loft in the same
monastery. As 1s very common in Tudoresque buildings, the semi-
circular arch is often introduced in juxta-position with the pointed or
flat arch. :
No. 48. Carving in relief of a St. Catherine, froma stone preserved
in the same monastery.
No. 49. View of Fennor Castle, Slane. This building belongs to
that class of fortified houses which were erected over the eastern coun-
ties in Ireland during the middle of the 16th to that of the 17th cen-
tury. A stone in the adjoining graveyard bears the following defective
inscription, which may possibly record the erection of this structure :—
* « De Gilkenstone Generost qua katherine x * x
ile quidem ano dni 1548. et 24 mes
i ebruarit tila bero
No. 50. Plan of Fennor Castle.
No. 51. Niche in the east gable of the same. The acutely pointed
form of the arch over this recess, the tricusped decoration beneath, the
broad bead moulding, with external flat, narrow rib, and the angle of
the niche, being simply chamfered, indicate the work to be of the close
of the 18th century, or beginning of the 14th. Peepholes in the
west wall of the choir, and in the west gable, are all features peculiar to
this period. The west gable is prolonged to receive two bells. The
most interesting feature in this old church is the masonry at the 8S. W.
angle of the nave, of which No. 52 is a sketch.
No. 52. View of the 8. W. angle of the same old church. It is
evident that the masonry here is quite different to that of every other
part of the building ; it is formed of large blocks of gritty sandstone,
the relics of a much older church. The top stone at the springing
of the roof is most peculiar, being carved into the form of a broad, flat,
95
projecting corbel, curved beneath. This singular ornament is never
found, except on some of our oldest churches of lime and stone. For
example, at the Church of the Trinity at Glendalough—a building
ascribed to the seventh century by Dr. Petrie in his essay on the Round
Towers.
No. 53. Plan of Fennor old church, showing the position of the more
recent sacristy erected against the south wall of the choir, and covered
by a lean-to roof of stone. At the N. E. angle of the nave, close to the
choir arch, a pulpit was erected on the exterior of the wall.
No. 54. Plan of Castle Dexter, or De Exeter, on the Boyne, opposite
Beaupark.
No. 55. View of Baronstown cross, near Slane. North face.
No. 56. Same. West face.
No. 57. Same. South face. .
No. 58. Same. Last face.
No. 59. Plan of Gormanstown old church, near Slane.
No. 60. Anglo-Norman cofiin-shaped tomb slab, bearing a foliated
cross, rising from a plinth of three steps, and the outline of a double-
edged sword, with large pommel and small cross-guard. Round the edge
of the slab is the following singular inscription in the Latin, French,
and English languages, and in the Anglo-Norman character : —‘‘ PaTErR.
NOSTER. P (prend ) CHARITE PUR (pour) LAEMES (1’ame) SER (sir) EDWARD
DERCE, DECESECD (deceased).”’
Tradition, and such history as we possess, attribute the erection of
the Castle of Dunmore, on the Boyne, to one of the Darcys; and
T have little doubt that the tomb, which may date to the end of the
14th, or beginning of the 15th century, commemorates the death of
the builder of the castle in question. This slab had lain partially
buried in the graveyard of Stackallen church, where it had remained
unnoticed till I exhumed it in the month of June, 1866.
No. 61. Coffin-shaped tomb slab from the graveyard of Stackallen
ehurch. While digging up the Darcy tomb, I came upon the slab now
figured. Itis ornamented with a standard cross, rising from a semi-
circular base, enclosing an ornament like a scallop. The cross partakes
of the Greek form, ending in eight points. The upper enclosed spaces
over the cross are filled with a carving in low relief, resembling
an heraldic rose of many petals; and the quadrangular space at the
intersection of the arms of the cross is filled with an ornament resem-
bling five laurel leaves. The general style of this cross is neither Irish
nor English. I have seen nothing like it in my rambles over the
southern half of Ireland, and I believe it to be of foreign design, and,
possibly, unfinished.
No. 62. Plan of Dunmoe Castle, on the Boyne. This edifice is rectan-
gular, with circular towers at each of the remaining angles, in which re-
spect it resembles some of our 12th and 13th century castles. Its loop-
holes are, however, too small, and its walls too thin for their height,
and its flanking towers too insignificant for a building of so early a
period. A joggled arch over one of the chimneypieces in the upper
Dette tec OE te Se eS IE ea ea eos:
gooererttoete yt
96
story shows that it may not be older than the close of the fourteenth
century. . .
No. 63. South doorway of Knockcommon old church, near Duleek,
county of Meath.
No. 64. Plan of Dowth old church, county of Meath.
No. 65. South door of ditto.
No. 66. North door of ditto.
No. 67. Small door leading from the north wall of the choir of
same to the sacristy, which is now totally gone. The two main
doorways to this church are semicircular-headed, with the angles
plainly chamfered. That now illustrated is pointed, and its angles
recessed and rounded—a moulding somewhat characteristic of the
end of the 14th century. We have here another example of the intro-
duction of the semicircular with the pointed arch in the same build-
ing—a fact which is apparently a stumbling-block to some recent
writers on the antiquities of this district.
No. 68. Ardcath old church, county of Meath.
No. 69. South door in nave of Ardcath old church, with small
window adjoining it on the west. The doorway is pointed, with
the angles chamfered; the window is semicircular-headed, with the
angles also chamfered. We have here, therefore, another example
of the combination of the two forms of the arch in a church of
one period. The date of this building may be late in the 14th
century.
No. 70. Doorway in south wall of chancel of Ardeath old church.
This, hke the small window just alluded to, 1s semicircular-headed,
but the angles are untouched.
No. 71. Window in north wall, and chancel window of the same
church.
Duleck, County of Meath.
No. 72. Ancient cross in the graveyard of Duleek abbey church.
This small, but beautiful cross of the old Irish type, possibly ninth or
tenth century, is well worthy of study, and belongs to the class called
‘“‘ Scripture crosses,’’ of which we have such magnificent examples at
Kells, in the Co. Meath. The west face of this cross is that which I
have illustrated as being the best preserved and most interesting.
-As usual, the space at the intersection of the arms is occupied by a
representation of the crucifixion. Over this the figure of a cock beneath
two seated figures represents the temptation of Peter. Below the cruci-
fixion is a bas-relief representing the betrayal of our Lord by Judas.
The device below this I cannot explain; but that filling up the lowest
compartment on the shaft is clearly St. Joseph with the Virgin and
child.
The most remarkable carvings are those in the small compart-
ments at either end of the arms of the cross. Hach of these is filled
with a sitting figure—the one on the right holding the short pastoral
97
crook, or cambutta, and the other the crutch-headed staff—two very
distinct insignia of pastoral rank, and which are frequently carved on
our decorated standard crosses. Directly in front of each figure is a
large ball, which is evidently being tossed from one to the other by the
ends of their respective staves; and I cannot help hazarding the con- —
jecture, that here we have a representation of some game as practised
by the clergy or their attendants, which we might call ecclesiastical
croquet.
No. 78. Plan of the Abbey church of Duleek, Co. Meath.
No. 74. East window of the same.
No. 75. Tablet commemorative of the building of the east window
of the same church, in 1587.
No. 76. Font at the same church.
No. 77. Effigy carved in low relief on tomb slab, now lying in the
chancel of the abbey church. The date of this carving cannot be
older than the 16th century. The costume of the figure is rather
singular; it consists of a loose garment reaching to the ankles, with
tight sleeves. Over this is another and still looser dress reaching to
the knees, and over all is a long full cloak fitting tightly to the throat,
and thrown open, to show the inner clothing. The right hand rests on
the right hip, while the left hand grasps a massive crook-headed staff,
the curve pointing outwards. The mitre is of lofty proportions, and
apparently devoid of any ornament or jewellery, if we except two broad
ribbons which flutter behind it. Over the right shoulder is a shield
without armorial bearings, but surmounted by a helmet in profile, and
erested with a mermaid holding aloft the comb and glass. In the old
church of Tristernagh, near Edgeworthstown, a tombstone to the me-
mory of the family of Mrares (or Mares) bears for crest a mermaid. I
offer this fact for what 1t is worth in aiding to determine the name of
the ecclesiastic whose tomb I have described.
No. 78. The Cross of Duleek. This is not, properly speaking,
a cross, but rather a rectangular monolith, with decorated apex.
An inscription on its 8. W. face states that it was ‘builded’ by
Jenet. Dowdall, wife to Wiliam Bathe, of Athearn, Justice of Her Ma-
jesties Court of Common ‘ Plees,’ for him and her a. p. 1601. He de-
ceased the 25th of October, 1599.”’ This pillar is decorated on its N.W.
and N. H. faces by rude full-length figures of saints, the lowest being
that of St. Kenane, the patron of Duleek. <
No. 79. Tablet commemorative of the building of the bridge of Du-
leek in 1587.
No. 80. Tablet from the old barn (? bawn) of Bellewstown, bearing
the arms of Bellewe and Nugent.
No. 81. Tablet from Mr. Maxwell’s garden at Bellewstown, bearing
the arms of Bellewe and Plunket, and the date 1598.
No. 82. Plan of the old chapel of the barn of Bellewstown, erected
at the close of the 16th century by Sir John Bellewe, Knight. This
building is now used as a stable attached to the house and farm yard of
Mr. Maxwell.
Te ER Wa We Spee
b
98
No. 83. Window from the S. wall of the said old church.
No. 84. Remains of the east window of the said old church.
Had this consecrated building, erected and used for sacred purposes
by the piety of one of our ancient nobles, been converted into a barn or
storehouse for the reception of the ‘‘ fruits of the earth,’’ I should have
felt somewhat resigned atits spoliation; but thatit should be desecrated
by the odour of cattle, and the proverbially racy language of grooms
and stable boys, is something not exactly commendable, even on the
strictest grounds of convenience or economy.
No. 85. The white cross on the roadside near Duleek, Co. Meath
(W. face).
No. 86. The same, showing the E. face.
This cross bears the arms of Bathe and Dowdall. From the general
outline, style, and character of the work, as well as the attitude of the
crucified figure, I am led to think that its design is Italian or French—
certainly not Irish; its date cannot be earlier than the close of the
16th century.
No. 87. The wayside cross at Annsbrook, Co. Meath. This, like the
cross of Duleek, is a monolith eleven feet six inches high, standing on
a stepped plinth ; it bears the date 1600, and was erected by Jennet
Dowdall for herself and husband, William Bathe, of Athcarn, justice.
No. 88. Inscription on the Annsbrook cross, Co. Meath.
No. 89. East window of the old church of Donore, near Drogheda
(restored).
No. 90. Tablet from the side wall of the building attached to the
old castle of Darlinstown, Co. Meath, bearing date 1586.
No. 91. Tablet from the old church of Moortown, commemorating
the death of Dame Jenet Sarsfeld, lady dowager Dunsany, a. p. 1597.
No. 92. The Trynche tomb, from the graveyard of the old church
of Clongill, Co. Meath.
In the month of August, 1865, I lighted on this quaint and interest-
ing’ tomb slab; and, on communicating the discovery to the Rev. Dr.
Brady, he kindly informed me that it was commemorative of the death
of the ancestor of the Clancarty family. The shield bears in chief a
lion passant, with the sun in splendour over it. The lower portion of
the shield is parted per palé, the dexter side being semé with Tudor roses,
and the sinister filled with the emblems of St. Joseph’s trade—the saw,
the chisel, the hammer, bit-and-brace and square. The legend is as
follows :—
HIC JACET JACOBUS . TRYNCHE . CLERICUS,
RECTOR, QUONDAM . HUJUS . ECCLESIZ. DE.
CLONGELL . BX ILLUSTRI. FT . INVICTO . SCOTINO
GENTE . NATUS . CUM . SEX. LIBERIS . QUI.
HANC . VITAM . PEREGIT . DECIMO. TERTIO . DIE
MENSIS MARTII . ANO. DoOMINI.. 1631.
MARGARETA MONTGOMRI . VXOR DEUNCTI
ET MATER . PREDICORUM . SEX . LIBERORUM « HOC
FECIT, * * * CONDERE .
vg
No. 93. Tombstone of Alexander Barnewal, in the graveyard of the
old church of Robertstown, county of Meath.
This monument bears the arms of Barnewal and Netterville, and the
date 1618. ‘The really interesting feature in this monument is the fact
that the motto beneath the shield is in the Irish character and language,
as follows :—
OdUL, 6GN, EdOuqd,
which Mr. Hennessy has kindly translated for me—
“ The Englishman void of fear.’
This, I strongly suspect, is not the motto of the family; but if not
the Irish designation of this particular Barnwell, it is most hkely a
tribute on the part of the sculptor of the monument to the memory of
a deceased and venerated patron. I showed the sketch of this tomb to
a member of the Barnewal family, but he was not aware that this
flattering motto formed a part of the armorial bearings of the family in
question.
No. 94. Effigies of Francis Plunket and his wife, Catherine Plunket,
from a tomb slab in the graveyard of Robertstown old church, county
of Meath, bearing date 1682. The lady’s head-dress and general cos-
tume is most elaborate, and characteristic of the period, and she carries
a fan in her right hand. The male figure is armed with buff coat and
euirass, the sword, and shield with the Plunket arms, being of conven-
tional shape.
Apropos of the Plunket arms, Sir Bernard Burke gives an interesting
notice on the subject in the ‘‘ Dublin Penny Journal,” with sketches,
showing the various modifications which these arms underwent at
different periods. One variety, not noticed in these remarks, viz.,
in chief a castle, without the bend dexter, is to be seen on the
Baronstown cross, near Slane, county of Meath, and is figured amongst
this collection (Fig. 55).
No. 95. Effigies of Walter Cruise and Catherine Dalton, his wife,
from the Cruise tomb in the old churcl of Cruicetown, county of Meath,
with date 1688. The male figure is dressed in buff coat and cuirass,
with the small gorget at the neck; his legs are encased in large jack
boots, with stirrup guards and spurs. He is without a sword, and his
helmet, with barred visor, is conventional. The dress of the female
is quite characteristic of the period. It consists of a loose cape or
tippet falling below the elbows, the hands just appearing in front, and
holding up the robe, thus exposing the under petticoat. The shoes
have remarkably high heels.
No. 96. Inscription on the Cruise tomb described above.
No. 97. Sheela-na-gig, built up in the south wall of the old mill at
Rosnaree, on the Boyne, near Slane.
No. 98. Granite plinth of small cross in Termonfechin graveyard,
Co. Louth.
No. 99. Church of St. Mell, Ardagh, Co. Longford.
No. 100. Doorway of St. Flannin’s church, at Killaloe. This illus-
tration is given, as showing that the pilasters at either side of
R.I, A. PROC.—YOL. X. P
Big se ES RS SE ES aS Te BOON ES ee ee
See ~— ss
rs ©
a
>
ea tee ce ek a a a ia ie oe ee a
:
100
the doorway are stilted, after the Anglo-Saxon manner. For other
illustrations of this ancient church see previous volumes.
101. Ancient font of yellow sandstone preserved in the Cathedral
of Killaloe. From the outline of this font, the Greek form of the
cross on it, and the style of the foliated ornament covering it, a por-
tion of which is in low relief, and the remainder “ gravé en creu,”
I believe we may regard it as 10th century work, if not older.
XXI.—Nore on THE INVESTIGATION oF THE PRE-cELTIC EKpocu in IRE-
LAND. By Hyps Crarxe, Corresponding Member of the American
Oriental Society, Member of the German Oriental Society, Member
of the Philological Society of Constantinople, and late President of
the Academy of Anatolia, &c.
[Read November 11, 1867. ]
In begging acceptance by the Royal Irish Academy of an abstract
of my paper on the Iberians in Asia Minor, published by the Ethnolo-
gical Society, I am desirous of enlisting the interest of the Academy in
the extension of this branch of study. William Von Humboldt proved
the existence in Spain of the Iberian race, which he identified with the
present Basques. I have pursued the like investigation for Asia Minor,
determining the existence there of Iberians, who preceded the Greeks,
and showing their identity with the Iberians of Spain. I am now
applying this conjoint evidence to the investigation of the Iberian
names in Italy and Greece, completing the chain of Iberian occupation
in southern Kurope.
There remains the question of Iberian extension in Europe beyond
the limits of Aquitania, and none can work this better than the mem-
bers of the Royal Irish Academy.
The Iberians in Asia Minor, Italy, and Spain, presented examples
of communities in a high state of culture at an early epoch; and the
question is, what influence they exercised beyond their present known
boundaries by colonization or by commerce? So long as they were
undisturbed by the pressure of invading nations—first the Greeks,
afterwards the Latins and the Celts—a race which had spread itself
through the great southern peninsulas and the islands would con-
tinue to advance, particularly by sea.
Thus they would be led to Britain and to Ireland. I adhere
to the belief that the Silures were the remnant of the dominant
Tberians in Britain. I expect that your researches will not only prove
an ancient Iberian colonization of Ireland, but the existence there
of descendants of such race in the present day.
If this point can be determined, it will offer a key to many of the
difficulties of ancient Irish history ; it will exhibit an ancient and an-
terior civilization yielding to subsequent invasions as in other parts
of Europe; it will show us the Iberians there, as elsewhere, seeking
101
the gold diggings of the island, and furnishing ornaments of that metal
conformable to their state of culture. In my view it is to the nearer
Iberians, rather than to the distant Phoenicians, we are to look for the
chief pioneers of commercial intercourse in those epochs.
To arrive at a sound judgment on this subject, a series of researches
is required.
One most important branch is the collection and analysis of the
topographical names in Ireland, to be obtained from the Ordnance
Survey, and other authorities. Every name should be investigated,
even the names of fields. Undoubtedly this topographical nomen-
clature will be found to be almost without exception Hiberno-Celtic,
and much of it modern; but in investigation it will yield results
illustrating the Celtic occupation, and even in that respect the
anterior possession by another race.
I have observed it 1s a law in topographical nomenclature that
where a race, altogether foreign in language, enters a country, it
apples a system of terms to the settlements of the formerly ex-
isting rejected race. This is what we observe in England, where
words purely English or Anglo-Saxon give tens of thousands of
evidences of Roman occupation, even to the names of wells. This
nomenclature follows a law conforming to that applied by the Ger-
manic population to the Roman colonies on the Rhine, and their
outliers. Thus such a term as Cold Harbour will be found ex-
tensively distributed in England, the Netherlands, and Western
Germania. The same law is found in Asia Minor in its application
by the Turks to the sites of Greek cities and establishments,
where we have Ax Hissar and Esxr Hissar, representing the Whit-
Chester and Old Chester of the Anglo-Saxons.
The words must be carefully analyzed and classified, compounds
being entered under each of their elements. The classification will
include the names of each class of object, as rivers, hills, towns, home-
steads, fields, wells, &c., and it will distribute each root into its own class.
It is then necessary to eliminate all the modern names, and carefully
examine what are recognized as more ancient names. All names
occurring since the English Settlement must be excluded, and the
ancient residuum carefully studied. It will most likely be found that
certain terms occur more or less in groups, and the details of situation
will afford ground for identification.
It will most probably result that there is a residuum, containing
first Celtic words, expressive of anterior settlement; and, secondly, of
words doubtfully Celtic, or other than Celtic.
In my opinion the names of the great rivers in Ireland, claimed as
Celtic, are not Celtic, but conform to the names of rivers found in the
non-Celtic or Iberian area. The determination of this point is very
desirable ; for it has generally been assumed that the names of the great
rivers of north-western Europe are Celtic; but the explanation of the
names of the rivers of Spain, Italy, and Asia Minor, has to be settled.
~
ee ee Pa ee
=
wy
i
—_
‘2 eo
= EE
RO ek a ae
ae
nr oe
ae 3 yaks
oe
eed
he. ee as eh ies tol
rE FE
°
102 -
on such hypothesis as a basis, which, in our present knowledge, is
inconsistent.
The ethnological evidence constitutes another head of the investi-
gation. There are diversities in the physical aspect of the Irish popu-
lation; and it is well worthy of inquiry how far any portion conform
with the type of the neighbouring Basques. It will be desirable for
persons having examined the local population to visit the Basques, and
again return to compare their observations; and if Basque co-operation
can be obtained it is desirable. I had long hoped to have taken charge
of such an investigation myself.
Not only the Spanish Basque country, but the French Basque coun-
try, should be examined, and also the mixture of races on the frontiers.
If members of the Iberian race be found in Ireland, they may not con-
form to a general, but a special or local Basque type.
If this investigation succeeds, it strengthens the tests for Celtic, and
it may result in the discovery of the pre-Iberian type in Ireland.
It is very desirable the attention of the Academy should be directed
to the Ligurians. These are a race ancient in Europe, and which has
been little investigated. Although long since divested of political im-
portance, it still affords a considerable portion of the population of
South-eastern France, Switzerland, and Italy. I have thought I found
resemblances to some exceptional Irish types among the Ligurians.
With regard to existing Iberians, I may observe that I regard the
Greeks of Asia Minor as descendants, not of the Hellenic population,
but of the pre-Hellenic, or barbarian population.
The formation of Ireland, cut up by bays and estuaries, is very fa-
vorable for the preservation on its wide coast of remnants of ancient
populations. These are preserved even on restricted areas, and in very
small numbers, where geographical or other limitations check inter-
marriage. Where intermarriage takes place, the majority will outgrow
and replace the minority, even if it be the conqueror. Such has been
the fate of the Lombards in Italy, while the Siete Communi still attest
a Teutonic origin. Such has been the fate of the Goths in Spain, of
Franks and Burgundians, and of the Varegues of Russia, whom I de-
termined to be the Varini of Tacitus, and consequently that tribe most —
nearly allied to the English. (Angliet Varini. Tacit. Germania.)
Treland is rich in archeological remains, and should any evidence be
obtained linguistically from topographical nomenclature, or ethnolo-
gically from living races, each kind of testimony will throw light on
the other. It is the accumulation of facts alone which can give us a
true insight into the obscure portions of the history of men. If nothing
else is obtained from these researches, we must get better data for the
occupation of Ireland by the Hiberno-Celts, and we may succeed in
elucidating the comparative history and chronology of Western Europe,
of anterior races, of the Iberians, Ligurians, Celts, and of those great
displacements which, affecting Europe from one end to the other, in
themselves represent the waves of migration which have moyed the
mighty empires of the Kast.
103
XXITI.—Awn Account or THE OcHAM CHAMBER AT DRUMLOGHAN, CouNnTY
oF Warerrorp. By Ricuarp R. Brasu, M.R.1A.
[Read November 30, 1867. ]
Tuer Souterrain of Drumloghan is situated on the townland of the same
name, in the parish of Stradbally, barony of Decies without Drum, and
Co. Waterford. Thesiteisa gently rising ground to the north of the bog
of Drumloghan, an extensive peat basin, surrounded on all sides by hills,
the most remarkable of which, a bold and singular looking ridge, rising
east of the bog, gives name to the locality--Drumloghan, the “ridge
of the lough.”’ The scenery is wild and lonely, being destitute of trees
or plantations, and surrounded by hills that seem to shut out the busy
world from this weird-looking spot. Here are some relics of a remote
age—an irregular piece of ground, approaching a circular form, enclosed
‘by a rude fence of earth and stones, and grown over with clumps of
ancient white-thorns, interspersed with rough unhewn stones, marks the
site of one of those ancient burial places known as Killeens, or Ceallu-
raghs, and which are unconsecrated cemeteries appropriated to the in-
terment of unbaptized children and suicides, and which many well-
informed antiquaries believe to have been originally places of pagan
sepulture. This one is termed by the neighbouring peasantry Killeena,
which appellation is usually applied to them in this county as well as
in Cork; while in that of Kerry the name of Cealluragh is generally
used. Here, however, at present there is no appearance of interments,
nor has there been within the memory of “‘ the oldest inhabitant ;’’ yet
such is the traditional sanctity of the spot, though entirely devoid of all
Christian relics or associations, that 1t is carefully preserved and regarded
with superstitious veneration.
Immediately under the fence, at the northern side, is a flat stone,
buried in the ground, its upper surface level with the green sward; in
this stone is an artificial cavity, 54 inches in diameter, and 6 inches
deep, usually filled with water, and containing also a quantity of
votive offerings in the shape of buttons, marbles, pins, needles, berries,
&c., deposited there by persons using the water as a cure for various
skin diseases, and especially for warts, polypi, &c., for which purpose
persons come from a considerable distance. J saw a man there with a
polypus in his nose, who, after trying various surgeons, had come to
test the efficacy of ‘‘the well,” as it is here called. The peasantry
affirm that this cavity is never without water in the dryest summer, and
that it never freezes during the hardest winter.
About twenty yards to the south-east of the Killeena is a rude block
of stone, upon the upper surface of which is a basin-shaped cavity,
perfectly circular, and ten inches in diameter, and certainly of artificial
formation. It is of that class of monuments usually denominated
RS at er SORTS EN
Se at wa eer Shee
Seer hee
i i a
iiptin tsa a
re
ha ee ne ie Om
104
rock-basins; and, though no tradition attaches to it, the peasantry look
upon it as a sacred stone.
The Killeena appears to have been originally enclosed, or rather
contained within the area of a very extensive rath, a segment of the
enclosing fence of which still exists to the north, and a further portion
of it being traceable, though overgrown with grass, yet still elevated
above the general ground level. It was in the process of removing
this fence that the tenant farmer, Mr. William Quealy, discovered
the Souterrain; and, being a person of considerable intelligence, he
immediately stopped the workmen, and communicated the fact to Mr.
William Williams, of Dungarvan, a gentleman well known for his an-
tiquarian tastes, who lost no time in proceeding to the spot; under his
direction, the chamber was carefully opened, the earth removed from
the interior, and also from the exterior, when, to that gentleman’s
great delight, he discovered a number of Ogham inscriptions on the
side pillars and roofing stones.
Mr. Williams immediately communicated his discovery to me, and,
on Thursday, September 19th, I visited the locality, accompanied by
Mr. George Atkinson, of the Department of Science and Art, South
Kensington, Mr. Williams kindly accompanying us.
The monument resembles that class of our megalithic structures
known in this country as Leaba Diarmada agus Ghrainné, or “‘ Diarmid
and Grainne’s Bed ;’’ it lies east and west, and was completely covered
up in the fence already alluded to, being about half below and half
above the natural surface level of the ground.
The chamber is an irregular parallelogram, slightly curved in
its length, which is 9 feet 10 inches; width in the centre, 4 feet
10 inches; average height, 4 feet 4 inches. (See Plan, Pl. XIV.) It
consists of two side walls, formed principally of rough undressed upright
pillars, the irregular spaces between being filled with coarse uncemented
rubble masonry, the east end being built across in the same manner.
The roof (see Pl. XV.), is formed of slabs of undressed stone, laid
across lintel-wise, and resting on the side walls. The original entrance
appears to me to have been at the east end, where there is a portion of
a covered passage, 5 feet in length; 2 feet 3 inches in width; and 2
feet 2 inches in height, the east end of this passage being stopped by
the clay bank. (Pls. XVII. & XVIII.) These narrow passages, or,
as they are usually designated by the peasantry, ‘‘creeps,”’ are very
general in rath chambers; they are sometimes of very considerable
length when leading to a single chamber, and usually connect a number
of chambers: in many instances they are so low and narrow, as to oblige
the explorer to creep on his face and hands; hence the very appropriate
name given to them by the country people.
All the stones composing the chamber are perfectly rude and un-
dressed, showing no tool-mark whatsoever except the Ogham scores ;
these are found on a certain number of the side pillars and roofing
stones, and under such circumstances as plainly indicate that they
105
were used as mere building materials by the constructors of this rath
chamber, as many of the inscriptions were so placed, that they could
not have been seen but for the removal of the superincumbent earth,
as they were on the top angles of the roofing stones.
And here I would remark, that it is most desirable, when disco-
veries of Oghams are made under such circumstances, they should, if
possible, be entirely uncovered.
Before proceeding to describe the monuments of Drumloghan Souter-
rain, I would wish to make a few remarks on the obstacles that have
hitherto attended the development of this branch of our national anti-
uities.
‘ When the attention of Irish Archzologists became directed to this
subject in the last century, much discredit was attached to the pursuit,
in consequence of the circumstances under which the Callan Mountain
discovery was brought under the notice of the learned; and from the
mistaken belief, then very general, that the inscription there found was
a forgery, public interest in the subject died away.
The subsequent discoveries of Mr. Pelham, though very remarkable,
failed to re-awaken the attention of our antiquaries; and it was not
until the later more numerous finds of Mr. Windele and Mr. Hitchcock,
and the learned papers of the Right Rev. Dr. Graves, showed that the
Ogham monuments held an important place in our national archeology,
that a more general interest was awakened to the subject.
It has been to me a matter of some surprise that our very best Irish
scholars have given scarcely any attention to the translation of these
inscriptions; and I have heard it stated that such have on many occa-
sions refused to offer an opinion on, or attempt a translation of, copies
of inscriptions forwarded to them for that purpose. Such a fact has
had a very discouraging effect on the study of these monuments; men
of humbler pretensions naturally shrinking from a task avoided by men
of greater learning and experience in Celtic philology.
I rather think, however, that other important and pressing literary
obligations, occupying the time and attention of such men as the late
Professors O’ Donovan and O’Curry, prévented them from entering on
new fields of investigation, rather than any inability to cope with a
subject which I believe either of these lamented scholars could easily
have mastered, had they turned their attention towards it.
While it must be admitted that many of the inscriptions are im-
possible of translation, it is equally a fact that very many others, from
their extreme brevity and simplicity, can be easily understood; the
failure of many attempted renderings resulting from one or other of
the following causes :—
Firstly. An ignorance of the true nature and intent of the monu-
ments.
Secondly. The linguistic difficulties presented by the obsolete
Gaedhelic in which they are inscribed.
Thirdly. Ignorance of the contractions used in engraving on a
material where brevity was essential.
a NN 1 ON cen, 2 7
oe
—
hese >
—<
-
a A KN a Re Fh
rhe
ma
.
: or
et, ee ks Ga OE ee
OOO er Ee ty se
ET Rett rs EE celts Bis SR Ap yemnTt
eat eT
106
Fourthly. Imperfection of copies, as well as of the inscriptions
themselves, from weather wear and other injuries.
Fifthly. The pre-conceived ideas or prejudices of the translators,
leading them to imagine what the inscription ought to be, and thence
torturing, misplacing, and misreading the characters in every possible
way, in order to bring out allusions to some local historic fact, or to
the name of some famous mythic chief, king, or druid, or of some deity
supposed to have been worshipped in pagan times.
pene such illusory modes of investigation, and taking up the
key alphabet from the Book of Ballymote, as adopted by the Right Rev.
Dr. Graves ; and, with its assistance, comparing and carefully analyzing
a number of these inscriptions, the candid and patient investigator
will, I think, be led to the following conclusions :—
Firstly. That the monuments are almost exclusively sepulchral or
monumental. |
Secondly. That in such cases they seldom record more than the
name and tribe name of the deceased ; with occasionally his profession
as a warrior, a poet, a judge, and sometimes an exclamation of grief,
as ‘‘ alas,” ‘‘ woe is me,” &c.
Thirdly. That they are inscribed in the simplest and briefest man-
ner, connecting words scarcely ever used, and words frequently ex-
pressed by initials.
Fourthly. That the word ‘‘ Maqui,”’ the genitive of son, occurs in the
majority of the monuments in some or other of its forms; and that
where it thus occurs, it becomes the key word of the inscription; as
before, and after it, we are sure to find a proper name; and that the
position of this word dictates the position in which the ene is to
be read.
Having premised thus much, I shall now proceed to describe the
inscriptions. In the accompanying plan and sections I have numbered
all the large stones, both inscribed and uninscribed, and shall com-
mence with the roofing slabs. (See Pl. XV.)
| Roofing Slab, No. 1.—This stone is five feet in length, and nine
inches by eight inches in the centre ; there is a large fracture in the
upper front edge, and it presents to us two lines of characters on the
under angles. The inscription commences on the front angle, about
two feet from the end; three strokes of the last character are on the top
edge, and is as follows :—
es ik ie ie gine
MC A aN eM AY Gin: 0 6 AT Yr ee om nrc
The second line on the opposite angle:
co ea
18) S/S t esGe yO IN 83
.
107
The characters are clearly cut, and perfectly legible, so that there
is no difficulty in determining their values. The inscription appears to
me to commemorate two individuals, and I read it as follows :—-
<“MANU, SON OF UNOGA; TIMOCE, SON OF ARB.”’
These names are of a peculiar type, not found in our annals and
pedigrees, but are quite consistent with the names usually found on
Ogham monuments. The equivalent for ‘‘Son of” varies from the
usual formula of ‘‘ Maqi;’’ connecting the first two names, it is ‘‘ Mag ;”
in the second instance it is the common form of ‘‘ Mae.’”’ I would here
remark that, while ‘‘ Maqi,” the genitive of Mac, is the form most ge-
nerally used in these inscriptions, the word in all its inflections is
found also on them: thus we have ‘‘Maqu,” ‘‘ Mago,” ‘ Mage,”
“Mag,” and frequently ‘‘Maqqi,” also occasionally ‘‘ Moc’ and
“ Magu.”
These names I have failed to identify in any of our ancient records
to which I have access. In the “‘ Annals of the Four Masters’’ I find
two names that have some family resemblance to that of the first on
the monument; they are those of Mantan, slain by Eremon at the
battle of Breogan; 3506; and Manach, a priest and woodman to St.
Patrick, A. D. 448.
Roofing Slab, No. 4.—This stone is of irregular shape and dimen-
sions, and is five feet three inches in length, and seventeen inches by
ten inches in the centre; it has two lines of characters on the upper
angles, which were consequently concealed until the superincumbent
earth was removed from the top of the chamber. The inscription com-
mences on the front angle at two feet ten inches from the end of the
stone, as follows :—
aa un
CrASrin. Ui, Ne * Oe PE
It is then taken up atthe opposite angle, commencing two feet from
the end, as follows :—
|
Rinunnnstt RJlneoeenin din dldi@enmuee
MA Q Tavis Ch Ome tec ho Tet © F
There is a fracture at the top of this stone between the letters O
and F, where probably one or two characters were inscribed. I have
attempted a rendering of this inscription, which I submit to the judg-
ment of those learned in Oghamic lore :—
‘“ SLEEPS UNOFIC, SON OF MUCOI, [UNDER THIS] STONE, MUTE’’ [oR] ‘(IN
SILENCE.”’
“Cal,” according to O’Brien and O’Reilly, is sleep, slumbers;
“Ji” is obviously a stone, a flag; ‘To, Toi,” according to the same
authorities, 1s selent, mute, dumb.
Bel A. PROC.—-VOL, X. Q
gt ES at NO EP eS == ten a
or Ee = ° z -
weertatcen
pee wr
_—
“sy
PEE SE ET RS TEES OP a PES BY
~—
*
na alh hr Sr sree
108
I make no conjecture as to the imperfect portion. The name
Unofic I have failed to identify; it has a family likeness to the follow- |
ing: ‘‘Uchadon, A. M. 3650; Ugaine, A. M. 4546, 4567; Uirgren, A. D.
283.”
Roofing Slab, No. 6.—This stone is five feet four inches in length,
and twelve inches by seven inches in the centre; a fair and regular-
shaped right-angled pillar ; it has two lines of characters on the under
angles, The inscription commences four feet from the end of the stone
at one of the angles, as follows :—
The last character is on the top of the stone; it is taken up on the
opposite angle at two feet nine inches from the end, thus :—
OU ik,
Mi PASZQ) 1 clea 6
This inscription is exceedingly ae and reads—
‘‘SAETAD, SON OF INI.”
Other readings may probably be suggested, as ‘‘Sae Tad, son of
Ini.”” The word Sae may be considered an Oghamic abbreviation of
‘‘Sagart,”’ a priest; or ‘‘Saoi,” a learned man; and “‘ Tad,” a proper
name, equivalent to ‘‘ Tade,” “ Tadh,” “‘ Tadhg. ¢*
Many of this name are found in Irish History, beginning with
Tadhg, son of Olioll Ollum, A.D. 195. I incline, however, to the
more simple form of the inscription.
Roofing Slab, No. 7.--This is a very irregular-shaped stone, measur-
ing four feet six inches in length, and twelve inches by eight inches in
the centre; it has three lines of characters—two on the upper angles,
the third on one of the under. The inscription commences two feet
from the end of the stone, as follows :—
al sie eae Grr A Bim
It is continued at the opposite angle, commencing two feet four
inches from the end, thus :—
rennet ie eat 1
a mit
E TAS oT A D.C
The third line will be found on the angle under the last, commene-
ing also two feet four inches from the end, thus :—
The characters are well cut, and quite legible, and no controversy
can arise as to their values. I have ventured on a reading of a portion
of this interesting inscription ; the rest I confess my inability to trans-
late. I read it—
‘¢ CU-NALEG EA MAQI CET AI DESRAD.”’
That is, ‘‘ Cu-Naleg of the tribe of the Son of Cet, the learned Brehon.”’
The prefix ‘‘ Cu” is very usual, at least very frequently found to an-
cient historic names; many examples will be. seen in the ‘‘ Index
Nominum” of Dr. O’ Donovan’s ‘‘ Annals of the Four Masters.’’ From
the peculiar position of the letters ‘‘ea,’’ I take them to be an archaic
form of “ Ua,’’ which, according to O’Brien, “‘ signifies any male descend-
ants, whether son or grandson, or in any other degree or descent from
a certain ancestor or stock.’’ This ‘‘ea’’ I have found in the same
position upon other Ogham monuments. ‘‘ Cet.’’ This name is found in
some ancient authorities: according to Keating, Mac Ceacht was one of
the three Tuatha De Danan Kings of Ireland when the Clanna Miledh
landed. Again, we have Cet Mac Magach, who slew Connor Mac
Nessa with the mythic brain ball of Mesgedhra, as related in the
historic tales called ‘‘ Oitte,’’ 1. e., ‘‘ Tragedies,” and which are to be
found in the ‘‘ Book of Leinster.’’ We have also Mac Cecht, one of St.
Patrick’s smiths.
It also occurs as a prefix to several names in the ‘Annals of the
Four Masters.”’ ‘‘ Ai,” according to O’Brien, ‘‘ the learned,” ‘‘ Desrad”’
the same as ‘“ Desrut, a judge” (O’Reilly’s Dict.), the D and T being
commutable in the Irish language.
The other six characters in this inscription I have been unable to
render with any degree of probability.
Roofing Slab, No. 8.—This is a coarse and very irregularly-shaped
stone, three feet nine inches in length. The inscription is in one line
upon an under angle, the arris of which is very irregular and rather
rounded.
Ht LUT yp tt
Te Ge Ue MA nT) DA - G
The rendering of this is very simple,
“TEU, SON OF DAG.”
I have been unable to trace these names in any of our ancient
pedigrees, as far as I have been able to consult them.
We are familiar with one of the names as a compound in that of a
celebrated mythic personage, the Dag-da, a deified chief of the Tuath De
ae
bal
mae
tee
——
.
_
Saati
+s
=!
et eens
Te Bh *
ware
“a ake
a it bo
ee ee Leh Tad
date, St me
s<
eer Ear eet 3st Ss Ss
110
Dananns. We also find it in Dag-airne, son of Goll, son of Gollan, slain
A. M. 3656 (‘‘ Annals of the Four Masters’’).
This last finishes the inscri bedlintel slabs. I shall now proceed to
describe the inscribed upright stones, which principally compose the
walling at the north and south sides, taking them in order as they are
numbered on the accompanying elevation from the entrance.
South side Pillar, No.1. (Pl. X1X.)—This stone stands at the en-
trance of chamber, and is rough, and of irregular shape; it is three
feet, six inches in length; and twelve inches by nine inches in the
centre. The inscription commences at the bottom of the stone, close to
the ground, runs up one angle, across the head, and a short way down
the opposite angle ; and is as follows :—
Be RMA Q I MU Cc 0) T R O
| Wi fp Ul see fi
yay //// 0 Aa Feel HH
Beall fiavarapen) =
s I >
“6 BIR MAQI MUCOI ROTT AIS.’’
which I render as follows :—“‘ Bir son of Mucoi[in] red death,” ‘‘ Rot,”
according to O’Reilly, is ‘‘ Red;”’ ‘‘ Aise’” is ‘“‘ Death.”’ This was pro-
bably the monument of a warrior slain in battle, or buried where he
met his bloody fate. The inscription is singularly archaic and expres-
sive.
The name “ Bir’’ I have been unable to trace, unless it may be a form
of ‘‘ Bar,” or ‘‘Barri,’”’? a Munster name, recognized in St. Finn-Barr,
founder of the See of Cork. The patronymic ‘‘ Mucov’ I shall refer to
hereafter.
South side Pillar, No. 3.—This is a rough triangular-shaped stone,
three feet eight inches in length—and thirteen inches by seven inches
at the bottom ; while it is but four inches by three inches-at the top ;
at present it is bottom upwards, the inscriptions commencing two feet
from the thick end, occupying a space of one foot, eight inches in
length.
Ha i
MA PSG) Porta ys oe
‘¢ THE SON OF NE.’’
The inscription is well and cleanly cut, is in good preservation, and
there is no other trace of letters on the stone.
111
This name appears in Keating in the form of Naoi, a skilful harper,
brought into Ireland by the Clanna Miledh. The chiefs of the invaders,
Heber and Heremon, disputed about the right to retain so excellent a
musician in their service; which was decided by casting lots, in favour
of Heber. We find amongst the guests assembled at Tara on the
occasion of a great banquet given by Cormac Mac Airt, as described in
the ‘‘ Book of Ballymote,”’ the name of Nia-Mor, a King of Connaught ;
also the name of Enna Nia, a king of Leinster. It is stated in the
“« Book of Invasions,”’ that the plain of Magh-Tuireadh, the scene of the
great battle between the Fir-bolgs and Tuath De Danans, was anciently
called ‘‘ Magh-Nia.’’
South side Pillar, No. 5.—This is a coarse-grained, irregularly
shaped oval flag, three feet three inches in length, and eighteen inches
in width at centre; it has two lines of characters on its front angles,
reading from the bottom upwards, and commencing as follows :—
pe
Yt aq +
De Nine As E
There is a fracture in the top of the stone, and the lower part of
the strokes forming the Q are obliterated, or knocked off; but the
upper ends of the five strokes above the angle are quite distinct, and
with the letters M before, and O following, formed the word Mago.
The A is wanting; but this may be accounted for by the injury to this
part of the stone, though we have other instances where this vowel
has been omitted in the same word.
The legend is very simple and reads—
‘‘ ODAFE, SON OF DENAFE.”’
These names are of a hopelessly foreign cast; I can make nothing
of them. 7
North side Pillar, No.1. (Pl. XVI.)—This is a rude, unshapely
piece of conglomerate, much weather worn; it is 8 feet 6 inches in
length, 10 inches wide, and 8 inches thick in the centre; it has only
three characters on one angle towards its top.
1/1 mente
TMM
jy 18 I
The upper part was broken to make it fit into its present position ;
and the upper part of the angle is fractured; this, and the natural weather
wear of a stone so friable in its texture, will account for the disappear-
ance of the remainder of the inscription; the letters that remain are
much worn down, but are still legible. This is the second instance
in which the consonants crossing the stem line are oblique.
a
cca
2S
Sb fore nr Pe SE RE EE ES a er ek a
T12
North Side Pillar, No. 4.—This also is an irregularly-shaped slab,
standing on its smaller end, which position must have been its original
one. It is in length 3 feet 7 inches; 1 foot 10 inches by & inches at
its largest end, and 5 inches by 5 inches at its smaller. The inscrip-
tion commences at 1 foot 2 inches from the bottom, and continucs
round a portion of the top.
il ff is | LiL)
i ad 5
=
The introduction of the character expressing the double consonant
st I cannot account for. I have found the double consonant ng in
a similar position on another Ogham monument; whether they are
errors of the engraver, or have a peculiar signification, must remain for
further investigation.
The name Deago on this monument is a singular one, which I have
failed to identify among our ancient names. It is, however, a re-
markable fact, that it is found on one of the monuments in the Cave
of Dunlo, county of Kerry; and still more remarkable, in connexion
with the same tribe name. The inscription from Dunlo is as fol-
lows :—
Srtd/ sen IEEE nRIORELLLSO WELLER LLG
DE G OMA @ i OME Cr Oak:
‘‘DEGO MAQI MUCOI,” &c.
The constant recurrence of the tribe name of Muc, in its various
forms, is worthy of observation. I have not noticed any other repeated
but this. On one of the Ballintaggart monuments we have ‘‘ Moc-
coe;” on a lintel stone in St. Seskinan’s Church, county of Waterford,
we have ‘“‘Muc;” from a pillar-stone at Burnham House, county of
Kerry, ‘‘Muce;” on two of the Drumlohan we find it is ‘‘ Mucoi ;”
and on one “‘Muco.’”’ The name is evidently that of a tribe very
widely diffused, from the extremity of the county of Kerry to that of
Waterford, and found also on a monument at Placus, county of Cork.
113
Muc is Gaedhelic for boar; and the custom of taking family names
from animals was prevalent in Ireland, as well as in other countries,
as ‘“‘Mac Sionach,”’ son of the fox ; ‘‘ Mac Cue,” son of the hound, &c.
That the boar was held in great estimation in Iveland, if not actu-
ally reverenced, we have strong indications in the traditions and
foll-lore of the peasantry, and yet stronger evidence in the fact, that it
enters into the topographical nomenclature of our island to a great
extent.
The porcine terms Muc, Tore, Lioth, and other appellations con-
nected with the unclean animal, as Chollan, a hog; Cro, a stye;
Banb, a young pig, will be found designating numerous localities
through the country.
Thus, an ancient name of Ireland was Muc-inis, or hog island :
there is a Muc-inis in Lough Derg, on the Shannon; also a Muc-inis on
the coast of Clare; and a district on the banks of the River Brick,
county of Kerry, called Muc-inis; also Muck-ros, in the same county ;
a Muc-moe, in the county of Monahan ; a Ballynamuc and Kilamucky,
county of Cork; a Coolnamuck, county of Waterford. One of the
western islands of Scotland is called Muc-inis, and her territorial
chiefs, up to a late period, were styled Lairds of Muc. We have Tore
Mountain, Killarney; Mam Tore, in Connaught, Glen Torcan, and
numerous other hills, glens, and natural objects, into which the word
Tore enters. The boar-name Liath, enters into the designation of one
of our counties, Leitrim, anciently Liath-Truim; as well as of Tara
Hill, anciently called Liath-Druim, &c. One of our early kings, called
Olmucadha, or of the great swine, reigned from A. M. 3778 to 3790.
The prominence thus given to this animal in our Jegendary tales
and topographical nomenclature suggests the idea, that the boar may
have been identified with that system of animal worship which we
have some reason for believing once existed in this country. The
Hindoos reverenced the varaha, or boar, as one of the incarnations of
Vishnu; and in the geography of the Hindoos, Europe is set forth as
‘‘Varaha Dwipa,’” or Boar Island, equivalent to the Muc-inis of our
own. He (Vishnu) is represented as residing there in the shape of a
boar; ‘‘ and he is described as the chief of a numerous offspring, of
ae in that shape’ (‘‘ Asiatic Researches,” vol. viii. pp. 302—
361).
I hope this digression may not be considered foreign to the subject
in hand, my object being to illustrate the use of this tribe name as
found on the Drumloghan and other Ogham monuments.
Having thus endeavoured to describe these interesting inscriptions,
which are a valuable addition to our still increasing stock of Ogham
literature, I would desire to call attention to a few particulars worthy
of notice in connexion with this find.
Firstly. That we can form no opinion as to the age of this chamber,
the people by whom it was constructed, or the purposes for which it
was intended, as in the excavations nothing was discovered that could
throw light on such inquiries.
=
“.
mix,
en aE NN Sh ee eK A CN | ete aines ean AS TN
a
| be
ee
—
ae ea i
i al
i
ee a eee
114
Secondly. That the Ogham monuments were used merely as
building material, having the ends knocked off where it suited the ~
builders, and being placed in every position that suited the exigenicies
of the work, without any reference to the inscriptions, some of them
being in fact turned upside down, and several placed where they could
not be read except by removing portions of the structure.
Thirdly. That the inscriptions are all in good order, and perfectly
legible, the only exception being that with the three characters already
alluded to; and that this favourable circumstance is owing to their
concealment in this crypt, where they have been preserved, probably
for ages, from the hand of violence and the injuries of weather.
Fourthly. That eighteen simple letters are used in these inscrip-
tions, a double consonant, st, being used once only; and that none of
the characters given in the scales published by Dr. O’ Donovan and the
Right Rev. Dr. Graves, as representing diphthongs, are made use of.
Fifthly. That the monuments exhibit no traces of marks or carv-
ings of any kind—-no cross, or other Christian emblem; and that the
inscriptions show no indications of the pious formula that usually dis-
tinguishes the memorials of a Christian people.
Sixthly. The singularity of the names, which, though not actually
found in our ancient annals, are of that archaic type which we meet
in our bardic remains.
I shall here recapitulate these names, hoping that our Gaedhelic
scholars may be able to identify them in the course of their investiga-
tions :——
Manu, Cu-Naleg,
Unoga, Cet,
Timoce, Tgu,
Arb, Dag,
Unofie, Bir,
Mucoi, ’Ne,
Saetad, Odafe,
Ini, Denafe,
Deago.
The remarkable uniformity of the names found on all the Ogham
monuments hitherto discovered, and their general dissimilarity to those
usually found in our annals and other historic documents, point signi-
ficantly to the fact, that the people who inscribed them were a peculiar
and distinct tribe. The question then arises, who were this people ?
from whence came they? and in what age did they live ?—questions
easier asked than answered. While I must state that I have no theory
on this subject, yet I think there are some facts and considerations that
point to one of the many migrations to our island recorded in the bardic
annals as the people to whom we are indebted for the introduction of
the Ogham ; and I would briefly set these before the Academy in the
way of suggestions. The great majority, then, of our Ogham monuments
are found in the province of Munster, and principally in the counties of
115
Kerry, Cork, and Waterford, embracing a large extent of the south and
west coast, from Tralee Bay, in Kerry, to Waterford harbour. As near
as | can ascertain, the following numbers of monuments have been
found: in Kerry, 75; Cork, 42; Waterford, 26; Limerick, 1; Clare,
1. These are all in the province of Munster. All the rest of Ireland
supplies but 10; of these 5 are in the county of Kilkenny, still a
southern county; the others are divided as follows: 1 in Wicklow,
1 in Meath, 2 in Roscommon; so that for the purposes of our argu-
ment it may be fairly assumed that the three southern counties named
above form the Ogham district.
Again, it is worthy of remark that the majority of these monuments
are found on the seaboard of the above-named counties—very many of
them on the strands. The Drumlohan find is within three or four miles
of the sea, as are many others of the Waterford and Kerry Oghams;
those found in the county of Cork are more inland. The inferences
from these facts are obvious.
First. That the Ogham was not invented in our island, else it would
have been used generally throughout the country, and would not have
been confined to one district.
Secondly. That it was introduced by a maritime people, who landed
on our south or south-western shores, spreading themselves along the
seaboard of the counties already named, and who ultimately became
masters of the whole island.
Thirdly. That the language spoken by those invaders, and engraven
on their sepulchral monuments, became the language of the country, and
is the same as that which has come down to us, saving those mutations
to which time and civilization subject all languages. But the ques-
tion naturally arises here, if such a people Janded on our southern
shores, and, making themselves masters of the island, imposed their
language and customs upon the whole, why are their engraved monu-
ments not found all over the country ? An answer to this may be
found in the supposition that they came as colonists—perhaps the first
colonists, and very probably few in number; that it took a considerable
lapse of time before they fully occupied the southern parts of the
island, and much more before the entire was peopled. In these early
times population increased but slowly, internal feuds and other causes
checking their growth. Before this people grew beyond the limits of
the southern district they may have abandoned the use of the Ogham,
and adopted a more advanced character, suited to a more advanced stage
of civilization, and derived most probably from foreign intercourse. For
it is certain that the Gaedhil had letters independent of the Ogham
prior to the introduction of the Roman alphabet by St. Patrick, in the
fitth century. That such a transition took place is evident from the
fact, that the learned among the Gaedhil preserved the Ogham as a
literary curiosity, and used it occasionally in annotations and scholia,
delighting to write their own names in it.
EeearA./PROC.— VOL) x. R
=
sa
re ee Ce On a ee Se ees ery Mae ee em el
116
Yet the other alternative may also be considered—namely, that
the people who used this character may have been invaders, and not
original colonists; that being invaders, they were probably weak in
numbers, though of a superior civilization to the aborigines, whom they
found, perhaps, thinly populating the country. Those invaders having
formed a settlement in the immediate district where they landed, and
increasing in numbers by the course of nature, spread themselves along
the seaboard, and around those commodious harbours and sea inlets so
plentiful on the south and south-western coasts; being themselves a
maritime people, they affected the shores, both from a natural desire
for the sea, the convenience of fishing, and for politic reasons, inas-
much, as by the sea they could hold communication with their native
land, receive reinforcements from thence, and by it also make their
escape if unexpectedly hard pressed by the aborigines. Such has ever
been the policy of colonists under similar circumstances. In this
immense district, comprising the counties of Cork, Kerry, and Water-
ford, such a colony may have existed for centuries, growing into the
power and numbers of a considerable state, ere they were able to
extend their dominion over the whole island. Such a state of things
as, in fact, existed in England at the time of the Roman invasion,
when the island was divided into a number of states totally independent
of each other, and often engaged in fierce wars. In this alternative
we might also suppose that the Ogham fell into disuse among them ere
their power was extended over the whole island. That such a state of
things is not only possible, but probable, we may infer from the fact,
that the descendants of the Norman invaders were near five centuries
settled in Ireland before they were able to subdue the country; and
that for the same period their language and letters were unknown out-
side their limited dominion, known as the ‘‘ Pale;’’ while the letters
and idiom brought by them originally into the country would be in
our days unintelligible, except to the learned alone. Here, I think, is
a parallel case to what may have occurred in our island at a remote
period. The argument might be further amplified and illustrated;
but as I desire only to indicate a line of investigation, I shall leave the
pursuit of it to others.
Now, among the many migrations recorded by our Bardic his-
torians, there is one, and only one, to whom the introduction of the
Ogham might be attributed with any degree of plausibility—namely,
that tribe called the Clanna Miledh, or Milesians.
Rejecting the mythic origin and adventures of the ancestors of
Miledh, and the conjectural chronology of the Bards, we may safely
admit the probability of an ancient eastern tribe having migrated
through, or from the northern parts of Egypt, along the shores of the
Mediterranean to Ceuta, and from thence across the straits into Spain—
the very identical route taken by another eastern tribe in subsequent
ages, who founded an oriental empire in Europe that lasted nearly eight
centuries. Tarik and his Arabs did in A. D. 710 what their ancestors
a4
accomplished, perhaps, fifteen centuries before—for ‘“‘history but repeats
itself.”” The Phoenicians founded Gades eleven or twelve centuries B. C.
These traders never founded colonies in uninhabited districts; they
were merchants and chapmen, and without a population they could not
trade. At all events, during the dominion of Carthage, and in the days
of the Scipios, Spain was not only colonized by the Phoenicians, but
was inhabited by a numerous, wealthy, and prosperous aboriginal
population.
That Spain may in these days have thrown off some of her adven-
turous, or superabundant population, is not atall unlikely. That one of
these bands may have dropped on the southern shores of Ireland
is equally probable; because any person looking at the map of Europe
cannot fail to see that the south of Ireland is the natural land-fall from
the north of Spain.
Whether such a migration as we have been considering took place
before or after the intercourse of the Tyrian people with the British Isles,
it is now impossible to say ; more likely it took place subsequently, as
we must believe that enterprising people to have been the pioneers of
all maritime discovery. All our native historians, however they may
differ on other points, unanimously insist on this Spanish invasion, and
the entire subjugation of Ireland by the invaders; and here I would
remark, that this statement is corroborated by the opinions of many
learned men having no Celtic sympathies or prejudices whatsoever.
The scope of the present paper will not permit me to recapitulate these
opinions.
Our native authorities go on to state that these invaders came in a
fleet of thirty ships; that in each were thirty warriors, with their
Wives; that they landed at Inbher Sceine, now the Bay of Kenmare,
in the county of Kerry ; that from thence they marched inland, and
encountered an army of the natives, stated then to be a people called
Tuath De Dananns, at Sliabh Mis—a mountain district between the bays
of Tralee and Dingle; that a battle was there fought, in which the
latter were defeated. This engagement appears to have been a running
fight, as was usual in that period amongst semi-civilized tribes, con-
tinued through a series of glens, or valleys, at the foot of Sliabh Mis ;
two of these are called Glen-Fais and Glen-Scothian, from Fais and
Scota, two amazons who fought in the ranks of the Clanna-Miledh,
and were there slain. These localities are as popularly known by the
above names as any others in the country; and in Glen-Fais there are
certainly evidences of some remarkable transactions having there taken
place at some remote period. :
Here are two enormous pillar-stones, one eleven feet in height still
erect; the other is ten feet in height, in an inclining position, the
latter having a fine Ogham inscription engraved thereon. There are
also an unascertained number of ancient graves, cist-formed, containing
human remains; the discovery and opening of several of which are
described in a paper read before the Academy by the late Venerable
wa et ee Se Pa ee AE
ae ee es A ee RA he” Bee: ae oe ee Bien
118
Archdeacon Rowan, on November 8th, 1858. Now, the account given
by the bardic historians of the speedy subjugation of the whole island —
to the Gaedhil, as the Clanna-Milidh are more generally called from
their ancestor Gaedhelas, is perfectly fabulous, and unworthy of credit ;
a handful of adventurers could not in so short a space of time conquer
the native population, and occupy so large an extent of country, forest-
grown, and full of natural fastnesses. We must remember that, after
near five centuries of military occupation and warfare, the English, in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, were compelled to cut down all the
woods before they succeeded in reducing the country to submission.
We must, I think, conceive that the progress of the Gaedhelic power
in Ireland was of such a nature as I have already described.
Again, it is a strong corroborative fact, that in the very county in
whieh the Gaedhil are said to have first landed are found by far the
greatest proportion of Ogham monuments; that they are found on the
reputed scene of their first battle, and in very remarkable numbers in
and about the very localities where they made their first appearance
and sojourn. The advent of the Spanish colonists was, no doubt, an
epoch in the primitive history of Ireland to them. I believe she is in-
debted for her Brehon laws, her poetry, her music, and that system of
Oriental paganism of which so many relics remain to us.
It may be very naturally asked, have we any evidence of the exist-
ence of such a people in Spain ? or is there any historic evidence of the
state of that country, or of the people inhabiting it, at the remote period
claimed for the Gadhelian invasion? I think that Strabo provides an
answer to so natural a query in his description of the Turdetani and
Turduli—a people or peoples inhabiting southern Spain. Hear what he
says of them: ‘‘These people are esteemed to be the most intelligent
of all the Iberians; they have an alphabet, and possess ancient writings,
poems, and metrical laws, six thousand years old, as they say. The
other Iberians are likewise furnished with an alphabet, although not of
the same form, nor do they speak the same language” (Strabo, Bohn’s
edit. v1, p. 209). He further states that the people called themselves
Turdetani, and their country Turdetania; this word is pure Gaedhelic,
Tir-de-Tana, from Tir, a country, land; de, of; Tana, a drove, a herd,
“the land of herds.”? The Greek geographer states, ‘‘that Turditania
bred a superabundance of cattle (ibid., p. 217), and that they were famous
for the production and export of wool, and that rams for the purpose of
covering fetched a talent’’ (ibid., p. 216). He further states that they
were also called ‘‘ Turduli;”’ but whether they were two distinct tribes,
or one tribe having two appellations, he could not exactly say. Now,
Turduli is as intensely Gaedhelic as any word can be; ‘‘ Tir-duile,”
from Tir, a country, land (in the Sanscrit, Tir means land border), and
Duile, a pleasant land or country. How indicative both these names
are of the beautiful and fertile Andalusia, the richest province of
southern Spain, originally inhabited by those people. Iam well aware
how delusive etymological likenesses are, and how apt to lead us astray
119
in investigation, nor do I usually attach much importance to them;
but in this instance, where, without doing any violence to the structure
of words, we find one language interpreting another so aptly, according
to the very physical features and productions of a country, we are bound
to attach some value to them, were it only as corroborative evidence.
The topography of southern Spain is intensely Gaedhelic. Many of
its rivers, streams, lakes, hills, and other physical features, are called
by names which can only be interpreted by that language; while the
peasantry themselves, in their character, customs, and superstitions, are
a similar race to our own. In addition, there is corroborative evidence
in the strong sympathies existing, from time immemorial, between the
people of the south and west of Ireland and the Spaniards, in the con-
stant intercourse from the most ancient times continued down to late
medieval times; and in the ethnological affinities between the people
of various parts of the west and south-west coast of Ireland and those
of Spain; not of the Biscayans or Catalans, who were of the Gothic
race, but of the Andalucians, who were of the Eastern type.
I have before stated that it was not my intention to broach any
theory on this important subject ; my desire has been rather to indicate
a line of investigation that has suggested itself to me from the various
considerations I have already adduced. I trust that this much-ne-
glected subject will receive from the members of this Academy that
attention to which I believe it is entitled, from its bearing upon an
obscure era of our national history.
XXIII.—Oxzservations on Mr. Brasn’s Parer “On tHE O@HAM
Cuamper or Drumtonan.” By the Right Rev. Cuartes Graves,
D.D., Lord Bishop of Limerick.
[Made November 30, 1867. ]
Tue Bishop of Limerick, in moving that Mr. Brash’s paper be re-
ferred to the Council for publication, observed that the thanks of the
Academy were due to Mr. Brash for his detailed description of the
Drumlohan cave, and the Ogham monuments contained in it. To such
an acknowledgment Mr. Brash would not be disentitled if it should
hereafter appear that he had fallen into some errors in his copying and
deciphering of the inscriptions. In ordinary cases, Oghams, being of
a great antiquity, have been more or less defaced by the action of the
weather, if not in other ways; but special difficulties stand in the way
of copying inscriptions on monuments built, like those described by Mr.
Brash, into the walls and roof of an underground gallery, without any
attempt being made to leave the inscribed edges visible. The Bishop
stated that his own drawings of the Ogham inscriptions in the cave at
Dunloe had undergone some important corrections on the occasion of a
second visit to the place. Comparisons of the names appearing in them
ee
ss
sy tt — as Va tS te &*
Seg Se Tes
att
et ENS ee we ‘abet FV
120
with others found elsewhere had suggested corrections which a further
examination proved to be necessary. In fact, the intelligence of the
antiquary, having a general notion of what he may expect to find in an
inscription, gives no small help to his senses of sight and touch in read-
ing it.
Looking for the first time at the inscriptions now laid before the
Academy, the Bishop would hazard one or two conjectures. It ap-
peared to him probable that the inscription on the south side pillar,
No. 1(see p. 110), ended with the name Rirtras, or Rerrtas, not Rorrats.
The former of these frequently occurs on Ogham monuments existing in
Kerry. He also suggested that the inscription read by Mr. Brash as
Iev Maer Dae (Roofing Slab, No. 8, p. 109) may prove to be Luev
Maaut Dee, the last three letters being the commencement of the name
Deo, occurring in the inscription on the north side pillar No. 4 (see
p. 112). This name is better known to us in the nominative form,
Dicuu, which we meet in the life of St. Patrick.
Without attempting to offer an extempore criticism on the readings
and translations of the inscriptions proposed by Mr. Brash, he observed
that he thought that in the inscription on the roofing slab No. 1 (see p.
106), he recognizes a name Nocart, or Noeati, which he had seen else-
where. He also directed attention to the element Cuna in the inscrip-
tion on the roofing slab No. 7 (see p. 108), which, in Ogham proper
names, represents the Con of ordinary spelling. According to this view,
the first word in the inscription would be the genitive case of Con-
LAEDH, or CoNLAECH.
The Bishop reminded the Academy that the almost universal occur-
rence of the word Maar in the Ogham inscriptions, and the fact that
these inscriptions consisted in general merely of names and patronymics,
had been announced by him in his first communication on this subject
to the Academy.
He also observed that the case of Drumlohan, like that of Dunloe,
near Killarney, is a pipt, one of those places in which we may
expect to find Ogham monuments. The Brehon Laws, as quoted
by him in a former communication, refer to Oghams preserved in
Firts as evidences of the ownership of land; doubtless, because they
exhibited the names of persons who had long before lived upon it.
Some of the Ogham monuments entombed in caves are so much
weather-worn, that they must have stood exposed to the air for ages
before they were built into the places where they have been dis-
covered.
The Bishop declined to discuss the theory proposed by Mr. Brash
as to the persons who introduced and used the Ogham character
in this country. At the same time he intimated his belief that the
Ogham does not represent the language, or the alphabet of a colony
which migrated into Ireland in such remote times as Mr. Brash seems
- to point to. But, whatever be the value of these speculations—and
their interest cannot be denied—the Bishop declared his conviction that
the deciphering of the inscriptions will give us materials from which we
121
shall be able to make the safest inferences. The difficulty of effecting
their interpretations does not arise so much, according to his view,
from their remote antiquity, or our imperfect acquaintance with the
language in which they are expressed, as from the circumstances that
they were originally intended, like the Ogham character itself, to be
cryptic—legible only by the initiated. And this accounts for that
disinclination shown by Irish scholars to undertake the deciphering of
them. They are an exercise of something more than ordinary philolo-
gical skill. 3
The Bishop concluded by expressing a hope that he would be able
before long to lay before the Academy a communication illustrating
these views.
XXIV.—Fvurtasr Notes on Moscurar Anomatizs In Human Awna~
TOMY, AND THEIR BEARING UPoN Homortypicat Myotocy. By AuEx-
ANDER Macarister, L.K.Q.C.P., L.R.C.8S.; Surgeon to the Adelaide
Hospital; Demonstrator of Anatomy, Royal College of Surgeons ;
and one of the Honorary Secretaries of the Royal Geological Society
of Ireland.
[Read December 9, 1867. ]
On a former occasion I laid before the Royal Irish Academy a cata-
logue of the principal variations which I had noticed in Human
Myology during the several preceding Sessions in the dissecting-room
of the Royal College of Surgeons. Through the past winter of 1866-7,
I have added to the list many irregularities of note, which appear to me
to be well worthy of record. I had not the opportunity of examining
each subject which came into the Anatomy Hall for dissection; but of
those whose examinations I have directly superintended I have pre-
served notes of sixty cases, not one of which failed to display some
deviation from the arrangement usually called normal, and in some
these departures from type were gregarious to a singular extent.
The observation of anomalous muscles forms one of the most
interesting departments of Teratology, and isinteresting in a compara-
tive point of view, as showing, firstly, the relation between the muscles
of man and those of other vertebrate animals; and, secondly, as illus-
trating and indicating the correct homotypy of muscles in different
regions of the same body. To the second of these subjects I would wish
to call attention in the present paper. The teachings of individual
anomalies must always be received with caution, for Teratology, if not
corrected by Embryology, is at the best but an uncertain guide. It has,
however, one great advantage, namely—that of indicating special lines
of study to be followed up in other branches.
The general conditions which I have found to exist with regard to
the occurrence of anomalies seem to be the following:—First, with
regard to their frequency in different regions, I have found them to
be most numerous in the forearm; secondly, in the face ; thirdly, in
the foot ; fourthly, in the back; fifthly, in the neck ; sixthly, in the
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122
thoracic wall; and least frequent in the abdomen, hip, thigh, and
perineum. M‘Whinnie, who gives a short reswme of all that was known
in his time of these anomalies (‘‘ London Medical Gazette,” N.S.,
vol, 11. 1846), says, they are least frequent in the face and neck, then in
the trunk, and most frequent in the extremities—a generalization
which does not accord with what I have seen. In some cases the
order of frequency seems to depend upon the degree of specialization of
function uniformly enjoyed by the muscle in question in man and other
animals—that is, when a muscle, or group of muscles, enjoys great
variation of use in man, or is developed for varying purposes, and in
varying positions and degrees of perfection in lower animals, abnormalli-
ties occur most frequently in it ; while a group of muscles, that in all
animals is devoted to one seta use, or set of uses, is not so liable to
vary. Likewise, we find frequency of variation of any muscle in man
to be in direct proportion to the amount of divergence which that
muscle usually exhibits from the type muscle, as found in the majority
of the individuals of the animal kingdom. ‘To illustrate these points, if
we look at the triceps extensor cubiti—a muscle uniformly with one
action—or the quadriceps extensor cruris, or the muscles of mastication,
we will find that they are comparatively seldom the seat of variation ;
while the flexors and extensors of the fingers and toes present an indi-
viduality in every subject which we may examine. It is likewise
worthy of note, that in the different regions of the body the order
of frequency of the different forms of muscular anomalies varies in each
part: thus varieties of fission are most common in the back and thorax;
those of coalescence I have seen more frequently exemplified in the
forearm. I have illustrated this in the following diagram, in which
the numbers, read vertically, indicate the degree of frequency of varia-
tions, commencing with one which shows the most common locality for
the form of variation. When a variety of any kind is very seldom
met with, I have marked it rare, instead of characterizing it by
a number :—
“a Other Varie-
apeneeof/ Costes: | fit | must. | PUR | cutis and
Germs Attachment.
Forearm, 3 if! 1 3 1 2
Pacey. 2. 2 ote 5 5 3 5
Back, 4 ica ee 6 1 | 8 1
SEN ee Feira oan sane asl ee 7 a lhpaaaeess 3
Foot, ; 5 bt 3 6 [eoet | 4
Necks oa: 2. Rare. 7 4 7 22 6
Thorax, . 6 4 2 7 4 U
Abdomen, 1 8 8 8 a 8
| |
* Psoas parvus, pyramidalis.
+ Coalescence is the normal mode of crease of some of the facial muscles, and
consequently the instances used in the compilation of this table were cases of unusual union.
+ Exclusive of the union of flexor longus digitorum and flexor hallucis longus tendon
which i is to be found in nearly every foot.
gis
a oe
123
In the compilation of this table, regard is had to the absolute num-
ber of specimens of variety, and not to the number of species of varia-
tions in each region; but it is a matter of experience that the two closely
correspond, and muscles which frequently vary are liable to the greatest
number of kinds of irregularity.
This and the succeeding table I have made out from my own
observations alone, and thus they may differ from the experience of
others in several respects. However, to form true estimates of these
degrees of frequency, the combined experience of many observers would
be requisite. In the construction of these tables, I have taken into
account all my observations, extending over the Sessions 1859-67,
inclusive, and not merely the results of last year’s researches.
As the preceding table indicates the relative order of the occurrence
of anomalies in the various regions of the body, so the second list
illustrates the frequency of occurrence of the classes of varieties in
each region :—
=
E u | 3
5 o 3g od g 43 5 °
Ss ifuretna peed pac ey initia
Coalescence, | 4 3 1 4 4 1 6 5
Absence, “ht Rath a 1 b) 3 6 4 i) 3
New Germs not nor-
mal part of the body g e Z Q 2 2 2 l
Duplicity, ani. © 5 6 5 5 6 4 6
Varieties of Course, .| 1 4 3 1 1 2 2 2
Fission, 5 2 4 ] 2 5 1 4
I have not found all classes of varieties more common on the right
than on the left; but I agree with M‘Whinnie, that anomalies are more
frequently unsymmetrical than otherwise. Some new muscles, as the
flexor carpi radialis profundus, seem to occur more frequently on the
right side, as the eight instances recorded by Wood (P.R.S., 1867,
p. 530; and “Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ vol.i., No. his
are all upon that side ; and the three instances in which I have found
it are likewise on the right. The rectus thoracicus displays a similar
proclivity to the right side. Some other irregularities seem to occur at
least as frequently on one side as the other; thus, I have seen the
humeral head of the biceps rather more often on the left than on
the right.
Varieties are, probably, more common in males than females; those
of fission and suppression occur more frequently in the latter, as they
usually possess a weaker muscular system. Anomalies of duality,
altered course and attachment, and coalescence, most frequently are to
be found in males. New muscular germs are more frequently de-
veloped in the male sex, although an exception has b een claimed for
some. Bochdalek, in speaking of the crico-thyroideus posticus (kera-
BR. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. i
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124
tocricoid of Merkel), mentions, that it is always in females that he has
found it; but Professor Turner has found it in males as well, and
I have likewise seen it in both sexes.
The proportionate frequency of the occurrence of variations in indivi-
dual muscles is likewise a point of interest. I have found the muscles
most frequently abnormal to be the following, which I have grouped in
the order of frequency of variation :—-
1. Palmaris longus; 2. flexor digitorum longus pedis et flexor
hallucis (alterations in their mode of union); 38. biceps flexor cubiti;
4. extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis; 5. pectoralis major; 6. coraco-
brachialis; 7. digastric ; 8. peroneus tertius; 9. zygomatici. From
this list I have excluded such muscles as risorius Santorini, sal-
pingo-pharyngeus, pyramidalis abdominis, psoas parvus, whose fre-
quency of absence is often nearly as great as their presence. During
the past session I have preserved records of the presence of some
of these rare muscles in the subjects examined, and they are as
follows :—
Azygos pharyngel 1 in 60 | Psoas parvus 1 in 20
Levator clavicule 1 in 60 | Peroneus tertius is Soniye
Rectus sternalis 1 in 30 |} Peroneus quartus 5) eee e at 3S
Zygomaticus minor 1 in 3 | Peroneus. quinti. .€ 20-205) fin &
Palmaris longus . 3 in 4 | Extensor ossis metatarsi bi in 60
Subscapulo-humeral . f-in'e 3 hallucis ;
Pyramidalis Ling
With regard to the producing causes of anomalies, we cannot de-
finitely pronounce any general principles until the mode of the original
formation of the several muscles in the embryo has been thoroughly
wrought out; but they seem to be capable of being grouped into
two sets. First, those caused by altered conditions of embryonic forms;
and, secondly, those caused by subsequent faults of development.
Muscle germs, not normal portions of the human body, but natural to
other animals, are often found as anomalies, and can only be explained
in one way—namely, the tendency which all animal structures exhibit
of wandering towards a primordial or archetypal symmetrical form, to
which neighbouring animal individuals are related, either as parallels
or descendants. There seems to be a typical muscle system in verte-
brate animals, as there is a typical skeleton—a starting point from
which all the muscular arrangements of the varied species have been
originally modelled, and towards which they continually tend to revert.
To this class, also, belong those classes of muscular duality depending
upon vegetative repetition; and many instances of suppression are
referrible to the same set of causes. On the other hand, the cases
of muscle fission, coalescence, and some cases of suppression, are due to
the varying conditions of development of contiguous muscles; the
first and last depending on deficient growth; the second upon exuberant
development and union from excess of formation: hence, the latter is
usually associated with increased muscle power, and the former with
weakuess; and all these may be produced in adults by subsequent
125
causes. Many of the cases of altered attachments are due to subsequent
alterations of normally developed muscle germs, and almost any
diseased joint will furnish us with illustrations of some of these: for
instance, many of the cases in which the biceps tendon is connected to
the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus, in place of being attached
to the glenoid ligament depend upon chronic rheumatic disease, and
muscles may be fastened to anomalous sites on bones asa result of
local inflammation, of wounds, of fractures or dislocations, or from dis-
ease.
Of the first class of anomalies, or those muscles not forming parts of
the typical human frame, the following examples have occurred to me
within the past session :—
1, Two specimens of the rectus thoracicus—one a large and well-
marked muscle, the other weak and aponeurotic, and both were un-
symmetrical, and on opposite sides. This muscle has recently been
carefully illustrated by Professor Turner, of Edinburgh, in the ‘‘ Journal
of Anatomy,” No. II., p. 246, pl. xii, fig. 1-6. Of the instances figured
by him, fig. 6, the right side resembled the first of these which I
have found, and the other resembled the left part of fig. 3. Of the cases
published by Turner, five were on the right side, two were on the left,
five were mesial or crossing, and nine were symmetrical. All the spe-
cimens which I have seen have been eleven, and of these, two were
double, eight single, and on the right; and one single, and on the left.
Gruber, in the ‘‘ Mémoires de l’ Académie Impériale de St. Petersbourg,”’
tom. 111. 1860, describes having found it symmetrical thrice, and having
seen it single once, on each side. Wood mentions three examples on
the right side, one on the left, and one symmetrical instance. Hallett
mentions many instances, but gives no numerical account. From these
forty-two-specimens, it will be seen that the symmetrical instances are
to the unsymmetrical in the proportion of fifteen to twenty-seven ; and,
of the latter, the specimens on the right are to those on the left as seven-
teen to five. Turner has supported the opinion first broached by Wilde
(‘*Comment. Acad. Petropol.,” vol. xii. 1740, p. 320); and Hallett,
that it is connected with the cutaneous system of muscles—a part of
the panniculus; but I think we may see some reasons for holding a
different opinion, especially in connexion with its tendinous lines trans-
verse, seen by Hallett and Meckel, and with its connexions with the
sternomastoids, the rectus and the ribs, it seems, generally, at least, to
be a true vertebral, or rib muscle. Besides, I think we may have a dif-
ferent opinion, upon theoretical grounds, to be stated hereafter.
2. The cleido-occipitalis occurred five times during the past year;
one of these was on the right side of the neck of a male subject, and
arose from the middle fourth of the clavicle on its upper border, ex-
ternal to and separate from the cleidomastoid ; passing upwards, it was
crossed by the auricularis magnus nerve; and higher up, by the occipi-
talis minor; and, finally, was inserted into the outer half of the superior
transverse occipital line. The sterno and cleido-mastoids were per-
fectly separated in this subject, up as far as the point of insertion, the
IS POE
Se RARER ERIS
et gE EE a le EE ESS Cig Sh hg See On gee eg ee, LE ES Sty
126
clavicular being crossed and overlapped by the sternal head, the latter
being superficial to, and the former being crossed by the spinal accessory
nerve, which then lay beneath the cleido-occipitalis, and passed back to
the trapezius. Other examples of this muscle occurred, but none so
distinct nor so characteristic. Within the present session (1867-8), I
have seen one instance of the cleido-occipital which is interesting, as
occurring in connexion with multiple variation ; it was in the neck of a
very fat female subject, and co-existed with a bi-laminar cleido-mastoid ;
a double sternal origin for the sterno-mastoid, composed of two parallel
tendinous slips; a double sterno-thyroid, whose fibres were prolonged
upwards to the os hyoides; a sterno-hyoid, whose sole origin was from
the posterior surface of the sternal fourth of the clavicle, and a super-
numerary muscle, to be described afterwards, between the two latter.
This same subject possessed the accessory muscle on the back of the
neck described by Mr. Wood, namely, a flat fascicle from the tendon of
the serratus posticus superior to the transverse process of the atlas. In
it, likewise, the omohyoid arose from the second fourth of the clavicle
from the sternal end, and so lay directly external, and nearly parallel
to the sternohyoid, with which indeed it coalesced, for its upper third.
This muscle, likewise, was fleshy for its whole length, and had no trace
of a scapular origin. The cleido-occipital muscle has been described by
Mr. Wood (‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,” 1867, p. 519, ) and he has
found it present in twelve out of thirty-four subjects, and all these were
symmetrical. In my experience, I have not seen it quite so common,
as I have only met with it once in every twelve subjects. I haveseen,
however, much more frequently cleido-occipital fibres inseparable from
the cleido-mastoid.
3. The levator glandule thyroidei of Sommering is perhaps scarcely
to be regarded as an anomaly, as its description is to be found in the
ordinary anatomical text books. I found it once attached to the pro-
minent angle of the pomum adami, and inserted into the apex of a
large pyramid of Lalouette; the others were inserted into the fibrous
capsule of the lateral lobe of the thyroid body.
4. This subject likewise possessed a kerato-cricoid like that de-
scribed by Merkel (‘‘ Anat. und Physiol. der menschlischen Stimme
und Sprachorgans,’”’ Leipzig, 1857, p. 1382). This muscle has been
also noticed by Bochdalek (‘‘ Oesterreich. Zeitschrift,” 1861, No. 4),
who mentions that he has always found it on one side, and in females ;
but Patruban gives a case in which it occurred on both sides; and
Turner (Edinburgh ‘‘ Medical Journal,’ February, 1860, p. 744), has
met with it four times on the right, twice on the left, and once on both.
I have seen, during last session, this muscle four times singly, and I
have found it in male larynges, as likewise has Turner.
5. The cephalo-pharyngeus was represented by an aponeurotic band,
devoid of muscularity, in a subject possessing an azygos pharyngis, as
before described (‘‘ Proceedings Royal Irish Academy,” April, 1866,
Pl. vi., fig. 1. b). The former muscle seems to attain its maximum of
development in cetaceans, as I have seen it very large in the Globvo-
127
cephalus svineval (described in “ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,”
1867, p.481). Its use in these animals is to assist in the forcible eleva-
tion of the glottis, into which its fibres are continued, into the gaping
aperture of the posterior nares.
6. I have seen a single specimen of the muscle, described by Boch-
dalek as the triticeo-glossus passing from the corpus triticeum in the
posterior thyro-hyoid ligament, to enter the substance of the tongue, with
posterior fibres of the hyo-glossus. Although frequently looked for, I
have but once seen it; but Bochdalek has found it much more frequently
present, as out of twenty-two subjects he has found it present in eight.
My specimen was on the right side, but he has described it on both.
It seems to me to be nothing but a fourth differentiated part of the
hyo-glossus muscle, to whose posterior border it is nearly parallel, and
from the kerato-glossal part of which it is little more separated than
is the chondro-glossus from the basio-glossus.*
7. The Scalenus minimus has occurred several times; and once in
connexion with a large bi-laminar scalenus posticus and medius ; it dis-
played no peculiarities.
8. In the subject before mentioned as possessing the cleido-
occipitalis and the clavicular origin of the omo-hyoid, there occurred a
small new muscle (cleido-fascialis), which sprang from the back of the
clavicle between the origins of the sterno-hyoid and omo-hyoid, by a
narrow fleshy origin, passed upwards and inwards between the sterno-
hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles for about an inch; and ended in a flat
expanded tendon, which was inserted into the fascia of the neck. It
seemed to be a tensor of the cervical fascia, and differed from the
vertical tensor, or costo-fascialis cervicis which I described in my last
paper.
ae Two other instances of the mento-hyoidean muscle, figured in my
former paper, have occurred, in both cases double, and separate from the
digastric. This muscle is always on a plane superficial to the digas-
tric; and I would be inclined to regard it as a modified cutaneous
muscle—an inner part of the platysma mycoides.
10. A few instances are on record of muscular bands in connexion
with viscera, and two very curious instances were found last session.
The first of these was shown by Mr. Hewitt, junior—namely, a thin but
distinctly muscular band, arising from the outer surface of the front
wall of the fibrous layer of the pericardium, and extending upwards in
the centre of the anterior mediastinum, was inserted into the capsule of
the thyroid body at its lower border. This pericardio-thyroid fascicle
was seen when the sterno-hyoids and thyroids had been removed, and was
traced downwards by the removal of the sternum. That a slip of this
* Since the above was written I have found a large example of triticeo-glossus,
and in another subject, dissected January 20, 1868, a distinct new muscle existed in the
larynx ; it arose from the inferior cornu of the thyroid cartilage, and passed inwards and
upwards to the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. This kerato-arytenoid
muscle may have acted as an accessory dilator of rima glottidis.
128
kind could have any use it is difficult to imagine; it had no connexion
with the sterno-pericardial ligaments of Luschka, which sometimes,
though rarely, exhibit traces of unstriped muscles.
11. The second visceral slip was situated on the abdominal wall of
a young female subject, and to it I would assign the name pubio-
peritonealis. It arose from the right side of the ilio-pectineal line,
immediately behind the attachment of Gimbernat’s ligament. From
this point it ran upwards, and a little outwards, beneath the transver-
salis abdominis muscle, and over the fascia transversalis. After cross-
ing the deep epigastric artery, it terminated not far out from the
median line, by being inserted into the fascia transversalis and perito-
neum at a distance of two-thirds of the interval between the umbilicus
and the pubis. Of the normal abdominal muscles in this subject there
was a pyramidalis nearly reaching to the umbilicus, a supernumerary
supra-umbilical linea transversa in the rectus, and a strong and thick
transversalis.
12. The chondro-epitrochlearis occurred twice, springing from the
cartilage of the seventh rib, running along the lower edge of the great
pectoral tendon, and ending in the internal intermuscular septum, by
which it is connected to the inner condyle.
13. In the perineum of a male subject a large superficial muscle
arose from the surface of the inner border of the tuber ischii, and was
inserted into an expansion over the corpus spongiosum urethre, super-
ficial to the accelerator urine, and covering in the posterior part of the
intermuscular triangle concerned in the second incision of lateral litho-
tomy. The transversus perinei was normal, and deeper seated, but
there was no ischiobulbosus, or transversalis alter. This slip could not
be a representative of that muscle, however, as it was superficial to
the other perineal muscles, and in front of the transversus proper.
From its great size and strength, being larger than all the normal
perineal muscles together, it might have caused spasmodic stricture.
Its affinities are very hard to determine; but, from its being placed
superficially, and from the more distinct nature of other aberrant bands
in this position, it might be regarded as a portion of the general pan-
niculus carnosus specially developed.
14. A supra-clavicularis muscle, similar to the slip of that name
described by Luschka, of Tiibingen, in Miiller’s ‘‘ Archiv,” (1856,)
p. 282, and Taf. 10, existed in the same subject as the pericardio-thyroid
above described; it arose from the summit of the manubrium stern,
aud passed to the front of the clavicular origin of the cleidomastoid
muscle. This is the only instance of this muscle which I have ever
met with; but it has been described by Haller, and was considered by
him as a supernumerary subclavius, and is described, when occurring
on the deep surface of the sternum, by M. J. Weber, as an upper de-
tached slip of the triangularis sterni, to which indeed it seems to me to
be closely allied.
Among the representatives of new muscle types in the upper limb,
the following instances have been found :—
129
15. The subscapulo-humeral I found very commonly—over fifteen
times during the last session; but this, I believe, is a very unusual de-
gree of frequency. In one instance it was especially strong and dis-
tinct (this specimen was exhibited before the Surgical Society of Ire-
land, and is recorded in the ‘‘ Medical Press and Circular,” vol. 111.
p. 79). Mr. Wood has found this in one instance since my first publi-
cation of this anomaly. It was described first by Wenzel Gruber, of
St. Petersburg, in his ‘‘ Abhandlungen aus die menschlisch. und ver-
gleichen. Anat.” Petersburg, 1854, p. 109.
16. The coraco-capsular of Wood I have found in one instance cross-
ing, but unattached to the capsule of the shoulder, and inserted into the
inner lip of the bicipital groove, in common with the upper border of the
tendon of the latissimus dorsi, which did not extend quite as far out-
wards ag usual. This is the third instance in which I have noticed its
presence. Mr. Wood has met with it five times, and has given an ac-
curate account of it (‘‘ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,” vol. i.,
p. 48). Mr. Wood has inferred from its comparative, as well as from
its human anatomy, that it represents the short part of the adductor
mass; but I have given below some reasons for believing it to be the
representative of the pectineus, and I wish here to state that I with-.
draw my previously published belief that it represented the quadratus
femoris.
17. I have met with another specimen of the extensor primi inter-
nodii pollicis et indicis, similar in all respects to the specimen de-
scribed before, and co-existing with the four typical extensors.
18. An extensor medii digiti existed in two cases in the subject; it
lay parallel to the extensor indicis, and arose from a space of about
two inches in extent from the back of the ulna, and it was inserted
into the base of the second phalanx of the middle finger, joining with
the medial tendon of the extensor communis digitorum. Wood has
described several instances of this anomaly; and Meckel has given an
instance in which the extensor indicis sent off three tendons to the
second, third, and fourth fingers: Henle’s ‘‘ Muskellehre,” p. 213.
In one arm of a muscular male subject 1 found this anomaly to co-
exist with a completely cleft biceps, an extensor digitorum brevis
manus for the second, third, and fourth fingers, and an interchange of
tendons between the radial extensors of the carpus, a slip from the
longus being inserted with the brevis, and vice versd.
19. An extensor quarti digiti, nearly separate for its whole length
from the extensor minimi digiti, existed in another forearm, and com-
pleted the second group of extensors. The increase in number of the
slips of this second series is interesting, as bearing upon the compara-
tive anatomy of the dorsal muscles of the forearm. As in the otter
(Lutra vulgaris), I have found the extensor digitorum communis send-
ing a tendon to the pollex, and one to the second and third toe; but
the extensor minimi digiti sending tendons to the second, third, fourth,
and fifth toes. Mr. Huxley, in the Hunterian Lectures for 1865, like-
‘wise mentions that this muscle supplies the three inner toes in the
—~
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ae ee
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aaa na
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130
rabbit; and Messrs. Mivart and Murie have found it supplying two
digits in the hare and crested agouti (‘‘ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society,” 1866, p. 405). The extensor annularis longus above de-
scribed is a different muscle from the extensor of this finger, which I
referred to in my former paper (‘ Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy,” April, 1866), which was a part of the extensor digitorum
brevis manus.
20. I have not met with any additional cases of double interossei ;
but I would wish to remark, in this place, that the theory which I put
forward in my former paper has obtained a striking confirmation from
comparative anatomy in the structure of the manus of the Hyrax capen-
sis. Messrs. Murie and Mivart, in their admirable memoir upon the
myology of this species, note that there exist four pair of interossei on
the palmar surface of the metacarpal bones, arising from the aponeuro-
tic investment of their proximal end, and inserted into sesamoid bones,
one on each side of the distal end of the metacarpals; the sesamoid
bones acting upon the proximal phalanges by means of connecting
fibres. There are also four larger aberrant muscles developed in this
animal, which most probably are displaced dorsal interossei (‘‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society,” 1865, part 11. p. 843). Mr. Wood
has suggested to me that, in his cases of double interossei, the first
palmar interosseous had a bifurcate origin from the second and third
metacarpal bones, and the interosseous of the thumb had likewise an
attachment to the first and second. This was likewise the case in one
example in the foot; but, as in the theory which I propounded, there
should have been originally four germs in each interosseous space, |
two dorsals coalescent into each bicipital muscle, and two palmars, of
which one is obsolete. These examples of Mr. Wood are only what we
might expect in case of the rudimental presence of a muscle embryo.
21. The extensor secundi internodii pollicis longus of Blandin oc-
curred once during the last session in the form of a slip, arising from
the external condyle and fascia of the forearm, closely connected to the
extensor communis digitorum. It passed superficial to the ordinary
extensor of the second internode of the thumb, in common with which it
was inserted ; it traversed the third groove in the annular ligament, and
so was separated below from the tendon of the extensor communis digi-
torum. In the common otter a similar extensor tendon for the pollex
comes from the extensor communis.
22. Two new instances of the brachio-fascialis have occurred with-
in the past session, but in no respect dissimilar to those already de-
scribed. One other third specimen arose from the coracoid process 1n
common with the short head of the biceps, from which it soon separated,
and formed the entire of the semilunar fascia.
93. The flexor carpi radialis brevis seu profundus of Wood occurred
but once during the past year, co-existent with the palmaris longus.
This specimen was published by Mr. Wood (‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society,” 1867, p. 530), to which paper, and to another by the same
author in the “Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,” VOlLy Ps OL
would refer for fuller information on this muscle.
131
24, An instance of the extensor carpi radialis accessorius of Wood I
found in both arms of a muscular male, arising behind the extensor
carpi radialis longus by a flat, fleshy belly, which ended im a fine ten-
don, that, becoming fleshy, was inserted into the outside of the first
phalanx of the thumb, outside the abductor pollicis. This muscle was
digastric, as was also Mr. Wood’s instance; and notes of another speci-
men of the same kind were given to me by Dr. Richardson, of Dublin.
25. A distinct scansorius muscle occurred in one instance posterior
and parallel to the tensor vaginz femoris, but much more deeply seated,
separated from the anterior border of the gluteus minimus, and inserted
into the anterior and inferior portion of the root of the great trochanter.
This muscle, homotypically, is of great importance, and is one whose
affinities have been often mistaken; it has been frequently confounded
in comparative anatomy with another muscle, which we should con-
sider as a perfectly diverse element. I refer to the iliocapsular, or
opponens quadrato-femoris. ‘To the scansorius type should be referred
the muscle described by Professor Haughton as opponens quadrato-
femoris in the ostrich, ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,”
1864, figs. 6 & 7, p. 17; as also the muscle described by the same
author as iliocapsular in the lion, ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy,” May, 1864, fig. 14, p. 30. From the true scansorius type
the iliocapsular differs in several respects: firstly, that in the former
the origin is dorsal, while in the latter it is ventral, or marginal;
secondly, that the point of insertion in the former is on the outer,
or exotrochanteric aspect ; while in the latter it is in the neighbourhood
of the lesser trochanter. :
26. The peroneus quarti metatarsi, arising from the front of the
fibula for its lower fourth, and inserted into the base of the fourth
metatarsal bone, has been present as a separate muscle three times
without any peroneus tertius. Four times it has co-existed with it
nearly separate from the last muscle for its entire extent. In two
cases the peroneus tertius, quarti metatarsi, and quinti digiti co-existed;
and in one the peroneus longus, brevis, tertius, quartus (Otto), quarti
metatarsi, and quinti digiti, were all present. The peroneus quarti
metatarsi in another instance was represented by an offshoot from the
outer tendon of the extensor longus digitorum, and it always passed in
the same sheath of the annular ligament as that tendon. The nomen-
clature of these muscles is a little confusing, and this muscle would be
much more correctly designated peroneus quartus; but Otto (Neue
seltene Beobacht.) has applied this name to a muscle to be referred to
below, and even the name peroneus quarti digiti is used by Messrs.
Maurie and Mivart to represent a muscle in Dasyprocta cristata, ‘‘Pro-
ceedings Zoological Society,” 1866, p. 405, springing from the site of
the origin of the peroneus brevis, and passing to be inserted into the
first phalanx of the fourth toe. I have therefore applied the name used
above as its most correct exponent.
27. The peroneus quinti digiti I have found very frequently pre-
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sent as a detached slip from the anterior bundle of the tendon of the
peroneus brevis. It has never occurred as a detached muscle last year,
and its termination has been usually into the extensor aponeurosis of the
toe. Sometimes a thin fascial expansion took its place, which, how-
ever, lost its individuality before reaching its usual point of destina-
tion.
28. The muscle which Otto has named peroneus quartus (called in
my former paper p. sextus) has occurred once in last session, differing
in some points from the individual muscles which I have described
under the same name before. This muscle was five inches in length,
fleshy, and it arose from a distinct line on the fibula, between the
origin of the peroneus brevis and the flexor hallucis longus; passing
downwards, it became tendinous, and wound round the back of the ex-
ternal malleolus in the same groove as the peroneus brevis, from which
it was separated by a fold of the synovial membrane lining the theca;
and, finally, it was inserted into a tubercle on the os calcis, behind the
process for the middle slip of the external lateral ligament, posterior to
the tendon of the peroneus longus, which crosses it near its termination. -
This muscle, it will be seen, differs from No. 16 in my former paper
in the following points: firstly, in arising behind, and not over the
peroneus longus; secondly, in being inserted into the os calcis, instead
of the cuboid bone.
29. A singular internal peroneo-calcanean muscle, perfectly separate
from the normal structures, I have seen in one instance to arise from an
oblique ridge, two inches in length, above and behind the external
malleolus, and directly below the flexor hallucis longus; from this
origin a small penniform muscle was continued downwards and in-
wards, soon ending in a tendon, which passed in the halluceal groove
on the back of the astragalus, external to the flexor hallucis tendon, and
beneath the sustentaculum tali, to be inserted into the anterior and
internal part of that process, near the outer and posterior attachment
of the calcaneo-navicular ligament. This slip was perfectly uncon-
nected to the flexor hallucis, and it is one whose homotypical relations
are of considerable interest. I was inclined to regard it at first as a
representative of the flexor carpi radialis brevis of Wood ; but from this
it differs, in possessing a fibular (ulnar) origin. It has been suggested
to me that it might be a palmaris muscle, either brevis or accessorius ;
but for both of these we have much more distinct homatypes, as we
shall see hereafter. Failing these, we are obliged to seek its upper limb
representative elsewhere; and we will find that the only probable
solution of the difficulty is the regarding it as a representative of a
muscle otherwise unrepresented in the inferior extremity, namely, the
pronator quadratus. In support of this explanation we have the fol-
lowing argument :—Both are at the lowest part of the limb; both have
their origins from the lower end of the fibula (ulna); while in the
forearm the fibres of the pronator quadratus pass downwards and
pollexward ; the fibres of the anomalous slip run in a direction
downwards and halluxward. In one instance, in the left arm of
133
a female, the pronator quadratus was arranged in a tripartite form, and
the lowest portion arose from the inferior extremity of the ulna, and
passed downwards and outwards, being inserted into the lowest end of
the front of the radius, the anterior ligament of the wrist joint, even as
far as the upper edge of the scaphoid bone. In another subject, the
pronator sent its lowest fibres, in a fleshy bundle, springing from the
ulna, to a small round tendon, which crossed the lowest part of the
radius, and was lost in an aponeurosis over the trapezoid bone. In this
instance all we require is the suppression of the upper or transverse
part of the muscle, which would be useless in the leg, and the vertical
elongation of the lower part, and we have precisely the condition
observed in the anomaly now recorded.
30. I have found another instance of the extensor primi internodil
hallucis perfectly separate from the extensor proprius hallucis. I
have likewise met with a separated tendon arising from the belly of
the extensor proprius, and inserted into the first phalanx of the great
toe. In one other instance a tendon arose in the annular ligament,
without any muscle, and was inserted into the same bone.
31. The extensor ossis metatarsi hallucis I have seen, but it is
much rarer than the last, and during the past session has only occurred
in one subject. It was described by Henle in his ‘‘ Muskellehre,’’
p. 275. .
32. A psoas accessorius was present in one male subject, arising
from the sides of the bodies of the first and second lumbar vertebre, by
fleshy fasciculi, and inserted into the lateral aspect of the third, fourth,
and fifth lumbar vertebral bodies by flat tendinous fasciculi. It seemed
a repetition in the lumbar region of the longus colli.
Of the second class of muscular anomalies, or those in which
muscles are reduplicated, the following have occurred during the last
year:—(1) Rhomboideus minor, once; (2) extensor ossis metacarpi
_ pollicis (an one subject in which there was no extensor primi internodii
pollicis); (3) abductor pollicis; (4) extensor secundi internodii pollicis
once; (6) extensor minimi digiti three times. This muscle often had
two tendons, and was triple in one, sending two slips to the little and
one to the ring finger (wide supra); (6) gluteus maximus in two
places; (7) the great pectoral similarly divided, the deepest lamina
giving off the entire of the suspensory frenum of Winslow; (8) the
sterno-cleido-mastoid, as before mentioned; and, (9) in the same sub-
ject the sterno-thyroid ; (10) the adductor longus; (11) the popliteus I
have seen double, the superficial part larger, and lying over the ex-
ternal lateral ligament, the deeper layer being under, and attached
4 in ligament, an arrangement described by Fabricius ab Aquapen-
ente.
_ The tendency of muscle germs to become doubled is among the most
singular facts in teratology ; the mode of duplicity may be one of two,
either as in round or long muscles, it may be seen assuming the aspect
of two parallel and corresponding muscles, or secondly, in flat muscles
it takes the form of bilamination. The former mode of increase I
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134
have found, or has been described by others, as involving the following
muscles :—
Tensor tarsi. Scalenus posticus.
Obliquus superior oculi (Albinus). Supinator brevis (Fleischmann, Sandifort,
Corrugator supercilii. et mihi).
Zygomaticus minor (Morgagni et mihi). Genio-hycid (M‘Whinuie).
Digastric (Albinus). Sartorius (Rosenmiller).
Digastric anterior belly and single poste- | Scalenus anticus.
rior. Abductor pollicis brevis.
Styloglossus (Meckel). Extensor indicis.
Stylopharyngeus (Bébmer). Rectus thoracicus.
Sternothyroid (Gantzer et mihi). Popliteus (Fabricius ab Aquapendente,
Thyro-hyoid (Cowper). Bevan et mihi).
Levator anguli scapule. Cremaster (Cowper).
Supinator longus. Adductor longus.
Palmaris longus. Rectus capitis lateralis.
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. Rectus capitis posticus major.
Extensor secundi internodii pollicis. Pyramidalis.
Extensor minimi digiti. Pyriformis.
Subclavius.
The second form of duplication, or that of superimposed strata, has
occurred in the cases of the following :—
Pectoralis major. Adductor magnus.
Pectoralis minor.: Vastus externus,
Trapezius (Tiedemann). Vastus internus.
Rhomboids. Gastrocnemius.
Pronator quadratus (M‘Whinnie et mihi). Soleus.
Complexus. External oblique (Tiedemann). I have
Gluteus maximus. seen instances of this confined to the left
side.
The occurrence of this class of anomaly can only be accounted for
on the principle of vegetative repetition of parts—a principle upon
which we explain those abnormal instances of supernumerary limbs or
members, and even complete janiceps. The vital capacity for exertion
conferred by anomalies of this class is not easily ascertained; but most
probably the existence of multiple irregularities of this nature would
be co-existent with, and causative of, increased power, as in the cele-
brated case given by Tiedemann. The most common seat of laminar
reduplication I believe to be the rhomboides ; of parallel multiplicity,
the short extensors of the thumb.
Variations of the third class, or those by fission, have occurred in the
cases of many muscles:-—(1) the great pectoral, which in one sub-
ject was widely differentiated, no fibres arising from the manubrium
sterni; (2) in the sternomastoid fission has occurred in several in-
stances, similar to No. 3, in my former paper ; (3) fissions of the biceps ;
(4) coracobrachialis; (5) gluteus maximus ; (6) quadratus femoris ;
(7) flexor sublimis digitorum; (8) subscapularis; (9) adductor mag-
nus; (10) adductor longus; (11) brachialis anticus; and, (12) flexor
brevis pollicis have occurred, similar to that already described; and to
135
my list I have the following additions:—(18) pronator quadratus in
four cases, disposed in various ways—either lying in two strata or divided
into two portions, an upper and a lower. In the left arm of a female,
examined November, 1866, the pronator was in three parts—one, a
small separated fascicle, the lowest, arose tendinous from the front of the
ulna immediately above its articular extremity, and was inserted fleshy
into the lowest surface of the radius, to which it passed downwards and
outwards. The remaining part of the muscle was disposed in two
strata, the superficial of which arose from the fifth of the ulna, com-
mencing two-thirds of an inch above the styloid process; its origin
was tendinous, and from it the fibres passed in a direction slightly
radiating to be inserted into a space of the radius a little wider than
usual: at the upper and inner side of the muscle the deeper lamina
of fibres came into view, and they were entirely exposed by reflecting
the superficial stratum; they arose from the ulna, commencing a little
above the lower border of the superficial fibres, and extending rather
higher on the bone than the limit of origin of the former. These latter
are rather behind the limit of the interosseous membrane, a portion of
which intervenes between their layers. This specimen indicates the two
series of variations which I have found. When this muscle is disposed
in two strata, they generally are disposed with their tendinous and
fleshy parts alternate. Another forearm exhibited a trifid pronator,
one a narrow triangular band below tendinous at the ulna, and fleshy
at the radius; the middle likewise triangular, but has its tendon and belly
in the opposite direction ; the superior, being quadrilateral, had its fleshy
portion similar to the lowest part. A third specimen showed a small
pyriform fleshy belly, which originated from the lower end of the ulna,
crossed obliquely downwards to the end of the radius, where it ended
in a tendon, which was inserted into the aponeurotic structures over the
scaphoid, trapezium and trapezoid bone. This slip was nothing but an
extraordinary development of the lower border of the pronator, and its
nature and affinities have been before discussed. Varieties of the pro-
nator are not very frequent; but they have been noticed by Meckel,
who has described it as double (‘‘Anatomie,”’ Jourdain and Breschet’s
Transl. vol. ii. p. 179). Barton, of the Philadelphia Hospital, has
hikewise described a peculiar condition of this muscle, in which it was
composed of two triangles—one with a radial base and an ulnar apex,
and the other with an ulnar base and a radial apex (Barton, quoted
in Horner’s ‘‘ Special Anatomy,” vol. i. p. 426).
(14.) The pronator radii teres I have seen cleft in one distinct in-
stance, which I have described with others in the ‘Journal of Anatomy,”
wol. 1.5 No. 1. 7
(15.) The specimen of cleft subscapularis has been recorded in the
same Journal, vol. i. p. 316. A similar instance I recorded and figured
in my former paper, ‘‘ Proceedings Royal Irish Academy,”’ vol. ix. plate
7a; (16) high differentiation in one instance occurred in the extensor
longus digitum pedis, and in the representative muscle of the forelimb.
(17) Of very common occurrence is a fission of the subcrureus, which
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muscle appears in two parallel bands ; (18) a fission of the anterior belly
of the digastric occurred in one subject, in which the posterior belly of
that muscle was normal. Corresponding instances are numerous, aud are
described by many authors (‘‘ Platner de Musculo Digastrico Maxille
Inferioris,’’ Lipsie, 1737); (19) the supinator brevis I have likewise
seen split, the division corresponding to the point of perforation of the
posterior interosseous muscle; (20) several remarkable cases of high
division of the superficial, or perforated flexor of the fingers, have oc-
curred to me, similar to No. 14 of my former paper. In that instance,
the digastric portion of the flexor sublimis supplied the index and mid-
dle fingers; while in one of the recent cases, the digastric division of
the muscle supphed the index and little fingers; while the middle
finger tendon originated mainly from the radial origin (‘‘Journal of
Anatomy,” vol. i. p. 319).
The cause of fission is easily understood, as resulting from the sub-
sequent atrophy of connecting fibres, or from the separation of the
component parts of complex muscles. The muscles in which this species
of deformity has occurred to me from time to time are :—
Latissimus dorsi.
Orbicularis palpebrarum.
Pectoralis major.
Pectoralis minor.
Pyriformis.
External pterygoid.
Serratus magnus. Extensor communis digi- Levator anguli scapule.
Sterno-cleido mastoid. torum. Rhomboideus.
Biceps cubiti. Extensor brevis digitorem _Splenius.
Adductor magnus. pedis. Complexus.
Supinator brevis. Platysma. Subscapularis.
Flexor sublimis digitorum. Gluteus maximus. Extensor digitorum pedis
Flexor brevis digitorum. Gluteus medius. longus.
Infra-spinatus. Quadratus femoris. Scalenus anticus.
Deltoid. Trapezius. Digastric.
Coracobrachialis. Crico-thyroid. Extensor carpi radialis lon-
Supinator longus. Pronator radii teres. gior.
Psoas parvus. Pronator quadratus. Extensor carpi radialis bre-
Brachialis anticus. Flexor brevis pollicis. vior.
Varieties by suppression I have seen frequently in the case of some
muscles. Psoas parvus has occurred four times—that is, once in fifteen
subjects. Palmaris longus, although more constant in general than
plantaris, in the proportion of three to two ; yet, during the past session,
has been much more frequently absent than the latter, palmaris being
present in seven out of every ten, and plantaris in nine out of ten. Of
the other muscles, I have found a case of deficiency in the teres major
(‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,” vol. 1., p. 317)—a muscle whose
deficiency hes not, I think, ever before been noticed. Suppression has
thus occurred in my experience to—
Platysma myoides.
Zygomaticus major.
Zygomaticus minor.
Levator labii superioris.
Orbital part of orbicularis palpebrarum.
Pyramidalis nasi.
Occipito-frontalis.
Levator palpebree superioris.
Tensor tarsi.
Trapezius—occipital portion.
Trapezius—cervical portion (1).
Sternal head of sterno-mastoid (1).
Posterior belly of omohyoid (2).
Entire omobyoid (2).
Genio-hyoid.
Stylo-hyoid.
Sterno-thyrvid (1).
Scalenus anticus (1).
Serratus posticus superior (1).
Serratus posticus inferior (2).
One or two teeth of either.
Trachelomastoid.
Longissimus capitis (1). ©
lliocostalis dorsalis (1).
7
Palmaris longus.
Palmaris brevis.
Radial origin of flexor sublimis.
Lumbricales manus, all (1).
Extensor minimi digiti.
Opponens minimi digiti.
Little finger slip of extensor communis
digitorum,
Pyriformis (1).
Gemellus superior (2).
Gemellus inferior (1).
Transversus perinei.
Clavicular head of great pectoral. Subcrureus.
Clavicular head of deltoid. Plantaris.
Triangularis sterni. Peroneus tertius.
Psoas parvus. Third lumbricalis pedis.
Pyramidalis abdominis.
Transyersalis abdominis (1).
Rhomboideus minor.
Transversus pedis.
Outer slip of extensor digitorum longus.
Corresponding portion of flexor brevis.
Middle portion of serratus magnus. Long flexor tendon of little toe.
Cremaster in male. Flexor brevis minimi digiti.
Yeres major (1). Temporal head of the superior constrictor
Long head of biceps. pharyngis.
Coronvid head of pronator teres. Pterygoid head of the same.
Scalenus posticus (Meckel).
Quadiatus Iumborum (M‘Whinnie).
Sartorius (Theile).
Transversus pedis (Bohmer).
Stylo-glossus (Quain).
Of the class of anomalies by coalescence I have found many in-
stances: the two zygomatici, by hyperdevelopment of their fibres, have
united together, or withthe levator labii superioris, and the latter often
received a band from the orbicularis palpebrarum. Decussative union be-
tween the anterior bellies of the digastric I have seen once since last
year, and fusion of the genio-hyoid muscles took place in the same sub-
ject.
The anterior belly of the omo-hyoid muscle in several subjects
(three) coalesced by its inner edge with the sterno-hyoid, as described
by Mr. Turner, ‘‘ Edinburgh Medical Journal,” May, 1861, p.982. In
these subjects there was not always a digastric arrangement of the
latter, which Mr. Turner has noticed as an usual concomitant of this
combination. Indeed I have found the digastric arrangement by no
means as common in this muscle as is very often stated. Connecting
fibres between the sterno-hyoid and mylo-hyoid, sterno-thyroid and
thyro-hyoid, and between the erico-thyroid and inferior constrictor
pharyngis, are extremely common ; and, as noticed elsewhere, the tendon
of the pectoralis minor is united in many cases to the supraspinatus by
a continued slip over the coracoid process. The deltoid and brachialis
anticus I have seen inseparably connected by communicating fibres at
the insertion of the former, and likewise the posterior fibres of the for-
mer with the outer head of the triceps. This muscle may have thus
an extensive series of coalescences. I have seen it in different subjects
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to coalesce with the trapezius, infraspinatus, pectoralis major, supinator
longus, and brachialis anticus, and in this instance with the triceps.
The relation of the teres major to the latissimus dorsi sometimes
is the subject of variation. Usually these muscles are united along the
lower or upper border, and a bursa intervenes between the surfaces;
this, however, is sometimes absent, and perfect coalescence may, though
very rarely, take place. The anconeus and the triceps were inseparable
in several cases; coalescence of the brachialis anticus with the supinator
longus I have again noticed, as described in my last paper.
A fasciculus of fibres in one subject dipped from the deep surface
of the biceps, and passed downwards into the substance of the brachialis
anticus. This is contrary to the direction of any connecting slip that
has been hitherto described.
The pectoralis major Ihave frequently seen united with the ori-
gin of the external oblique; and the band described before as passing
from the coraco-brachialis to the brachialis anticus I have likewise
found frequently as before mentioned. Slips uniting the flexors sub-
limis and profundus digitorum are likewise frequent, as are connexions
between the two radial extensors of the carpus.
The flexor pollicis longus gave off in one specimen the deep flexor
tendon to the index fingers—an arrangement of great interest, when we
consider the relative position of these flexor tendons in the Quadrumana.
In the chimpanzee, Professor Humphry found the flexor pollicis repre-
sented in one instance by a slender tendon from the palmar fascia, the
condition found by Huxley in the gorilla; in another, by a tendon from
the ulnar side of the flexor profundus digitorum. The front of the radius
was occupied in this animal by the indicial part of the flexor pro-
fundus. Wilder describes the index and polliceal portions of the flexor
in the chimpanzee as separate from the rest of the muscle, as in the ano-
maly just described; and Duvernoy states that the same arrangement
existed in the gorilla. In three specimens of Macacus, Halford has
found that once the fiexor pollicis was conjoined with the common
flexor; while in two others it was as in man. In J/acacus sinicus I
found the flexor pollicis tendon to arise from the middle of the surface
of the flexor profundus; and the same is described by Haughton, in
Macacus nemestrinus, a condition which Dr. Finney has found as an
anomalous condition of these tendons inman. The same arrangement
is found in Cercopithecus fuliginosus (Haughton, ‘‘ Proceedings, Royal
Trish Academy,’’ 1865, p. 64), while in Lagothrix and Cebus it is the
most external of the tendons of the flexor profundus which goes to the
thumb. Several of the Quadrumanous types of flexors I have described
in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Dublin” for
1866.
Among the polliceal groups unions were not unfrequent; the extensor
ossis metacarpi pollicis and primi internodii were often united, a single
belly giving off the double tendons.
Another specimen of union between the gluteus medius and pyri-
139
formis has occurred this Session, similar to that noticed in my former
aper.
5 "Of the connexions between the flexor hallucis and communis 1
have seen a very large number, as of the entire number of subjects
which I have examined, not one was free from some mode of junction ;
these unions of the flexors have been carefully described so often that
it is needless to dwell any farther upon them here.
Union has likewise existed between the adductor brevis and magnus,
similar to the state which I have found in the masked pig of Japan. Be-
tween other muscles very little separate by nature, unions have occurred
often, such as between the splenius capitis and colli, transversus colli
and trachelo-mastoid, longus atlantis and longus colli, rhomboideus
major and minor.
I have found a considerable increase in the class of irregularities, of
course, and attachments in muscles. This class of varieties encroaches
upon the last group or the class of coalescences in many instances.
These additional variations were as follows :—
1. The platysma myoides in one instance, the subject possessing
the large cleido-occipital before described, had a distinct round sternal
origin and a strong clavicular attachment; otherwise it was normal, and
gave off an oral slip rather lower than usual. This is the band usually
miscalled in the books the risorius Santorini, as the muscle described
by that anatomist was not, according to Henle, this slip of the platysma
(Henle’s ‘‘ Muskellehre,” p. 107).
2. The middle constrictor pharyngis I have twice seen possessing
an extensive syndesmo-pharyngeal origin from the stylo-hyoid ligament,
and likewise from the lesser cornu of the hyoid bone. In one of these
eases the superior constrictor extended only as far upward as the
hamular process of the sphenoid.
3. Varieties of the biceps have been as common as usual, especially in
the forms of additional origins, or more seldom as separate insertions.
Of the former, as usual, the commonest has been the humeral head from
the bone, usually from an oblique line, intervening between the inser-
tion of the coraco-brachialis and the origin of the brachialis anticus
(in my former paper I described it as being from the brachialis, but
that I believe to be asecond and much rarer head). This humeral origin
I have met with once in every eight subjects—a much higher percent-
age than I have ever met before, and agreeing with Theile’s ex-
perience (‘‘ Eneyclop. Anat.” vol. iii, p. 217). During the previous
seven Sessions this only occurred in the proportion of once in every
twenty-five subjects.
Thus the different supernumerary heads which have been described
for this muscle are:—Ist, the before-mentioned humeral ship; 2nd,
from the brachialis anticus directly—the second commonest; 3rd, a
slip from the supinator longus; 4th, a slip from the pronator radii
teres; Sth, from the insertion of the deltoid, either by a strong
fibrous band or by a large muscular origin, which I have seen ex-
isting in a subject that possessed no long head for this muscle; I
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have seen this coexisting with the long head; 6th, a band from the
great tuberosity (Meckel); 7th, from the lesser, tuberosity (Wood) ;
8th, from the outer lip of the bicipital groove; 9th, from the tendon
of the pectoralis major to the long head; 10th, from the tendon of the
lesser pectoral to the short head over the coraco-brachialis; 11th, I have
seen a slip of the coraco-glenoid ligament inserted into the intra-
articular part of the long head, for which it formed an origin; 12th, a
fleshy slip from the internal intermuscular septum to the imner border
of the fleshy belly; 13th, a tendinous fascicle from the triangular liga-
ment continued into the short head; 14th, a slip from the 8th rib
passing along the border of the serratus magnus to the short head
(Wood); 15th, a double short head was described by Theile; 16th, a
head from the floor of the bicipital groove has been seen by Moser
(Meckel’s ‘‘Archiv. Band vii.,” p. 227), and Gruber (Miiller’s ‘‘Archiv.”’
1848, p. 426); 17th, an origin from the capsular ligament of the shoulder
(Wood, Theile). These are the chief forms of supernumerary origins
which have been recorded, and of all of them, except 14, 15, and 16,
I have seen instances during the past session. Some of my specimens
likewise exhibited multiple origins: for instance, in one instance in which
no long head existed, one origin sprang from the outer lip of the bici-
pital groove; another from the humerus above the brachialis anticus ;
while the short head received an accession from the pectoralis minor.
In another subject, the origin from the great tuberosity co-existed with
the ordinary heads, and the slip from the coraco-acromial ligament to
the short head co-existed with a humeral origin. This latter may be
anterior or posterior to the brachial artery.
4, The palmaris longus has likewise been the seat of very great varia-
tions—some referrible to the presence of the palmaris accessorius, and
others, anomalies of the normal muscle. During the past session, the
commonest variety was the presence of an intermediate fleshy belly
with two tendons—one of origin and one of insertion. This [I have
never seen to co-exist with a normal palmaris;* and so I think it may
be regarded as a variation of the proper palmaris longus. In the examples
of this variety, the fleshy portion was from two to seven inches in length :
in one the tendon of origin was thick and round ; in others it was flat ;
in the former the insertion tendon was thin and aponeurotic, while in
most of the latter it was thick. One instance occurred in which it was
fleshy the whole way, as described by Henle; in another it was repre-
sented by a purely tendinous fasciculus, an arrangement not before de-
scribed; a second head occasionally existed for it, in one instance from the
coronoid process under cover of the pronator radii teres (Meckel describes
a supernumerary palmaris attached to this process). In another instance
the second head arose from the radius in common with the radial origin
of the flexor sublimis. Henle (‘‘ Muskellehre,” p. 192) describes an
arrangement somewhat similar to this. In another instance there was
* Since this was written I have met with an example of the coexistence of a normal
palmaris and this variety in the same forearm.
——
141
no condyloid origin, and the muscle arose from the lower part of the
tubercle of the radius as described by Janser, (‘‘ Nederlandsch. Lancet,”’
1850, Jan. p. 431). In these cases the anomaly seems to arise from
the presence of the accessory palmaris, of which the last is a rare spe-
cimen. Its insertion has varied also in some instances during the past
Session. I have found it forming a large portion of the origin of the
abductor pollicis. In another instance there was the following curious
arrangement ; a muscular band, arising from the inner condyle, was
inserted into the inner border of the ulna near its middle ; its insertion
detached a tendon which terminated in the annular ligament.
The palmaris accessorius in another instance arose from the fascia
over the ulnar artery, descended for about two inches, and then becom-
ing tendinous, was inserted into the annular ligament and palmar fascia.
I have likewise seen the tendon of this muscle springing from the
antebrachial aponeurosis in the usual position behind, and internal to
the normal palmaris, and inserted into the annular ligament without
any vestige of a fleshy belly. Before passing from the varieties of this
muscle, it might be useful to present a table of all the recorded anoma-
lies of which it is the subject. The muscle may be:—1, absent ;
2, double and ordinary; 3, double, one (the inner) being inverted ;
4, the inverted muscle alone may exist, with a flat aponeurotic tendon
of origin, or with a round tendon; 5, a single intermediate belly and
tendons of origin, and of insertion (these tendons I have seen both round
or both flattened, but usually one—that of origin most commonly—is
flattened, and the other is rounded); 6, it may be fleshy for its whole
length; 7, it may be tendinous for its whole length; 8, may arise from
above the internal condyle; 9, it may arise from the internal condyle
beneath the origin of the flexor sublimis; or, 10, it may arise from the
coronoid process alone (Meckel), or have a second head from it; 11, it
may have a second origin from the tubercle of the radius (Janser), or
may have this as its only attachment; 12, or, as above described, it may
have an origin from the radial head of the flexor sublimis digitorum ;
13, it has been seen as a slip derived from the flexor sublimis digitorum ;
or, 14; from the flexor profundus (Fleischmann ‘“‘ Abhandlung. der
Physik. Med. Soe. in Erlangen” Band i., p. 25), and the same occurred in
one instance during the past Session; 15, a slip from flexor carpi ulnaris
may supply its place; 16, or from the flexor carpi radialis (Wood); or,
17, two tendons spring from one fleshy belly (Wood); or, 18, a tendon
arising from the epicondyle was inserted into the fascia (Dursy); or,
19, Ihave seen it represented by a thin slip arising over the ulnar
artery from the fascia of the forearm. Its insertions have been found
to vary likewise by its being attached to the (20), pisiform bone;
21, or into the origin of the abductor pollicis; 22, or being connected
to the ulna, as above described. The Palmaris accessorius may be as
a tendinous band, as a muscular belly over the ulnar artery, or may be
inserted into the abductor minimi digiti (Wood, ‘‘ Proc. Rl. Soc.,” June,
1864). Of the twenty varieties just recorded, the second, fifth, sixth,
seventh, eighth, ninth, fifteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth are undoubted
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varieties of palmaris longus; the third is from the presence of both
longus and accessorius ; the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth may be
varieties of the flexor carpi radialis brevis; and the nineteenth is most
likely a form of flexor accessorius.
One other remarkable variety occurred as a large expanded muscle,
half the size of the flexor carpi ulnaris. It arose by two heads—one a
tendinous, or rather fascial slip from the point of the internal condyle
of the humerus, superficial to the pronator muscles; the second head
arose fleshy and tendinous from the inner edge of the ulna, under
cover of the flexor carpi ulnaris, and extended for nearly the lower
two-thirds of that bone; the two origins were separated above by the
ulnar nerve, as no ulnar artery existed in the subject, but they soon
united. The insertions of the muscle were two fold: first, by a tendon
to the palmar fascia; and, secondly, by a much stronger band, likewise
tendinous, into the abductor pollicis.
In a male subject, with a large normal palmaris longus, the acces-
sorius arose by a flat tendon from the internal condyle, and passing
downwards, became fleshy, and was inserted by atwo fold attachment—
one into the annular ligament and palmar fascia, and a second into the
abductor minimi digiti; these insertions were quite separate, the
former being tendinous and the latter fleshy.
5. The flexor carpiradialis presented a radial origin below the tubercle
of that bone, and in another case from the second head of the flexor
sublimis digitorum. It likewise exhibited a coronoid origin, which in
one case was separated by the median nerve from the condyloid head ;
and.in another case the largest part of the fleshy mass arose from the
deep surface of a process from the biceps tendon. The former cases
were probably instances of the coalition between the normal flexor and
the deep radial flexor of Wood. (For the nature of the slip from the
coronoid process, see the ‘‘ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,” vol. 11.
Now pa8)).
6. A very distinct example of the middle head of the gastrocnemius
occurred in another subject similar to the one described in my former
aper.
: Vt, The passage of the lesser pectoral over the coracoid process I
have referred to in a paper in the ‘‘Journal of Anatomy” for May,
1867, and I have found, since that paper was written, out of 29 ex-
tremities that its tendon passed over the coracoid process in 12. Of
these it was attached to the triangular ligament in five, pierced through
it in the remaining seven, and was attached to the supra-spinatus
tendon, to the capsular ligament, and the head of the humerus in the
remainder. In that paper, I showed that the coraco-glenoid fasciculus
of ligament first described by me in the “ Proceedings of the Royal
Trish Academy,” vol. ix., pl. rv. fig. 1, a, was the representative of the
prolonged tendon, and was absent in cases where the prolonged tendon
existed.
8. In the left hand of a thin old male subject, the indicial tendon of
the flexor sublimis became suddenly fleshy opposite the metacarpo-
143
carpal articulation, and formed a belly two inches in length, which
ended opposite the base of the first phalanx by again becoming
tendinous. This seemed an attempt at the digastric arrangement which
I have before described, and it has a very interesting point, namely—
that it shows a step towards the degradation of the perforated muscle
in the foot, as the modification in that region is merely the occurrence
of this change to all the tendons, with a suppression of the leg portion.
9. In the leg of one female subject, the extensor digitorum brevis
sent a slip to the little toe, as well as to the four inner—an arrangement
which I believe to be one of very rare occurrence.
As a supplement to the catalogue of muscular anomalies just
enumerated, we may naturally and with some interest consider the |
light which it sheds upon the vexed question of the serial homologies
of the muscles in the different parts of the body, and we may consider
these in two groups— Ist, those of the limbs; and secondly, those of the
trunk.
The serial homology of the muscles of the upper and lower
extremities is a subject which primd facie appears much simpler than it
really proves to be when studied in detail; and I think a great deal of
confusion has crept into the subject from trying to reason exclusively
from the anatomical arrangements of one animal or class of animals. In
no single animal, be it man or saurian, do we find the muscles typically
arranged; but the investigation of the myology of the limbs of
individuals of different races teaches us that the muscles of each limb
are built up after the model of a definite archetype; but they teach us
equally plainly that in no individual animal do we find the typical
arrangement fully represented: both limbs show us modified muscles ;
and the question resolves itself into these parts—what type muscles are
there, and what representatives do we find of these types? This branch
of Comparative Anatomy began its systematic existence in the writings
of Vicq d’Azyr, although it was foreshadowed by others before that
time, and we may say of it truly, as he did, ‘‘ Dans cette espece nouvelle
d’anatomie comparée on observe comme dans l’anatomie comparée
ordinaire ces deux caractéres que lanature parait avoir imprimés a tout
les étres, celui de la constance dans le type et de la variété dans les
modifications. lle semble avoir formé ces differences especes et leurs
parties correspondantes sur un méme plan qu’elle soit modifies a
Pinfini.” We may, for the convenience of further consideration, divide
the groups of muscles in every vertebrate extremity into the following
series: first, those of the basal joint of the limb; secondly, those of the
shait of the primal bone; thirdly, those of the second, or ginglymus
aoe fourthly, those of the metacarpal series; and fifthly, those of the
igits.
The comparative positions of the two limbs have been discussed
frequently, and many anatomists have argued from their interpretations
of bony arrangements as to the disposition of the muscles. Now, as the
bones are in function to some extent subsidiary to the surrounding soft
parts, we may find that a consideration both of the osseous and muscular
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anatomy will give us the most accurate information upon the subject of
these serial homologies. The theories of position which we have to ex-
amine in the first place are five, first—that of Professor Owen (‘‘ Nature of
Limbs,” 1849), that the front of the arm represents the front of the thigh,
the biceps cubiti representing the rectus femoris; but this is open to
the objection, that it homologates joints which have reverse actions, and
is contrary to the disposition of the bony and muscular parts of the
limb, although based upon some striking peculiarities in the limbs of Mar-
supials as the upward prolongation of the fibula in the Wombat, which is
interpreted as a patella by Owen; secondly, the theory of Maclise (Art.
Skeleton, Todd’s ‘‘ Cyclopzedia,”’ vol. iv., p. 852), that the lower end of
the humerus has been twisted round, as indicated by the musculo-spiral
groove, and hence the displacement of the parts of the limb below. This
has been strongly defended by Martens (Nouvelle comparaison des mem-
bres pelviens et thoraciques (“‘ Mémoires de |’ Académie des Sciences et
Lettres, Montpellier,” tom. i1., p. 4, 1857) ; but to it there are many ob-
jections, that the bony fibres show no sign of such a twist ; that we have
no embryonic evidence of torsion; that the muscles present us with no
appearances in favour of such a change ;* thirdly, we have the theory
Vicq D’Azyr, that the left arm and the right leg correspond, an idea
which we will revert to afterwards, and which is severely reviewed
by Martens (loc. cit. p. 474) ; fourthly, we have the theory proposed by
Mr. Huxley, in the Hunterian Lectures for 1864, that the bony points
at the upper end of the primal limb bone resemble their alternates, that
is, the greater trochanter femoris corresponds to the lesser tuberosity
of the humerus, and vice versd, and that the supraspinatus is the
homotype of the iliacus. These views he bases upon the structure of
Ornithorhynchus, and the arrangement of the trochanters of Chole-
pus, Galeopithecus and Pteropus, and it is defended by Mr. Mivart
in his very valuable monograph on the myology of Echidna hystrix
(Trans. Linn. Soc.,’”’ vol. xxv., p. 396, e¢ seg.); but although bearing
with it the weight of great names, and very striking peculiarities of
structure in these aberrant forms of Mammalia, I would venture to
dissent from this very original and striking theory, and that upon the
following grounds: first, it seems contrary to the anatomical structures
of the great majority of animals, in which the correspondence between
the greater trochanter and greater tuberosity is more than a mere
fancied resemblance; secondly, because in three of the Chelonians
which I have examined (selected because in them the basal bone of the
two extremities so nearly correspond), the hawksbill turtle, Hmys
geographica, and Testudo greca, the correspondences of arrangement,
both in the bones and muscles of the two limbs, were not what might
be expected in conformity with the theory—the greater trochanteric
* It is particularly when it comes to deal with the soft parts that the fallacy of this
theory appears, and the consideration that it requires the brachialis anticus to act as the
representative of the crurzeus is enough to stamp it as not accordant with anatomical fact.
145
muscles were still represented by the typical greater tuberosity ones,
thirdly, because the muscle correspondences based upon this theory are
by no means as striking as those to be ascertained by the acceptance of
the fifth theory, which, with little modification, we will find to be the
most suitable, and the one most clearly in accordance with the com-
parisons about to be instituted. The theory I would wish to propose
is this—the basal bone of the limb I believe, with Mr. Mivart, to be
typically a columnar organ with muscles placed along its four sides;
this is modified by the projection and lamination of its angles, or by its
occasional flattening into a flat surface, a change that is accomplished
by the great elongation of the two edges and the flattening and obso-
lescence of the others: thus the basal segment may present us with an
outer and inner side, as we find in both limbs in man; in the thoracic
limb having its upper surface represented by the supraspinous fossa, and
its outer by the infraspinous; its lower by the axillary costa, and its
inner by the subscapular fossa. In the pelvic member we find these
surfaces represented—the upper by the portion of the ium below the
middle curved line, the external, by the space intervening between the
middle line and the crest of the ilium; the inferior, by the anterior iliac
margin, aud the internal, by the iliac fossa. Thus most of the muscular
and bony points of the upper part of the limb I believe correspond in
the manner pointed out by Professor Humphry (‘‘ Human Skeleton,” p.
599, and ‘“‘On the Limbs of Vertebrate Animals’). The femur and
humerus I believe correspond to the one type; the greater and lesser
trochanters to the greater and lesser tuberosities respectively ; and at the
lower end, as the head of the fibula does not come in contact with the
lower end of the femur, the capitulum humeri is not represented at
all upon the latter bone; and the two sides of the trochlea correspond
to the two condyles of the femur. In this latter point there is a slight dif-
ference in the theoretic arrangement which I would here propose from
Dr. Humphry’s comparison. When we compare the bones of the foreleg,
we find that the fibula and tibia present us with some points of diver-
gence from the forearm bones, or radius and ulna. Comparing the bones
at the upper ginglymus articulation, we find that the tibial element in
the one case taken with the patella represents the ulnar element in the
upper limb taken in common with the olecranon; and the fibular head
is the representative of the upper extremity of the radius, its articular sur-
face diminished because its action is lost, and its tubercle elongated, be-
cause required for the insertion of the outer flexor; but when we compare
the terminal segments of the limbs, we find that to homologate properly
the hand and the foot, we require to rotate the segment, so that the thumb
or polliceal edge of the hand and the halluceal edge of the foot will both
point forwards. Now, in doing this, it will be noticed that the radius
will be brought forward, taking the place in the upper limb which is
oceupied by the tibia in the lower. If we examine these bones as they
are placed in the foreleg of the elephant, we will there see that to
homologate the fore and hind foot, a permanent state of crossing or
pronation is required, and thus we can explain the apparent discrepancy
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between the upper and lower ends of the individual leg bones, by sup-
posing that they have undergone a change of position and of continuity—
the upper end of the radius and the lower end of the ulna correspond to
the fibula, while the remaining segments represent the tibia. This
opinion was first broached by Cruveilhier (‘‘ Anat. Deserip.,”’ t.1., p.315),
and I believe, when we come to examine the soft parts, we will find these
correspondences to be indicated with precision and clearness.
It may assist in the subsequent homologation of the muscles if we
place in a tabular form the bony correspondences of the limbs in
man; butit must be recollected that these points are not representative
one of another, but that both the upper and lower limb bones are repre-
sentatives of these parts in a typical limb :-—
Basal Bone, Upper.
Subscapular fossa
Dorsal costa scapulz.
Axillary costa.
Inferior angle.
Tricipital spine.
Glenoid cavity.
Supraspinous fossa.
Infraspinous fossa.
Superior angle.
Coracoidean notch.
Spine for conoid ligament.
Coracoid process.
Coracoid apex.
Spine of scapula.
Coraco-acromial ligament.
Lower.
Tliae fossa.
Crest of the ilium.
Anterior edge of ilium.
Anterior superior spine.
Anterior inferior spine.
Acetabulum.
Space below middle dorsal line.
Space above middle dorsal line.
Posterior superior spine.
Sacrosciatic notch.
Spine of ischium.
Tuber ischii.
Ascending ramus of ischium.
Middle curved line.
Rudimentary pubis?
Of the position of the clavicle I say nothing; it is not of very great
importance to our present object to determine its exact nature.
Humerus.—Upper Primal Bone.
Head and Neck.
Greater tuberosity.
Lesser tuberosity.
Coracobrachial line.
Intermuscular ridges—separated.
Dorsal surface.
Nuiritious foramen.
External lip of trochlea.
Inner lip of trochlea.
External condyle.
Inner condyle.
Capitulum.
Femur.—Lower.
Head and Neck.
Greater tuberosity.
Lesser tuberosity. _
Linea aspera centre.
Edges of linea aspera interval contracted.
Extensor, or front surface.
Nutritious foramen.
Outer condyle.
Inner condyle.
The flattened side of outer condyle.
The flattened side of inner condyle.
Obsolete.
SECOND SERIES OF LIMB RONES.
Radius and Ulna, and Carpus.
Olecranon.
Coronoid process.
Greater sigmoid cavity.
Lesser sigmoid cavity.
Posterior margin of ulna.
Tibia and Fibula, and Tarsus.
Patella.
Posterior lip of inner condyle of tibia.
Articular surface of tibia.
Tibio-fibular facet.
Crest of tibia.
147
Inner surface of ulna. Inner side of tibia.
Outer surface of ulna. Outer anterior side of tilia.
Styloid process. External malleolus.
Tubercle of radius. Styloid process of fibula.
Head of radius. Head of fibula.
Back of radius. Inner surface of fibula.
Front of radius. Posterior surface of fibula.
Styloid process of radius. Tnternal malleolus.
Two facets on inferior end of radius. Facets on lower part of tibia.
Scaphoid bone. Scaphoid.
Semilunar bone. Astragalus.
Cuneiform. Os calcis.
Pisiform. Sesamoid, in peroneus longus.
Trapezium. . Ento-cuneiform.
Trapezoid. Meso-cuneiform.
Os magnum body. Ecto-cuneiform.
Os magnum head. Head of astragalus.
Unciform. Cuboid.
Pollex. Hallux.
Little finger. Little toe.
It has been objected by Martens that the union of two long bones is
contrary to the laws of coalescence; but it may be readily explained
by the shifting of the lower epiphysis from the one bone to the other.
Having premised these considerations, I would suggest that the
muscular comparisons are to be made as follows:—The basal joint of
each limb is invested with a muscular external covering, usually rough
and fasciculated, represented by the gluteus maximus, in part, in the
lower limb, and by the deltoid and the dorsal portion of the trapezius
in the upper limb. The coccygeal portion and sacral origin of the first
truly represent the trapezius; but, as the intervenient ridge is not
developed in the lower extremity, the origin is shifted in man toa
considerable degree. The points of insertion of this muscle in both
limbs closely correspond, and as it is a homotype generally admitted,
we need not make any further remark regarding it.
Beneath this lie several muscles—one immediately in contact, which
is inserted usually into the outer part of the greater tuberosity
(trochanter), and whose fascial investment has a tolerably constant
relation to the first-named; this muscle typically 1s attached to the
outer portion of the columnar basal bone, and in the upper limb is
named infraspinatus, in the lower is meso-gluteus. These muscles
exhibit in man a striking resemblance in the arrangement of their
fibres, and both exhibit a tendon between two planes of muscle fibres.
As the margin representative of the spine of the scapula is completely
obsolete in the pelvic representatives, the muscles separated thereby
encroach on each other in the lower limb of man remarkably, so that
the third muscle actually extends below the level of the second. This
constitutes the supraspinatus, or upper marginal muscle, and in the
lower limb the gluteus minimus, or endogluteus, the alteration be-
tween the representatives of these types in human anatomy arising
from the fact—first, of the absence of the shelf or partition in the lower
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limb, and secondly, from the alteration of the axis of action, on account
of the greater elevation of the basal bone in comparison with its
thoracic representative. Along the inferior margin of the basal bone
lies the fourth muscle of this series, represented in the lower limb by the
scansorius or gluteus quartus, and in the other extremity by the teres
minor. These muscles agree, first, in their insertion point being
typically low upon the great: tuberosity ; secondly, by their relation
being so close to the last-mentioned pair of muscles, a third of which
it forms. Its human relationship long led me to entertain the mistaken
idea that the meso-gluteus was of the same type as the supraspinatus,
and the endogluteus represented the infraspinatus ; but I believe the ba-
lance of evidence is in favour of the arrangement as above given. One
thing seems clear, that the representation of the upper limb pair is
to be looked for in these two muscles of the gluteal series. A
second marginal muscle occurs on the inner edge of this lower
border, the iliocapsular of the lower limb, or the subscapulo hu-
meral of the upper, neither being constant muscles in man, al-
though of regular occurrence in many animals. The last of the
basal muscles on the inner surface of the typical bone is the subsca-
pularis of the upper, or the iliacus of the lower limb, and that they
correspond may be assumed for the following reasons :—both are com-
posed of fine muscular fibres; both are inserted into the smaller
tuberosity or trochanter; both pass close to the capsular ligament of
the basal joint—indeed often having the subjacent bursa (which exists
under each tendon) communicating with the cavity of the joint; both
have the main artery of the limb in contact with them ; both occupy
nearly the entire of a surface of the basal bone, which surface is on the
visceral aspect of that limb. Certainly in some animals the iliac
attachment seems to be very much everted. In the opossum I have
found it so, and in the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna Professor
Huxley and Mr. Mivart have been led to assign a different position
to it from this very fact; but putting against these few cases, first,
the instances in which the origin of the subscapularis is marginal, as
in the Testudo greca, and Hawksbill, and secondly, the arrangement
of the iliacus in the vast majority of animals, I think we are entitled
to consider that the subscapularis and iliacus are the representatives of
the inner marginal muscle of the columnar basal bone.
To the ischiatic side of the basal bone he a third or rotator group,
very irregularly represented in the two extremities. The chief elements
of this series are the pectoralis minor in the upper extremity, and the
obturator muscles in the lower: the obturator internus is most
probably represented by the pectoralis minor, as I have tried to show
(‘Journal of Anatomy,” vol.i., p. 317), and as illustrated by the pectorals
of the ostrich, in which the component bones of the scapular shoulder-
girdle are converted into a single os innominatum. The insertion of this
muscle into the coracoid process is but a stopping short of the obturator
at the lesser ischiatic notch ; and there is usually, as Ihave elsewhere
149
shown, a crescentic deficiency in the triangular coraco-acromial liga-
ment corresponding with it, and a continuing, though usually uncon-
nected band, the coraco-glenoid ligament. The gemelli are mere extra-
pelvic slips of the obturator, and have no representatives in the upper
limb. The obturator externus of man, I think, we may regard as the
homotype of the subclavius—that muscle is invested with a fascia which
forms a ligamentous band stretching out to the humerus, as the pubio-
femoral accessory igament is related to the obturator externus, and the
muscle is in the upper limb often continued into the coracoid process,
either directly or by means of fibres of the trapezoid ligament, or
through slips, like the coraco-clavicular of Wood..
The pyriformis muscle of the lower limb has no distinct upper limb
homotype in man; but in other animals a distinct and corresponding
muscle is met with either in the form of the masto-humeralis of
Cetaceans—a muscle which in those animals that possess a clavicle is
modified into a levator clavicule, or trachelo-acromial of Cuvier (- Omo
atlanticus of Haughton), as such nearly constant in Quadrumana, and
often met with in man; the last, or quadratus femoris type, found in
the lower extremity, is likewise obsolete in the group of the shoulder
girdle muscles of man, but it is possibly represented by the epicoraco-
humeral muscle described and figured by Mr. Mivart in Eehidna
hystriz? Blainville suggests that it may be represented by latissimus
dorsi.
We may thus arrange in tabular form the upper and lower limb
equivalents of the typical muscles of the extremity, and we will find
the correspondence to be as follows : —
GEMS MAR AUMNUS 5 os 5), 6 sie'vis bck @ cece = Deltoid and part of trapezius.
GCM SMMCU TUS ee os win sare é.bin0'6 one 0» » = Infraspinatus.
Giese IIIS, |. we kk ke nw oe = Supraspinatus.
PAVIAOUIES Sie. Se. ee aon k eee eve = Trachelo-acromial, or masto-humeralis..
Obturator internus and two gemelli, .... = Pectoralis minor.
Obtunator externus, wos... vai a ce os cece = Subclavius.
AG EALUSACIMOTIS oc o.el wie «see 00.050 0% = Epicoraco-humeralis of Echidna >
IAC MISOUMECTMS a es ce es os esses = Subscapularis.
CAUSOMMSMEMM ee A. ea week = Teres minor.
Mioetpsulars 8, Ole eS ee oe oes = Subscapulo-humerak
Tensor vagine femoris, .............. = Teres major.
The teres major of the upper limb having its function in the human
hinder limb performed by the gluteus medius, is detached from the
bone and united to the deep surface of the fascia under the name of
tensor vaginz femoris; the two resemble each other in course, and in
general relation to the great extensor set of muscles. The tensor appears
to go to the outer instead of the inner edge of this series—first, on
account of its altered function; and secondly, because of the obsoles-
cence of the ridge for its reception. The tensor vagine is attached to
the femur in the ai, according to Meckel, and to the patella in the seal ;
and the teres major I have seen sending a slip into the triceps, which
would only require to transfer its attachment to the fascia, which in
PS
a Kwa <
Sena
ss >
ee SS
—
:
EE tne ee be ee e+e et eee
SS
ne
s+
SARS Te PGE
-
150
this situation is so thin that it needs no special muscular tensor, and we
would have the condition of this muscle similar in both limbs. .
From the ischiatic segment of the basal bone in each limb we have
another series of muscles, the adductors—muscles truly femoral in man,
but degraded to the tibia in the seal, forming an illustration of a
principle commonly to be noticed in anatomy, that when a muscle loses
its special individuality of action, its insertion becomes degraded, or
extended to more than one bone or segment of the extremity. This
group is represented usually by five elements, well developed in the
lower limb of man, these are: one, basio-tibial, the gracilis, represented
in the upper limb of man by the chondro-epitrochlearis, a slip from the
cartilage of the seventh or eighth rib to the inner condyle of the
humerus, and inner intermuscular septum: the second element, or the
great adductor portion, extends from the tuber ischii (coracoid process)
to the primal limb bone, and is represented in the thigh by the adductor
magnus—in the arm, by the portion of the coraco-brachialis overlying
the musculo-cutaneous nerve. These parts agree, first, because they
are inserted the nearest to the flexor aspect of the limb, and in contact
with the flexor muscle; secondly, because this portion of the coraco-
brachialis extends the farthest down the limb—TI have seen it extend-
ing as far as the epitrochlea; thirdly, because it is most closely in
connexion with the main artery of the limb asa deep relation, as is
the adductor magnus to the femoral. The third portion of the adductor
mass, or pectineus,is amuscle whose fore limb representative is very
difficult of determination, its typical origin we find to be from the
pubis, and its insertion the ridge below the lesser tuberosity. Now,
in this position precisely we find the small muscle described by Mr.
Wood as the coraco-capsular—considered by him as a representative of
the adductor brevis; but the reasons which lead me to associate it with
the pectineus as a representative of the same type are the following:
first, because its orig is the point the nearest possible to the sup-
pressed pubis; secondly, its insertion is exactly typical, viz., to the
ridge below the lesser tuberosity ; thirdly, its relattonship to the inner
rotator, or subscapularis, which is exactly that of the pectineus and
iliacus: in all these respects the coraco-capsular seems a very clear
homotype of the pectineus, and it leaves the coraco-brachialis proprius
to act as the representative of the remaining part of the true adductor
mass, which in many animals is condensed into one muscle. The subner-
vous portion I have found divided into two parts on several oecasions—
one attached to a tendinous sling figured by Henle, immediately behind
the nerve, and a third more posterior, which I have found perfectly
separate and close to the inner head of the triceps ; these are the re-
presentative of the same type as the adductor brevis; the adductor lon-
gus is represented by the great pectoral muscle. ;
The muscles of the mesial joints are much more definite and easily
understood ; they are arranged into two groups, an extensor and a flexor
series; the former are sometimes conjoined into one mass as in the
human arm, but sometimes exhibit four or five individual parts per-
|
151
fectly separate ; there is usually in the lower extremity an aberrant super-
ficial portion lying obliquely over the rest of the mass—the sartorius,
which in the upper limb is represented by a superficial portion (dorsi
epitrochlearis) lying over the triceps. This muscle in the lower
extremity is usually attached to the anterior superior spine of the ilium,
and passes to the inner side of the head of the tibia; or as in the seal, to
the inner side of the patella, or into the fascia of the inner side of the
thigh for two-thirds of its length, as in the crocodile (Haughton, ‘‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,” 1865, p. 50); in some animals,
as the Hyrax, it is absent in the upper limb. This muscle is repre-
sented by the dorsi-olecranal (usually called dorsi epitrochlear ) slip of
monkeys—found in the hare, rabbit, guinea-pig, and agouti, and many
other animals; by a scapulo-fascial muscle in the pig, which 1 have
described before (‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,” April,
1866), and which exists in the horse, and as a second latissimus dorsi
in Echidna. Beneath this, the second portion of the great extensor mass
is to be found, the rectus, represented in the upper limb by the long head
of the triceps, whose origin is from the basal bone in the neighbourhood
of the capsular ligament of the shoulder or hip, and often in both limbs
attached to the capsule itself. The insertion of this mass is central
and usually regular; occasionally, as in the hinder limb of the ostrich,
varied by an extension into some lower muscle: the origin of this
muscle is marginal, but always inclined to the outer side, hence it is be-
neath the infraspinatus and teres minor above, and beneath the scansorius
and gluteus medius below: this covers over the deeper portions of the
muscle, a mesial, an outer and an inner, the former pair represented in
man by the outer head of the triceps in the arm, and by the crureus
and the vastus internus in the lower limb. The latter is of the same
type as the inner head of the triceps above, and the vastus internus
below ; there is usually a small bundle of muscular fibres beneath the
middle segment, inserted into the synovial membrane, the subcrurzeus
of the lower limb, and the subanconeus of the upper: the latter is by
no means so constant as the former. The resemblances of these need
no remark,
The flexor group of muscles consists usually of four elements,
sometimes of five; these most usually are the two heads of the biceps,
and the two inner hamstrings in the lower limb, and the brachialis
anticus and biceps in the upper. Now, contrasting these, so as to tind
their individual correspondences, we see that the shorter head of the
biceps femoris is the obvious representative of the occasional humeral
head of the biceps flexor cubiti. The coracoid origin beside this is the
probable homotype of the long head of the biceps, with which it agrees
in several respects—first, as its origin is from the ischiatic element of
the basal bone; second, because its fibres are connected with the former
element when it exists in the upper limb, although, indeed, in the thigh
this union is by no means a necessary arrangement’; for the femoral
head is inserted into the semi-tendinosus in the ostrich, and into the
san abeuensotiinitiny alleaahed Sans toDbe PLETED IRS on ee
A teens x a ae a a on Oe aR cad
LO LLL AL NN tl ey lt ty ety se
152
semimembranosus in the rhea and emu (Haughton, “Proceedings of
the Royal Irish Academy,” 1866, p. 95), showing that this is a separate
element; thirdly, in the Marsupials the biceps cubiti flexor is divided
completely ,and the coracoidean head is always radial in its insertion ;
similarly in the crocodile, the only head of the biceps is a coracoid one,
and its insertion is as usual radial, and in Echidna the insertion is
radial and ulnar, as in the pig. These different reasons lead us to
believe that the short head of the arm biceps is the representative of
the long head of the biceps flexor cruris; besides, in the cases noted in
my former paper, in which the biceps cubiti could be severed into two
parts, the coracoid portion was always prolonged into the radial tendon.
We thus have to homologate the semimembranosus and semitendinosus
with the glenoidal head of the biceps and the brachialis anticus; and
here we find some difficulties to be explained, which can best be done by
the hypothesis, that the type represented by the long head of the biceps
humeri in the upper limb corresponds to the tendon of origin of the
semimembranosus, and to the insertion of the semitendinosus. This may
seem fanciful, but it is indicated by three circumstances—firstly, the
origin of the semimembranosus is tendinous and elongate, like the long
head of the biceps; it is also the nearest to the articulation of any of
these hamstrings, and the most external; secondly, the insertion of the
semitendinosus and that of the biceps in part resemble each other in
being often fascial, and in being truly ulnar in many cases, especially
where there is but a single glenoidal origin for the muscle. Thus the gui-
nea-pig, porcupine, beaver, rabbit, and agouti, have only an ulnar inser-
tion; thirdly, that in the semitendinosus we always find a tendinous
intersection, the cicatrix of the union of the two segments, to which
my attention was directed by Dr. Bennett, but which is well known by
practical anatomists. The presence of this band of tendon is inexplicable
upon any other hypothesis, and this supplies all the conditions necessary
for its production. We have no sign of the second junction, viz., the
union of the two other parts of the dissevered muscles in the semimem-
branosus, for that corresponds to the junction of the tendon with the
fleshy portion of the muscles. In my former paper I stated my belief
that the short head of the biceps represented the semimembranosus,
but that view I withdraw, and deem inadmissible; and the glenoidal
portion of the tendon of this type we have represented in the lower
limb by the ligamentum teres coxe. The last element of the flexor
group, the belly of the semimembranosus, to which we should superadd
the origin of semitendinosus, has its representative in the brachialis
anticus, which is known by its close relationship to the adductor mass
(coraco-brachialis), by its coracoid (tibial insertion), and its being
placed usually on a plane internal to and deeper than the other ham-
strings or flexors.
The muscles clothing the second series of bones of the typical limb
we find arranged in three groups: those specially devoted to the move-
ments of the individual bones, the one upon the other, constituting the
153
first of these classes, including the supinators and the pronators ; the
muscles attached to the metacarpal bones constitute the second class,
and the muscles set apart for the motions of the phalanges constitute
the third.
Of these three groups, the second presents us with the principal
varieties, both in the way of anomalies and in individual variations,
throughout the orders of the vertebrate sub-kingdom; it constitutes a
most remarkable class; it seems as if typically there had been five pair
of muscles developed—a flexor and extensor for each metacarpal bone.
Thus we find the first bone extended in the foot by the tibialis anticus,
flexed by the tibialis posticus ; in the hand an aberrant muscle, extensor
carpi radialis accessorius, is developed occasionally in place of the
former, and sometimes a few tendinous fibres of the flexor carpi radialis
occur in the room of the latter. The anomalous muscle mentioned
above was described by Mr. Wood, and my friend and colleague, Mr.
Richardson has communicated to me a description of an instance of it
which occurred in his dissections. For the second metacarpal bone we
have a flexor in the ordinary flexor carpi radialis, and an extensor in the
extensor carpi radialis longior ; the foot has the first of these represented
by the tibialis secundi of the hare (named so by Mr. Huxley), and the
second probably by the second tibialis anticus described by Mr. Mivart
in the echidna (‘‘Tr. Linn. Soc.” vol. xxv., p. 392), or the tibialis
anticus of the agouti (‘‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’? 1866,
p- 411), although in the former animal the tendon is inserted into the
hallux. The third metacarpal has an extensor—the extensor carpi
radialis brevior; and as a flexor it has the flexor tertii metacarpi of
Wood, or flexor carpi radialis profundus; these have no ordinary re-
presentatives in the foot. The fourth metacarpal and its correspond-
ing metatarsal have no separate muscles attached to them, as in the con-
solidated state of the foot there could be no use for them as specialized
muscles. Of the flexor quarti metatarsi we have the trace in the slip
of the peroneus longus, so frequently connected to the base of the fourth
metatarsal bone. In the hand a slip of the flexor carpi ulnaris is some-
times attached to the base of the fourth metatarsal, or a fibrous band
from the pisiform is attached to that bone; the muscles of the fifth
metatarsal bone are easily recognized ; the peroneus longus is evidently,
as Meckel has stated, of the same type as the flexor carpi ulnaris. Its
course and its-sesamoid bone (representing the pisiform), and the
transverse palmar course of the tendinous slips of the latter, in the
Ursus arctos and sloth; the peroneus brevis is the obvious representa-
_ tive of the extensor carpi ulnaris, even though in hyrax, Messrs.
_Murie and Mivart found them going, the longus in front of the
_ malleolus, and the brevis behind it. This is but an accidental change
in position.
Having thus homologated the metacarpal flexors and extensors, it
may be interesting to reduce our results to a tabular form at this
stage :—
154
HAND. Foor. 2
Flexor of first metacarpal (-tarsal) Obsolete, Tibialis posticus.
Extensor of first =f Extensor carpi radialts Tibialis anticus.
accessorius, =
Flexor of second “5 Flexor carpi radialis, Tibialis secundi (Huxley).
Extensor of second ,, Extensor carpi radialis Tibialis anticus of Agonti.
: longior, Tibialis anticus secundus of Echidna.
Flexor of third 45 Flexor carpi radialis Obsolete ; sometimes a slip of peroneus longus.
brevis (Wood).
Extensor of third ,, Hastensoe carpi radialis Obsolete.
revis.
Flexor of fourth ae Sue. of flexor carpt Peroneus longus, slip of.
ulnaris.
Extensor of fourth ,, Obsolete.
Flexor of fifth 5 Flexor carpi ulnaris, Peroneus longus.
Extensor of fifth ss Extensor carpi ulnaris, Peroneus brevis.
and its continued slip, ,, Ulnaris quinti, Peroneus quintt.
The muscles in italics are either common anomalies in man, or
muscles in lower animals.
The second class of muscles which we have to consider are the
pronator and supinator series—a group specially developed in those
cases In which the forearm bones rotate the one upon the other: of
these we find typically two long and four short muscles in each limb.
The first of these is the supinator longus type, represented in the lower
limb by the outer head of the gastrocnemius, which resembles the
former in being attached to the ridge above the outer condyle of the
femur, and in constituting the outer lip of the popliteal space, the
homotype of the anticubital fossa. The second or condyloid origin of
the pronator teres corresponds with the last-named, and is represented
in the lower extremity by the inner head of the gastrocnemius: both
these muscles have lost their typical insertion in the lower limb, as
there is no independent motion of the one bone upon the other. There
are four shorter transverse, or nearly transverse muscles, which should
act typically—the two anterior as pronators, the two posterior as
supinators; of these, the upper anterior one is the slip so peculiarly
human, the coronoid origin of the pronator radii teres, whose nature I
have explained in the ‘‘Journal of Anatomy,” N.S8., vol. i., p. 8, and
this has its dorsal antithetic in the supinator brevis—a muscle whose
course is the direct counterpart of the former on the dorsal aspect.
These two are represented in a modified form in the lower limb of man,
the first as the tibial origin of solzeus (loc. cit. supra, p. 8), and the
second as the popliteus. Among the many resemblances between the
supinator brevis and popliteus, I may here state that, asin the tendon of
the latter a sesamoid cartilage has been described as a rare occurrence
in man, although a typical condition in other animals; even so, in
the origin of the former a distinct sesamoid bone existed in the
extremity of one subject which I have dissected. The second pair
of transverse muscles we find represented anteriorly by the prona-
tor quadratus, which finds its homotype in the peroneo-calcanean
muscle above described: the dorsal antithesis of this muscie is usually
the subject of the same variety of modification as is always presented by
the last-named—that is, its tendon is continued to seek a metacarpal
site of insertion, and in the forearm, being specialized to perform a
155
supplemental function, namely, the extension of the metacarpal bone of
the thumb, it is modified into the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis.
We may thus tabulate the muscles of this group :—
RPIMALOE NOHO US... 7. cs a pe Le vie ee Fonda External head of gastrocnemius.
Pronator teres condyloid, ;........... 8: Internal head of gastrocnemius.
Prawaor Guadratus) |. cpr. i). eke wk ve Peroneo-calcanean.
Eronaror teres Coronoid, 5...) / 2. es ess Tibial head of soleus.
SANTO DN CWIS ry. ja: 2 oka, Seve arsidedicd: «woe cone Popliteus.
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, ...... Extensor ossis metatarsi hallucis.
The insertion of the last-named is one of the most variable points in
human anatomy, a very good evidence that it is not a typical attach-
ment.
The third, or finger-supplying muscles are very complex in character,
but may easily be reduced into certain typical series. Firstly, to this
class I would refer a set of fascial muscles, represented in the arm by
palmaris longus brevis and accessorius. To the first of these types we
refer the plantaris of the lower limb, because, although even in the
human embryo the tendon has’ no connexion with the plantar fascia,
yet in many of the lower animals its fascial connexion is distinct and
decided. It is no argument against the correspondence of these muscles
that in the arm its attachment is to the inner condyle, and in the leg of
the outer, for the attachment is one of convenience of action and not of
type; for there is no actual inner condyle to the femur similar to the
process so named in the humerus, and the muscles-which are regular
in the latter are errant in the former, none but the pronator preserving
even a shadow of its typical place. The second muscle, or the palmaris
accessorius, a protean muscle in the arm typical in being on the hypo-
thenar side of the proper palmaris, and being connected most commonly
to some of the short flexor muscles of the hand, is represented in the
lower limb by the fiexor accessorius of Wood and Turner springing from
the deep tibial fascia, and inserted into the musculus accessorius of
flexor tendons (Wood on Anomalies, ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society,” vol. xii., p. 02. Turner on Variability in Human Struc-
tures, ‘Transactions of the Royal Society, Edinburgh,” vol. xxiv.,
p- 184). There is another muscle on the back of the ankle, dec-
scribed by Gantzer, Hyrtl, and others, and attached to the deep layer
of the annular ligament or to the calcaneum directly, and springing
from the popliteal fascia, from the linea poplitea or tibial fascia. It is
possible that this, the tensor fascie plantaris of Wood may be another
form of the same type not at all improbable, considering the variations
which it exhibits in the forelimb. The third of the fascial group, or
_ palmaris brevis, is a true hand muscle, and will be considered as such.
Of these, I know of no true antitheses, as the dorsal aponeuroses both
in pes and manus are weak, and do not require special tensors.
The second of the digital group of muscles consists of a flexor and
extensor series for the second phalanges of each finger. These in the
forearm are represented by the flexor sublimis digitorum, and the
extensor communis digitorum. In the leg they are typified by the flexor
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL, X. ¥
Oe Le NN ae Oe
Aen Ts
156
digitorum brevis pedis and extensor digitorum longus. The first of
these muscles in the upper limb has a condyloid origin, which in the -
lower limb is obsolete, as the condyle itself is diminished; it has a
second or radial origin above the flexor pollicis muscle which is altered
in its connexion, and appears in the leg as the external head of the
soleus. These parts being altered, and the power of the muscle being
much diminished, it is contracted into a foot muscle, and the same
change has occurred to all its tendons, which I have described above as
occurring to the indicial one of its hand representative, and they all are
made by the suppression of the upper part to assume a tarsal origin,
the insertion and its mode of perforation remaining constant. The
extensor muscles of the hand and foot are the undoubted exponents, the
one of the other; and as the pollex has a series of differentiated actions,
we have its extensor separated from the rest of the mass, as the extensor
primi internodii pollicis, and thrown back a step. There is no flexor
of this series for the pollex. Similarly, we have an extensor for the
hallux, the extensor primi internodii rarely developed, and retrograde
one step in insertion from non-development of the second phalanx, and
no proper second flexor of this group in man.
The third series of digital muscles are the flexors and extensors of
the third phalanx of each finger and toe. We find these represented
by the flexor profundus perforans manus and flexor pollicis above, and
the flexor digitorum longus perforans pedis and flexor hallucis below.
Now, in comparing these muscles in the lower limb, it will be seen that
the muscles cross each other, the flexor hallucis taking a fibular (ulnar)
origin, and passing outwards, while the flexor digitorum arises on the
tibial (radial) side, and passes inwards. Now, no crossing takes place
in the upper mb, but we find it in the lower limb, as an index of the
change which has taken place in the bones of the extremity; and as
these muscles are but the differentiated portions of one layer, it is not
surprising that constant unions are taking place between their tendons
at the point of crossing. This seems a more natural explanation, con-
sidering the position of the limb bones, than the idea that the flexors had
exchanged tendons, and what should be the flexor pollicis muscle sup-
plied the other toes, and vice versa—a theory which cannot be sustained
on teleological or embryological grounds. All these muscles seek
insertion into the last phalanx; their corresponding extensors are but
poorly developed. We have certainly the extensor secundi internodii
pollicis, the rudiment of the muscle for this finger. and the extensor
proprius pollicis, the fully developed muscle for the great toe; we
have the extensor indicis of man as the second extensor unrepresented
in the foot; the extensor medii digiti1 manus likewise unrepresented in
the foot ; the extensor quarti digiti either an offshoot from the extensor
minimi digiti, as in monkeys, or asa deep forearm muscle, but still
typical in its insertion, and represented in the foot as peroneus quarti
metatarsi; and lastly, we have the extensor minim digiti typified in
the leg by the peroneus tertius, whose insertion is thrown back several
degrees. Recession of this kind, however, is to be noticed in many of
157
the leg muscles—for instance, the tibialis posticus, which is deprived of
its metatarsal insertion, and sometimes even tibialis anticus is similarly
cirecumstanced ; likewise the interossei pedis are usually attached to the
first phalanx of each toe, while those of the hand are attached to the
second and third. The second set of extensors is well developed in
some animals, as I have described a few pages before in connexion with
the muscles of the other. The fourth set of digital muscles belong, not
to the forearm, but to the hand, and constitute a short group of flexors or
extensors. ‘The examples of this series are met with under the names
of extensor digitorum brevis pedis, which sends differentiated slips to
the hallux and three or (as in the case above) four toes. This is repre-
sented in the hand by extensor digitorum brevis manus, described above.
Of the flexors in this group we have the types very much altered, on
account of the variety of work which they are required to do: the
superficial head of the short flexor of the thumb take its place as the
first of these ; but as the functions of the others as flexors are more
efficiently executed by the other before-mentioned muscles, the use of
these muscles is altered, and there is even in the human subject, even
a correct gradation of these variations. If we take the first muscle of
this type we will find that the extensor brevis digitorum pedis, acting
at an angle with its long extensor co-operator, is inserted into its ten-
dons at an acute angle. Secondly, the extensor brevis manus, when
present, is usually inserted fleshy and not tendinous into the long exten-
sortendons. Thirdly, the representative of the same muscle on the flexor
aspect of the foot is inserted into the tendons of the flexors, but nearer
to the ankle, so as to correct their obliquity, and thus the short extensor
of the second, third and fourth toes becomes the musculus accessorius
pedis. In the hand such a correction is not wanted usually; but in
some animals, as Hyrax, it is found assisting and regulating the action
of the flexors (Messrs. Murie & Mivart, ‘‘ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society, 1865, p. 345). This muscle arises in these animals from a
cartilaginous disc in the palmar fascia; but as many animals have, as
in man, the flexor tendons running straight, and neither needing an
accessory or a corrective, the insertion of the muscle is, by a slight
gradation, shifted to the deeper aspect, and then to the superficial
aspect of the palmar fascia, and the muscle still retaining its bony origin
from the pisiform, appears as in the agouti; but losing this last relic of
bony origin, we find it in the hand of man asa few scattered superficial
fibres passing from the hypothenar eminence to the edge of the palmar
fascia under the name of palmaris brevis.
Of the true hand muscles we find likewise there are several types: the
lumbricales are perhaps differentiated accessory slips of the long flexor.
The metacarpals have each got a pair of palmar and a pair of dorsal
muscles along their sides, the interossei; the former as flexors and late-
ralizers, the latter as extensors and lateralizers. As the two lateral fin-
gers have specialized actions, these muscles are modified for them, but
the typical forms are the same. We can express these modifications most
clearly in the form of a table, thus :—
Th.
Re AR ge SY RM a
owt er
ape
Pe et ee rt en
ee es
pe ee
158
= 1. Dorsal radial, opponens pollicis.
First finger, See Ee
Bo Frc te! \ 2. Palmar ulnar, interosseus primus volaris of Henle.
Pale: | 3. Palmar radial, abductor pollicis.
4. Dorsal ulnar, polliceal head of first dorsal interosseous.
1. Palmar Tadial, modified into deep head of flexor brevis pollicis by its
Second finger, insertion being shified to the re bone.
2. Palmar ulnar, first palmar.
Index. | 3. Dorsal radial, indicial head of first aera:
( 4. Dorsal ulnar, indicial head of second dorsal.
Third finger, f = Secale \ conjoined to form adductor pollicis.
Medias. \ 3. Dorsal radial, medial head of second dorsal.
(4. Dorssl ulnar, medial head of third dorsal.
1. Palmar radial, second palmar.
Fourth finger, | 2. Palmar ulnar, flexor brevis minimi digiti, modified by ELE united
or < to first phalanx of litéle.
Annularis. | 3. Dorsal radial, annular origin of third dorsal.
(4. Dorsal ulnar, annular origin of fourth dorsal.
{ 1. Palmar ulnar, opponens minimi digiti.
ors PS SR Se
Little. . 3. Dorsal radial, ulnar head of fourth dorsal.
) 4. Dorsal ulnar, abductor mimimi diziti.
1s
Thus we see that the scheme of interpretation exactly succeeds in
referring to their proper types the complex muscles of the hand; when
we apply to the foot, we find it equally successful, and we find the re-
sults to be as follows:—
Hallux, ...... Dorsal tibial, abductor pollicis, second head, or internal.
ark 5 aoe Dorsal fibular, second head of first dorsal interosseous.
Wis ate Soh Plantar tibial, first or calcanean head of abductor pollicis.
Baten ats Plsniar fibular, fiexor brevis pollicis.
Second nen .... Dorsal tibial, first dorsal interosseous.
a ... Dorsal fibular, second ,,
.... Plantar tibial, opponens or adductor pollicis, separated from second, and
inserted into first.
.... Plantar fibular, first slip of transversus pedis.
Third toe, .... Dorsal tibial, second head of second dorsal interosseous.
“ .... Dorsal fibular, third dorsal interosseous.
ee .... Plantar tibial, first plantar interosseous.
Ss .... Plantar fibular, second slip of transversus pedis.
Fourth toe,.... Dorsal tibial, second head of third dorsal interosseous.
" .... Dorsal fibular, fourth dorsal interosseous.
ei .... Plantar tibial, second plantar interosseous.
Me .... Plantar fibular, third slip of transversus pedis.
Fifth toe, .... Dorsal tibial, second head of fourth dorsal interosseous.
S ..-- Dorsal fibular, abductor minimi digiti.
Y. .... Plantar tibial, third plantar interosseous.
ee .... Plantar fibular, fiexor brevis minimi digiti.
Tt will be thus seen that all the difficulty of the homologies of the _
muscles of the hand and foot are disposed of by accepting this series of ©
correspondences.
159
The plan upon which the muscles ofa typical limb are arranged can
be thus distinctly understood, and may be resolved into a definite and
symmetrical system. For the basal jomt we have a system of muscles
around the orbicular articulation (see diagram) :—
Besides these articular muscles, we have four external abductor
muscles from the basal bone inserted into the primal limb bone—one
internally, the other more externally ; one of these is the gluteus maxi-
_ mus or deltoid; the second, teres major, or tensor vagine femoris; thirdly,
the sartorius, or dorsi epitrochlear; fourthly, part of the pectoralis major,
also represented by gluteus maximus. Internally we have a group of
adductor muscles, their antitheses or opponents, the pectineus, adduc-
tors, quadratus femoris, and gracilis.* In front we find four flexor
muscles, behind fourextensors, so we might represent the section through
the middle of the typical limb thus—
Of the forearm muscles there are several series—one from either
condyle to the forearm bones, the long pronator, and supinator. There
are also transverse, inferior and superior, anterior and posterior, special
forearm muscles, the first of which is developed asthe pronator quadratus,
above and below, as peroneo-calcanian, and the second as the coronoid
slip of pronator teres above, or the tibial head of the soleus ; the third as
extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis or hallucis; the last is the supinator
brevis, or popliteus—all these are typical lateralizers; then we have
the flexor and extensor muscle series—one for each of the metacarpal
bones, and a flexor and extensor muscle for the first, second, and third
phalanx of each finger; finally, the list is completed by a dorsal and
palmar pair of interosseous muscles for each finger; a palmar pair of
fascial tensors not represented on the dorsal aspect.
* It may facilitate the understanding of some of these muscle-groups if we classify
them functionally, thus :—
Muscles joining Upper Limb to Trunk. Do. Lower.
1. Trapezio-deltoid and Sterno mastoid,.. = Gluteus maximus.
Vee Worst-epitrochlearis, )5 80h. Ro. 4 = Sartorius.
3. Levator scapule, Serratus magnus, ey peas Ba ata ase
and posterior belly of omo-hbyoid, EEA SES) Se rete
EPPS ME OMG CN ag ahs ots be cn end 2 = Quadratus lumborum.
eeMISVONUS COTS, . oo... ek ae seb ws = Agitator caudee.
G. ectoralis major,..:..... MOE REO I ore = Adductor longus.
@ ©hondo-epitrochlearis, 2.0 ..0.05. 4% = Gracilis,
Flexors. ; Abduciors.
Coraco-radial,
Longhead of biceps. Teres major, = Tensor vagine femoris.
Gleno-ulnar,
Origin of semimem. and
ins. of semiten.
Short head of biceps.
Ins. of semimembranosus, |
Ul
Brachio-radial,
Brachialis ant.,
ll tl
It will be seen that of these the first and fifth pass from the spines of the vertebra to
_the limb; the sixth from the hemal spines; the third and fourth from the pleurapo-
physes; the second from the neurapnophysis; and the seventh from the hemapophysis.
160
Having thus seen the method in which the muscles in a typical
extremity are arranged, it becomes, in the next place, a point of interest —
to determine whether there is any such definite order in the arrange-
ment of the trunk muscles as we find to be present in the limb.
Before doing this we have to determine what muscles there are in
the body uniting the typical limb to the true axis, and these are
named below: the most interesting of these are two—one arising from
the hzmal arches, and inserted into the vertebral margin of the basal
bone, developed in the forelimb as the serratus magnus; in the hinder
extremity, as the psoas ; both of these agree in their typical origin and
insertion, for the so-called transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra,
to which the latter is attached, are in reality bases of rudimentary
heemal arches. Secondly, we have a muscle lying along the verte-
bral border of the last described which arises from the transverse
processes, and is attached to the upper and inner angle of the basal
bone, near the iliacus, or subscapularis. This muscle, in the upper
limb of man, is the levator scapule, so often continuous with the
serratus magnus. In the hinder limb, this muscle is also repre-
sented by the psoas—a muscle very often in the animal kingdom di-
vided, and devoted partly to another and different purpose. The
psoas parvus (the largest portion in ‘‘ Hchidna,”’ loc. cit. p. 889), is
the true index of this muscle in its typical position; but its differen-
tiated portion, called the psoas magnus, in man is, by being extended
into acommon tendon with the iliacus, rendered a powerful accessory for
the flexion of the leg. This theoretic explanation gives us the proper
clue to the nature of the psoas parvus—a muscle whose affinities are
otherwise difficult to be understood, and whose action must, in its usual
human condition, be very limited.
Removing these muscles from the trunk, we find the true body
muscles remaining, and to their nature there is the clue to be found in
the arrangement of the bony skeleton; for as the osseous axis of the
body is made up of a series of vertebre, and their appendages, so it is
but natural to expect the soft parts to be built upon a basis of the same
kind; and accordingly, when we examine the muscles of the trunk,
they can be reduced to a system of vertebral appendages; of inter-
vertebral and intercostal muscles. Of these, the most regular groups
are to be found in the thoracic region, and there we can resolve them
into several groups. I select the thorax as the most typical region,
because there we have the greatest amount of regularity in the osseous
framework, and the greatest degree of uniformity of function among the
different component muscles. ;
Having culled from the thoracic group all those muscles which are
not truly parts of the trunk system, but which form parts of the upper
limb, we find that there are five distinct types remaining, two series
of intercostals, an internal-sternal transversus thoracis, and an internal
vertebral transversus thoracis, and a straight vertical muscle, the
rectus thoracicus; these we find to have each a definite direction,
and series of attachment; and when we compare the other regions
161
of the body with the thoracic, we will find these five elements
abundantly represented ; and we find also that their representatives
constitute the only true endo-skeletal trunk muscles. For each of these
we have a corresponding muscle on the neural aspect, an antithesis ;
and with a little care we will find that the complex muscles of the back
can be resolved into a series of repetitions of these five types more accu-
rately. We may call these elements :—1. External Interhemapophysial,
or Interneurapophysial ; 2. Internal ditto; 3. Spino-hemapophysial or
neurapophysial ; 4. Basio-heemapophysial, or neurapophysial; 5. In-
terspinal. In the dorsal region proper we can represent these antitheses
thus :—
External intercostal type, ...........- Splenius and serrati.
Internal 45 on. OM A aces ee Iliocostalis, Longissimus dorsi, Transver-
salis colli, Trachelo-mastoid, Cervicalis
ascendens.
Multifidus spine, Semispinalis colli and
dorsi, Obliquus superior, Complexus.
Bs ») posterior type, Rotatores spine.
Rectus a - Bauer Interspinales, spinalis dorsi.
tl
HT
Transyersus thoracis, anterior type,
The trapezius we leave out of account, because properly it has a
place in the great limb system of muscles.
If we follow out the same idea, we will find the same five elements
to enter into the composition of the abdominal wall; and referring
these, as we may do with great facility, to their thoracic representatives,
we may tabulate them as follows :—
External intercostal type, ...... = External oblique.
Internal intercostal type,........ = Internal oblique.
Transversus thoracis posterior type, = Transversalis diaphragm.
Transversus thoracis anterior type, = Pyramidalis.
ectusranterion type, .%..... 5.5 = Rectus abdominis.
In each of these muscles we have the combined representative of
several muscles of each series; thus the internal oblique frequently ex-
hibits a tendinous intersection corresponding to the first lumbar rib.
I have also seen the line of the cartilage of the eleventh rib continued
forwards to the rectus by a tendinous interspace in its fibres. A similar
tendinous rib index has been described in the transversalis by Sommer-
ring. The rectus muscle, likewise, by its lines transverse, exhibits a
tendency towards costal intersections, which in the crocodile arrive at
their fullest development in the form of abdominal ribs on either side
of the prolonged sternum.’ Of these, in man the numbers are generally
three, rarely four ; but in other animals they are more numerous. The
hare, for instance, presents us with eight or nine such ‘‘inscriptions.”’
On the posterior wall of the abdomen, or more correctly, in the lumbar
region of the spine, we have these same muscles antithetically repre-
sented, as follows. (In all these tables I use the names of the thoracic
ee as the nearest or clearest representatives of the typical arrange-
ment) :—
External intercostal type, ........
Internal intercostal type,..........
Transversus thoracis anterior type, ..
Transversus thoracis posterior type,
Rectus thoracis posterior type,
= Serratus posticus inferior.
Iliocostalis lumborum.
Multifidus.
Rotatores.
Interspinales et Spinalis dorsi.
ll
tot Ul
It may not be straining this system of ideal homotypy of muscular
development too far to say, that in the muscles‘of the perineum we have
these types represented to a very perfect degree : the erector penis
being local representative of the external intercostal groups ; the
transversus perinei representing the internal intercostals; the levator ani
and coccygeus being the homotype of the transversus thoracis posterior,
the compressores urethre of Wilson and Guthrie taking their place as
transversales anterior, while the accelerator urine is the conjoint form .
of the same type as the rectus anterior.
The muscles of the neck present us with little difficulty in their
reduction to the typical structure, but the traces of cervical ribs are
very obscure in many instances, althongh some of them are clear and
constant. The first cervical rib is indicated by the pre-sternal points so
often present, and by the completely developed bone in rare cases, such as
the instances recorded by Ludwig Stieda, of Dorpat, Virchow’s ‘‘ Archiv,”
1866, p. 425. A second we have indicated by the ordinary tendinous
intersection in the omohyoid and sternohyoid muscles, as indicated by
Henle, who, in speaking of it, says—‘‘ Diese schne hat wie sich aus den
varietaten des muskels erschlessen laust die Bedeutung einer Rippe ; der
hintere bauch ist eine serratuszacke, der vordere ein dem sternohyoidens
der ja auch theilweise vonn Rippen entspringt, analoger muskel,” &c.
‘‘Muskellehre,” p. 116. A third cervical rib is indicated in the oblique
line on the ala of the thyroid cartilage, and a fourth in the body of
the hyoid bone. Taking these into consideration, we ga) reduce the
neck muscles under the following heads :—
Scaleni anticus and posticus.
Scaleni medius and minimus.
belly of omo-hyoid.
Sternothyroid, thycohyoid, cricothyoid.
Recti capitis antici. Longus colli.
Sternohyoid.
1. External intercostal type, ..........
2. Internal aa Anterior
Coeg hobo C0 OG -o°0
3. Transversus costalis anterior type,
4. Transversus costalis posterior type,
5. Rectus anticus,
Oe Oat Oulart oO Ova)
Of the posterior part of the neck we find the antithetic muscles of the
series to be—
12 Exo-intercostaltype, 285s eB ak-
2. Hndo- — ,, 5
3. Transversus costalis ant. type,
4, Transversus costalis post. type,
5. Rectus type,
CoO oo Oho © 580 CeO DO
oe eevee
O40 08 aS
Splenius capitis et colli.
Transversalis colli, et trachelo-mastoid.
Semispinalis colli, multifidi, complexus.
Rotatores.
Interspinales, rectus posticus major et mi-
nor.
There is still one of the neck vertebre unaccounted for in this
enumeration, namely, that: between the hyoid bone and the ramus of
the lower jaw;
and in this space we have the stylo-hyoid, digastric,
163
and styloglossus muscles representing the outer intercostal type—the
hyoglossus as the homotype of the inner intercostals; the mylohyoid
fibres as the representatives of the transversus thoracis posterior, while
the transversus thoracis anterior is unrepresented. The anterior rectus
series is abundantly clear, as the genio-hyoid, genio-hyo-glossus and the
mesial muscle of Bochdalek. Lastly, we have the cranio-facial axis,
which presents us with a series of muscles perfectly accordant to the
primary type; an exo-intercostal in the masseter; an ento-intercostal
in the temporal ; a transversus anterior in the buccinator ; a transversus
posterior in the pterygoids; and, from the nature of the organs in the
mesial line, a completely suppressed anterior rectus.
The idea of ascertaining the serial comparisons of muscles is not new.
De Blainville and Meckel, ina few points, attempted to determine some
of these types, and others have done the same ; but to my knowledge the
complete comparison of the muscles, serially, has never been wrought out.
In the few instances in which Meckel did indicate these relations, he
relied only upon external resemblances. Thus he described the sterno-
and cleido-mastoid, respectively, as the representatives of the rectus and
pyramidalis abdominis, and the two splenu, capiti et colli as their anti-
theses, but assigns no reason but that of resemblance. Henle, like-
wise, in the passage quoted above, has done the same; but in the tables
above constructed we can see that an uniform and typical arrangement
is probable, though varied by segmentation and transference of attach-
ments.
There are two other classes of muscles existing in the vertebrate
animal—one a class of tegumental muscles, the panniculus series exem-
plified in man by the occipito-frontalis, the external auricular muscles,
the facial superficial muscles, the platysma myoides, the mento-hyoid,
Lucas’ fibres in the axilla, the post-scapular fibres of Turner (‘‘ Journal
of Anatomy,” Part i1., vol.1., p. 252); the supra-acromial and supra-
gluteal muscles of the same author—a slip which I have seen cross-
ing the perineum from over one gluteus maximus to the other in
front of the anus. These have nothing to do with the typical muscle
series; and the second class, or visceral series, includes the ento-tympanic
muscles, the ento-orbital muscles, the ento-laryngeal, the heart—
perhaps the diaphragm (although this latter may be but an internal
prolongation of the transversus type). The pericardio-thyroid, the
hepatico-diaphragmaticus of Knox, the pubio-peritonealis, and the sterno-
pericardialis, which I have seen once in man as a true muscle, and once
in a young pig. All these are true visceral appendages, and not skeletal
in nature, and so must be removed from the list under our review.
The main principles of the foregoing remarks may be summed up
under the following heads :—
1. The muscular structure of the vertebrate animal is constructed
upon a definite basis, or after a definite type.
2. This definite type is of a corresponding nature in all the regions
of the body, with varying degrees of alterations. These repetitions are
R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. X. Z
eee
OSS on
Be ea me ea A
Toa roe
SS
ee
CS ae
s ee ee ane
ee a Se an Rt FA IN
164
easily recognisable in the fish, but much more obscure in higher
animals.
3. The definite type of muscular arrangement consists of a series of
fibres connecting the component arches of the vertebral segments of the
body.
4. These vertebral segments are united by five typical muscle layers
most regularly developed in the thoracic paries, and which may be
named thus :—
1. Exo-Interneurapophysial or hemapophysial type.
2. Ento- 44 ce
3. Spino-neurapophysial or hemapophysial type.
4, Basio-
5. Interspinal.
”? 17
5. These segments are most regularin the regions in which the bony
skeleton is most typically developed, and vary in the direct ratio of their
specialization of function. ,
6. The muscles of the vertebrate limb are likewise arranged as
modification of a type which is not completely represented in either of
the human limbs.
7. When the function of any muscle is perfectly executed by
another, from the consolidation or alteration of the relative arrange-
ment of segments, the muscle so superseded becomes diminished or sup-
pressed. If the assumption of function be not perfect, the supersedence
is not complete, but coalescence takes place.
XXIV.—Own tHe OccurRENCcE oF THE NuMBER Two In In1sH PROPER
Names. By P. W. Joycz, A. M.
[Read January 13, 1868. }
A cAREFUL study of ancient proper names is one of the means by which
we may hope to arrive at a solution of that most difficult of all histori-
cal questions, the origin of races. In our own country, an examina-
tion of this kind may help to throw some light on the much disputed
question, where our forefathers came from—whether, as some say, they
crossed over from Britain, urged on by the never-ceasing western
movement of the great Celtic population, or came direct from Spain, as
our own most ancient traditions steadily assert, or from any other part
of the Continent.
In pursuing this inquiry, we may either examine and compare the
root words of which the names are composed, or investigate the manner
in which names were imposed by different races. There are certain
general principles common to the nomenclature of all countries;
but a careful examination would be pretty sure to show, that the
name system of each particular people possesses some special peculia-
rities of its own. The object of this paper is to draw attention toa
curious characteristic of this kind which I have obseryed in Irish
165
names, both personal and local, viz., the frequent recurrence of the
number Two.
I never saw it stated that the number Two was in Ireland con-
sidered more remarkable than any other; but from whatever cause it
may have arisen, certain it is, that there existed in the minds of the
Irish people a distinctly marked predilection to designate persons or
places, where circumstances permitted it, by epithets expressive of the
idea of duality, the epithet being founded on some circumstance connected
with the object named; and such circumstances were often seized upon
to form a name in preference to others equally or more conspicuous.
We have, of course, as they have in all countries, names with com-
binations of other numbers, and those containing the number Three
are pretty numerous; but these do not occur oftener than we might
naturally expect beforehand, while the number Two is met with many
times more frequently than all the others put together.
The Irish word for Two that occurs in names, is da, or dha, both forms
being used; da is pronounced daw; but in the other form, dh, which
has a peculiar and rather faint guttural sound, is altogether suppressed
in modern names; the word dha being generally represented by the
vowel a, while in many cases modern contraction has obliterated every
trace of a representative letter. It is necessary to bear in mind that da
or dha generally aspirates the consonant before which it is placed, and
that in a few cases it eclipses consonants and prefixes 2 to vowels.
We find names involving the number Two recorded in Irish history,
from the most ancient authorities down to the MSS. of the 17th cen-
tury, and they occur in proportion quite as numerously as at the pre-
sent day; showing that this curious tendency is not of modern origin,
but that it has descended silent and unnoticed, from ages of the most
remote antiquity.
There isa village and parish in the N. W. of Tipperary, on the shore
of Lough Derg, now called Terryglass; its Irish name, as used in many
Irish authorities, is Tir-da-ghlas, the territory of the two streams; and
the identity of this with the modern Terryglass is placed beyond all
doubt by a passage in the “ Life of St. Fintan of Clonenagh,’’ which
describes Tir-da-glas as ‘‘in terra Mumonie juxta fluvium Sinna.’’
The great antiquity of this name is proved by the fact that it is men-
tioned by Adamnan in his “Life of St. Columba” (Lib. m., cap.
XXXvVl.), written inthe end of the seventh century; but according to his
usual custom, instead of the Irish name he gives the Latin equivalent :
in the heading of this chapter it is called Ager duorum rivorum (“De
ecclesize Duorum agri rivorum simili reclusione’’), and in the text, Rus
duum rivulorum (‘‘— in monasterio Duum ruris rivulorum’’), either
of which is a correct translation of Tir-da-ghlas.* There is a sub-
division of the townland of Clogher, in the parish of Kilnoe, Clare,
* For the identification of Tir-da-ghlas with the Ager duorum rivorum of Adamnan
we are indebted to the Rey. Dr. Reeves.
——
166
called Terryglass, which has the same Irish form and meaning as the
other. Several other instances of names of this class, mentioned in ~
very ancient authorities, will be cited as I proceed.
Though this peculiarity is not so common in personal as in local
names, yet the numbers of persons mentioned in Irish writings whose
names involve the number Two, are sufficiently large to be very remark-
able. The greater number of these names appear to me to be agnomina,
which described certain peculiarities of the individuals, and which
were imposed for the sake of distinction, after a fashion prevalent
among most nations before the institution of surnames.
One of the three Collas who conquered Ulster in the fourth century
was called Colla-da-chrich, Colla of the two territories. Da-chrich
was a favourite soubriquet, and no doubt, in case of each individual, it
records the fact of his connexion, either by possession or residence,
with two countries or districts; in case of Colla, it most probably
refers to two territories in Ireland and Scotland, in the latter of which
he lived some years in a state of banishment before his invasion of
Ulster. In the Martyrology of Donegal there are nine different
persons mentioned, called Ferdachrich, the man of the two territories.
The word Dubh applied to a dark-visaged person is often followed
by da; thus the Four Masters mention two persons named Dubh da-
bharc, the black (man) of the two ships; four named Dubhdachrich; eight,
Dubhdabhoireann (of the two stony districts?); two, Dubhdainbher,
of the two estuaries; one, Dubhdaingean, of the two daughters; four,
Dubhdaleithe, of the two sides or parties; and two, Dubhdathuath, of
the two districts or cantreds. In the genealogy of Corcaluidhe we find
Dubhdamhagh, of the two plains; and in the Martyrology of Donegal,
Dubhdalocha, of the two lakes.
Fiacha Muilleathan, King of Munster in the third century, was
called Fear-da-liach, the man of the two sorrows, because his mother died
and his father was killed in the battle of Magh Mocroimhe on the day
of his birth. The father of Maine Mor, the ancestor of the Hy Many,
was Eochaidh, surnamed Fer-da-ghiall, the man of the two hostages.
Many more names might be cited, if it were necessary, to extend this
list; and while the number Two is so common, we meet with very few
names involving any other number.
It is very natural that a place should be named from two prominent
objects forming partofit, or in connexion with it, and names of this kind
are occasionally met with in most countries. The fact that they occur
in Ireland would not be considered remarkable were it not for these two
circumstances—first, they are, beyond all comparison, more numerousthan
could be reasonably expected; and, secondly, the word da is always
expressed, and forms part of the names.
Great numbers of places are scattered here and there through the
country whose names express position between two physical features,
such as rivers, mountains, lakes, &c., those between two rivers being the
mostnumerous. Killederdaowen, in the parish of Duniry, Galway, is
called in Irish Coill-eder-da-abhainn, the wood between two rivers; and
167
Killadrown, in the parish of Drumcullen, King’s County, is evidently
the same word shortened by local corruption. Drumderaown, in Cork,
and Drumdiraowen, in Kerry, are both modern forms of Druim-’dir-dha-
Abhainn, the ridge between two rivers, where the Irish dha is repre-
sented by a in the present names. In Cloonederowen, Galway—the
meadow between two rivers—there is no representative of the dha,
though it exists in the Irish name; and a like remark applies to Bally-
derown (the town between two rivers), an old castle situated in the
angle where the rivers Funcheon and Araglin, in Cork, mingle their
waters. Coracow, in the parish of Killaha, Kerry, is a name much
shortened from its original Comhrac-dha-abha, the meeting of the two
streams. The Four Masters at A. D. 528, record a battle fought at a
place called Luachair-mor-etir-da-inbhir, the large rushy place between
two river mouths, otherwise called Ailbhe, or Cluain-Ailbhe, now
Clonalvy, in the county Meath.
With glaise (a stream), instead of Abhainn, we have Ederdaglass,
the name of two townlands in Fermanagh, meaning (a place) between
two streams ; and Drumederglass,in Cavan, the ridge between two
streams. Though all trace of da is lostin this name, it is preserved in
the Down Survey, where the place is called Drumaderdaglass.
Ederdacurragh, in Fermanagh, means (a place) between two marshes ;
Aderavoher, in Sligo, is in Irish Eadar-dha-bhothair (a place) between
two roads, an idea that is otherwise expressed in Gouldavoher, near
Mungret, Limerick, the fork of the two roads. Drumdiralough, in
Kerry, the ridge between two lakes; and Drumederalena, in Sligo, the
ridge between the two lJenas, or meadows; Inchideraille near Incha-
geelagh, isin Irish Inis-idir-dha-fhaill, the island or river holm between
two cliffs ; a similar position has given name to Derdaoil or Dariel, a
little village in the parish of Kilmastulla, Tipperary, which is shortened
from the Irish Idir-da-fhaill, between two cliffs ; Cloonaderavally, in
Shgo, the cloon or meadow between the two ballies, or townlands.
Crockada, in the parish of Clones, Fermanagh, is only a part of the
Irish name Cnoc-eadar-da-ghreuch, the hill between the two marshy
flats; the true form of the present name would be Knockadder. Mogh,
the name of a townland in the parish of Rathlynin, Tipperary, is also
an abbreviation of a longer name; the inhabitants call it Magh-idir-
dha-abhainn, the plain between two rivers.
The well known old church of Aghadoe, near Killarney, which gives
name to a parish, is called by the Four Masters, at 1581, Achadh-da-eé,
the field of the two yew trees, which must have been growing near each
other, and must have been sufficiently large and remarkable to attract
general attention. Part of the townland of Drumharkan Glebe, in the
parish of Cloone, Leitrim, is called Cooldao, the back of the two yews.
In the townland of Cornagee, parish of Killinagh, Cavan, there is a deep
cavern, into which a stream sinks; it is called Polla-daossan, the hole
of the two bushes.
In the parish of Killashee, Longford, there is a village and townland
called Cloondara, containing the ruins of what was once an important
168
ecclesiastical establishment; it is mentioned by the Four Masters, at
1323, and called Cluain-da-rath, the meadow of the two raths; and
there is a townland of the same name in the parish of Tisrara, Roscom-
mon. Near Crossmolinais a townland called Glendavoolagh, the glen
of the two boolies, or dairy places.
The parish of Donagh, in Monaghan, takes its name from an old
church, the ruins of which are still to be seen near the village of
Glasslough; it is mentioned twice by the Four Masters, and its full
name, as written by them, is Domhnach-maighe-da-chlaoine, the church
of the plain of the two slopes. Dromdaleague, the name of a village
and parish in Cork, signifies the ridge of the two stones; and Dadreen
in Mayo, is the two dreens, or sloe-bushes.
Several places derive their names from two plains: thus Damma,
the name of two townlands in Kilkenny, is simply Da-mhagh, two
plains ; Rosdama, in the parish of Grange, same county, the wood of the
two plains. That part of the King’s County now occupied by the
baronies of Warrenstown and Coolestown, was anciently called Tuath-
da-mhaighe, the district of the two plains, by which name it is
frequently mentioned in the Annals, and which is sometimes anglicised
Tethmoy ; the remarkable hill of Drumcaw, giving name to a townland
in this locality, was anciently called Druim-da-mhaighe, from the same
district. We find Glendavagh, the glen of the two plains, in the parish
of Aghaloo, Tyrone.
The valley of Glendalough, in Wicklow, takes its name from the
two lakes, so well known to tourists; it is called in Irish authorities
Gleann-da-locha, which the author of the Life of St Kevin translates
Vallis duorum stagnorum. In the parish of Kildysert, Clare, there is an
island called, from its shape, Inishdadroum, the island of the two drums,
or backs; the same form has given name to Inishdavar, in the parish of
Derryvullan, Fermanagh; to Cornadarum, Fermanagh, the round hill of
the two ridges; and to Corradeverrid, in Cavan, the hill of the two
caps; Tuam, in Galway, is called in the Annals, Tuaim-da-ghualann, the
tumulus of the two shoulders, evidently from the shape of the ancient
sepulchral mound from which the place has its name.
Desertcreat, a townland giving name to a parish in Tyrone, is men-
tioned by the Four Masters as the scene of a battle between the O’ Neills
and the O’Donnells, in A. D. 1281, and it is called by them Diseart-da-
chrioch, the desert or hermitage of the two territories; they mention
also a place called Magh-da-chairneach, the plain of the two carns; Magh
da-gabhal, the plain of the two forks; Ailiun-da-bernach, the island of :
the two gaps; Magh-da-Chainneach, the plain of the two Cainneachs
(men). The district between Lough Conn and the river Moy was anciently
called An Da Bhac, the two bends, under which name it is frequently
mentioned in the Annals.
There is a townland in the parish of Rossinver, Leitrim, called Lis-
darush, the fort of the two promontories; and on the side of Hungry
Hill, in the parish of Kilcaskan, Cork, is a small lake which is called
Coomadavallig, the hollow of the two roads; in Roscommon we find
169
Cloondacarra, the meadow of the two weirs; and the Four Masters men-
tion Clar-atha-da-charadh, the footboard of the ford of the two weirs;
Gubbacrock, in the parish of Killesher, Fermanagh, is written in Irish
Gob-dha-chnoc, the beak or point of the two hills.
Dundareirke is the name of an ancient castle in Cork, built by the
M‘Carthys, signifying the fortress of the two prospects (Dun-da-radharc),
and the name is very suitable, for according to Smith, ‘‘it is on a hill,
and commands a vast extended view west as far as Kerry, and east
almost to Cork;” there is a townland of the same name, but written
Dundaryark, in the parish of Danesfort, Kilkenny.
The preceeding names were derived from conspicuous physical
features, and their origin is therefore natural enough, so far as each
individual name is concerned; their great number, as already remarked,
is what gives them significance. But those I am now about to bring
forward admit in general of no such explanation, and appear to me to
prove still more conclusively the existence of this remarkable disposi-
tion in the minds of the people, to take things in twos. Here also, as
in the preceding class, names crowd upon us with remarkable frequency,
both in ancient authorities and in the modern list of townlands.
Great numbers of places have been named from two animals of some
kind. If we are to explain these names from natural occurrences, we
must believe that the places were so called, because they were the
favourite haunt of the two animals commemorated; but it 1s very
strange that so many places should be named from just two, while there
are few or none from one, three, or any other number—except in the
general way of a genitive singular or a genitive plural. Possibly it may
be explained to some extent by the natural pairing of male and female,
but this will not explain all, nor even a considerable part, as any one
may see from the illustrations that follow. I believe that most or all of
these names have their origin in legends or superstitions, and that the
two animals were generally supernatural visitants, viz., fairies, or ghosts,
or human beings transformed by Tuatha de Danann enchantment.
We very frequently meet with two birds—Da-én. Part of the
Shannon near Clonmacnoise was anciently called Snamh-da-én, the
swimming place of the two birds. The parish of Duneane, in Antrim,
has got its present name by a slight contraction from Dun-da-én, the
fortress of the two birds, which is its name in the Irish authorities ;
among others, the Martyrology of Angus, which, according to Dr.
Todd, is not later than the eleventh century. There is a mountain
stretching between Lough Gill and Collooney, Sligo, which the Four
Masters mention at 1196 by the name of Sliabh-d4-én, the mountain
of the two birds; it is curious that a lake on the north side of the same
mountain is called Loch-da-ghedh, the lake of the two geese, which
are probably the two birds that gave name to the mountain. There is
a townland in the parish of Kinawly, Fermanagh, called Rossdanean,
the peninsula of two birds.
Two birds of a particular kind have also given their names to
several localities, and among these, two ravens seem to be favourites.
170
In the last-mentioned parish is a townland called Aghindaiagh, in Irish
Achadh-an-da-fhiach, the field of the two ravens; in the townland of —
Kilcolman, parish of same name, Kerry, is a pit or cavern called Poll-
da-fhiach, the hole of the two ravens; we find in Cavan, N eddaiagh,
the nest of the two ravens; in Galway, Cuilleendaeagh, the little wood
of the two ravens; and in Kerry Glandaeagh, the glen of the two
ravens. With Branég, another name for the same bird, we have
Brannick Island near great Aran Island, Galway bay, which is called
in Irish, OileAn-da-bhranég, the island of the two ravens.
There is a townland in the parish of Killinvoy, Roscommon, whose
name is improperly anglicised Lisdaulan; the Four Masters at 1380,
call it Lios-da-lon, the fort of the two black-birds; and Aghadachor,
in Donegal, means the field of the two herons.
Several places are called from two hounds; there are two town-
lands in Clare called Cahiracon, in Irish Cathair-dha-chon, the Caher
or stone fortress of the two hounds; and Lisdachon, in Westmeath is
the fort of the two hounds. The parish of Moyacomb, in Wicklow, is
called by the Four Masters Magh-da-chon, the plain of the two hounds,
the present name being formed by a change of m to m, and the addition
of 6, both usual corruptions. In the parish of Devenish, Fermanagh ;
there are two conterminous townlands called Big Dog and Little Dog ;
these singular appellations derive their origin from the modern divi-
sion into two parts, of an ancient tract which is called in the annals
Shabh-da-chon, the mountain of the two hounds. We find also Cloon-
dacon, in Mayo, the meadow of the two hounds.
In several other places we have two oxen commemorated, as in
Cloondadauy, in Galway, which the annalists write Cluain-da-damh, the
meadow of the two oxen; Rossdagamph, in Fermanagh, and Aughada-
nove, Armagh, the promontory and the field of the two oxen; in the
first, dis changed to g by a usual corruption, and in the second, da
prefixes 2 to the vowel. At the year 606, the Four Masters mention
a lake in which a crannoge was built, situated in Oriel, but not now
known, called Loch-da-damh, the lake of the two oxen.
Two bucks are commemorated in such names as Ballydayock, Cap-
padavock, Glendavock, Lisdavock (town, plot, glen, fort), and Atti-
davock, the site of the house of the two bucks.
The parish of Cloonyhurk, in King’s County, takes its name from a
townland which the Four Masters call Cluain-da-thore, the meadow of
the two boars ; Glendahork, in Mayo, is the glen of the two boars; and
Lisdavuck, in King’s County, the fort of the two pigs.
Cloondanagh, in Clare, is in Irish Cluain-da-neach, the meadow of
the two horses; we find the same two animals in Tullylonghdaugh, in
Fermanagh, and Aghadaugh, in Westmeath; the second meaning the field,
and the first the hill of the lake of the two horses; and Cloondelara, near
Clonmacnoise, is the meadow of the two mares. Clondaleein the parish
of Killyon, Meath, is called in Irish Cluain-da-laogh, the meadow of
the two calves. Aghadavoyle in Armagh is the field of the two maols,
or hornless cows; two animals of the same kind have given name toa ~
171
little island in Mayo, viz., Inishdaweel; while we have two yellow
cows in Inishdawee, the name of two townlands in Galway. The
small river Owendalulagh, flowing from the slopes of Sheveaughty, in
Galway, into Lough Cutra, near Gort, is called in the old authorities,
Abhainn-da-laoilgheach, the river of the two milch cows, which name
is accounted for by a legend in the Dinnseanchus.
There is a legend also concerning the origin of Clondagad, in Clare,
the Cloon of the two gads or withes. Jocelin recounts another legend
accounting for the name Dun-da-leath-glas, anciently applied to the
great rath at Downpatrick, and the first syllable of which has ori-
ginated the name of Down, St. Patrick’s name being added in con-
sequence of his connexion with the place; the ancient name signifies,
according to the Latin writers, the fortress of the two broken locks, or
fetters. The two remarkable mountains in Kerry now called the Paps,
were anciently called, and are still, in Irish, Da-chich-Danainne; the
two paps of Danann, a celebrated lady of the Tuatha De Dananns,
from whom they derived their name; and the plain on which they
stand is called Bun-a’-da-chich, the bottom or foundation of the two
paps.
ie very singular name is Dromahaire, which is that of a village in
Leitrim ; the Four Masters sometimes call it Baile-ui-Ruaire, because
it was formerly the property of the O’Rourkes; but generally they give
it the more ancient name of Druim-da-ethiar, which O’ Donovan trans-
lates, the ridge of the two air-spirits or demons. ‘Tradition has lost
all memory of the two evil spirits that haunted the place and origi-
nated the name, and we should be in ignorance of the true ancient form
if our Annals had not preserved it.
In this great diversity it must be supposed that two persons would
find a place, and accordingly we find Kildaree, the church of the two
kings, the name of two townlands in Galway (for which see Sir Wil-
lam Wilde’s ‘‘ Lough Corrib’’), and of another near Crossmolina, Mayo.
There is a fort one mile south of the village of Killoscully, Tipperary,
called Lisdavraher, the fort of the two friars; and there is another
of the same name in the south of Ballymoylan townland, parish of
Youghalarra, in the same county: in both these cases it is likely that
the two friars were two ghosts.
There is a parish called Toomore, in the county Mayo, taking its
name from an old church standing near the river Moy; it is also the
name of a townland in the parish of Aughrim, Roscommon, and of a
townland and parish in Sligo. This is a very curious, and a very an-
cient name. Toomore, in Mayo, is written Tuaim-da-bhodhar by Duald
Mac Firbis and the Four Masters; and Tuaim-da-bhodar in a poem in
the ‘‘ Book of Lecan,”’ transcribed in 1416 or 1417, by Giolla Iosa Mor
Mac Firbis. The pronunciation of the original is Tooma-our, which
easily sank into Toomore. The name signifies the tomb of the two
deaf persons; but who they were neither history nor tradition re-
cords.
R.1,A, PROC.—VOL, X. 2A
172
The memory of the two venerable people who gave name to Cor-
dalea, in the parish of Kilmore, Cavan, has quite perished from the face |
of the earth, except only so far as it is preserved in the name Cor-da-
liath, the hill of the two grey persons. Two people of a different com-
plexion are commemorated in Glendaduff in Mayo, the glen of the two
black visaged persons. Meendacalliagh, in the parish of Lower Fahan,
Donegal, means the meen, or mountain flat of the two calliaghs, or hags,
probably a pair of those old witches who used to turn themselves into
hares, and suck the cows. ; ;
It must occur to any one who glances through these names to ask
himself the question—what was the origin of this curious custom? I
cannot believe that it is a mere accident of language, or that it sprung
up spontaneously, without any particular cause. I confess myself
wholly in the dark, unable to offer any explanation: I have never met
anything that I can call to mind in the whele range of Irish literature
tending in the least degree to elucidate it. Is it the remnant of some
ancient religious belief, or some dark superstition, dispelled by the
light of Christianity ? or does it commemorate some wide-spread social
custom, prevailing in times beyond the reach of history or tradition,
leaving its track on the language as the only manifestation of its exis-
tence? We know that among some nations certain numbers were
accounted sacred, like the number seven among the Hebrews. Was
two a sacred number with the primitive people of this country? I
refrain from all conjecture, though the subject is sufficiently tempting ;
I give the facts, and leave to others the task of accounting for them.
XXV.—On Cuinesr PorcEnaIN SEALS FOUND IN IRFLAND, WITH
REMARKS ON THEIR AaLuEGED Antiquity. By Dr. W. Frazer,
M.R.I. A. Dublin, 1868.
[Read January, 1868. |
Certain seals of porcelain, bearing Chinese inscriptions, have been
picked up from time to time in different parts of Ireland during the
past century, and Mr. Joseph Huband Smith deserves the credit of hay-
ing first directed attention to these seals, and their alleged claims to a
venerable antiquity (see ‘‘Proceedings Royal Irish Academy,”’ vol. 1,
p- 881). My interest was excited by accidentally obtaining two of
these seals and being rather sceptical about their age, I was led for
some years to pursue the inquiry at intervals, with the results now laid
before the reader.
Mr. Smith’s ideas having influenced more or less those who have
written on this subject, it is just to state them in his own words: “‘ An
extract from the Grammar of Abel Remusat showed that the inscriptions
on those seals are those of a very ancient class of Chinese characters
in use since the time of Confucius, who is supposed to have flourished in
the middle of the sixth century B.C. The remote period to which
173
those characters are assigned leaves open a wide field for conjecture
as to the time in which these porcelain seals found their way into this
country. From the extreme degree of heat to which they appear to
have been subjected, and their consequent vitrification, which has in
some measure taken place, they are quite as capable of resisting the at-
tacks of time as the glass and porcelain deities and ornaments found in
the mummy-cases of Egypt, and may have been for an indefinite period
beneath the surface of the earth. It is, therefore, at least possible that
they may have arrived hither from the East along with the weapons,
ornaments, and other articles of commerce which were brought to these
islands by the ships of the first merchant princes of antiquity, the
Phoenicians, to whom our ports and harbours were well known.”
The late Mr. Edward Getty, with great industry and zeal, gathered
all the scattered information bearing on the discovery of these seals in
different localities. He read a paper on the subject before the Belfast
Literary Society in 1850; and afterwards published a 4to volume with
copies of the inscriptions in Chinese characters, translations of them by
competent authorities, and brief statements of the circumstances under .
which they were found. The work is illustrated by an enlarged draw-
ing of one of the seals, and is a trustworthy reswmé of the entire
question up to the time it appeared.
Mr. J. W. Murphy, of Belfast, and Mr. Robert Ball, of this city,
both laboured in investigating this subject with much ability. I possess
wax or plaster copies of the inscriptions of several of the seals, made
by Mr. Ball, and entrusted to me by his son. He wrote, however,
nothing regarding them; and Mr. Murphy’s observations were trans-
ferred to Mr. Getty. The earliest intimation of Chinese seals being
found in Ireland is, perhaps, a brief query in the ‘‘Anthologia”’ for
1798. This is merely a copy of a Chinese inscription, similar to what
- occurs on the seals, and a request for its translation: there is no history
or clue by which it can be traced.
So far as I can ascertain, records exist, more or less complete, of
about sixty-one seals, which appear to have been sown broadcast over
the country in some strange way that I cannot offer a solution of.
Thus I find that, whilst more than half have either no authentic history,
or are roughly ascribed to localities in the south of Ireland, the
County of Antrim affords 1 County of Kilkenny 1
», Down 93 3 ie Lipperany. te
a Dublin » 3 Pea \N CxOT is sl
,» Carlow a 2 ar, lamiertek: : 1
if meen’s. ,, 1 net NOOEK 4: 6
» Westmeath 1 » Waterford 4
The history of these seals, if investigated, presents one common
point of agreement that seems of much importance. They have never
yet, in a single instance, been discovered associated with other objects
of antiquarian interest, in burrows or mounds, with bronze or stone
weapons, Celtic remains, or works of art—never with Danish or Anglo-
RS OREM pene
i OT
ating tee Nita tT aL gs tates
a CRO Mato GS Nip ae Le ne POI
re
174
Norman coins, nor even with modern articles of manufacture. The
invariable story of their find is what we might expect if they had been
accidentally dropped, at no very distant period, in or near the localities
whence they were afterwards unearthed. Thus they have been picked
up by labourers, as the plough-share passed over an old untilled field:
one was extracted from the uprooted fibres of an aged pear tree; another
obtained on or near the situation of a disused road; two in caves; onein
a potato garden; others in heaps of rubbish or clay near human dwell-
ings—in a word, under circumstances that at once raise a conjecture
they cannot possibly be of any extremely ancient date. There also
seems to be satisfactory evidence that similar seals have never yet been
found in England or on the Continent.
The peculiar characters on these seals are admittedly of great anti-
quity ; but this signifies little. Itisthe common seal-writing employed
by the Chinese for centuries, and still seen on their ordinary seals made
and used in the present day; somewhat resembling our own black letter,
which is practically obsolete, though in daily use for legal writings,
deeds, &c.
Mr. Getty collated the circumstances under which these seals were
found in Ireland, and obtained the aid of educated Chinese and scholars
in that language, hoping thus to unravel the problem of their importa-
tion here, and wide dispersion over the country. Following out his
ideas (which appear to present the only reasonable hope of success), I
believe their alleged claim to a venerable antiquity can be disproved,
though I am still unable to offer any suggestion as to how they reached
our shores, or were scattered broadcast through so many counties.
‘An inquiry of a similar nature was worked out a few years ago
respecting certain Chinese porcelain bottles obtained in Egypt, and
asserted to have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs by travellers.
- Like our porcelain seals, they were supposed to point to a distant era,
when Pharaoh’s subjects traded with China, and several interesting
speculations were based on this slender substructure. There were in
all twelve of these bottles discovered. They fortunately presented five
different poetic inscriptions that could be deciphered, and Mr. W. H.
Medhurst decided they were extracts from the writings of Chinese
poets that, at the farthest, lived under dynasties dating from A. D. 700
to 1100. The bottles, therefore, might be so old: in all probability
they were much more recent; indeed Mr. Medhurst’s Chinese teacher
referred them to the period of the ‘‘Ming”’ dynasty, to which there are
good grounds for concluding our porcelain seals also belong. (See
‘Trans. Chinese Branch of Royal Asiatic Society,” part 3, for 1851-2).
My inquiries in China were for a long time unsuccessful; forin that
vast Empire circumstances and objects which are familiar to persons in
one district may be quite unknown elsewhere; thus my correspondents
in Hong Kong, Ningpo, and Pekin, could give me no aid, and I finally
got satisfactory results at Canton. -
In the Catalogue of the Academy’s Museum, Sir W. Wilde describes
those seals as ‘‘cubical portions of white porcelain about five-eighths
175
of an inch upon each side of the square, embossed on the under surface
with characters which are proved to be a very ancient form of Chinese
writing, and surmounted by the figure of an ape.” Mr. Getty also con-
sidered the image on the top of the seals represented a baboon, and his
enlarged view brings out the likeness in a pointed manner. In the
unique oval seal in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy, found
at Rathkeale, the figure is supposed to be a Guinea pig’s. Both con-
jectures are excusable; but on appeal to the Chinese—who are, perhaps,
the best authorities as to what they intend by those designs—it seems
they ought to be ‘‘lions,’’ for they are termed ‘‘lion-head seals ;’’ and
in one seal sent me from Canton the animal is well represented in a
spirited position, half seated, in a manner resembling some of our own
heraldic figures.
Sir W. Wilde further states—‘‘It is said that no porcelain seal of a
similar shape and size can be procured in China.” I lay before the
Academy three such seals, identical with our Irish ones, sent from
Canton by Rev. James Legge, of the London Missionary Society, with
two others, differing in the position of the animal on their top. Mr.
Legge says—‘‘ They are obtainable, but can hardly be said to be in
use; they are kept, so far as I can learn, simply as nick-nacks or orna-
ments.” Thus far it appears clear :—
1. That the seals are of undoubted Chinese manufacture.
2. That they are known in Canton as “lion-head seals.”
3. They are purchaseable as objects of curiosity, but not used at
the present day.
The idea of their antiquity originated in the peculiar characters
used by the Chinese for seal impressions. On this point Mr. Legge
states—‘‘ Every question about the history of porcelain seals in China
could be answered if one had access to a-large library. I consulted a
Chinese scholar of extraordinary research upon this subject, and he
assures me that porcelain seals were first made during the ‘Sung’ dy-
nasty, A. D. 975 to A.D. 1279; no mention of them can be found before
that time. Previous to the ‘sin’ dynasty (B. C. 220) seals were made
of jade and other precious stones, and also of gold and silver. Under
the ‘Han’ dynasty (B.C. 201) seals made of brass came into vogue, and
were long used, till towards the end of the ‘Yuen’ dynasty (A.D. 1367)
they were in a great measure superseded by soapstone seals.
““Under the ‘Sung’ dynasty, however, porcelain seals had been
made: the name of a pottery where many were produced between the
years A. D. 1111 and A. D. 1118 is stillfamous. But it was under the
‘Ming’ dynasty, immediately preceding the present, that these seals
were most in vogue. ‘The ‘Green kiln,’ with more than 300 furnaces,
was constantly at work in the last quarter of the fourteenth century
producing all sorts of small articles. Since the ‘Ming’ dynasty porce-
lain seals have very much fallen into disuse. Such,” says Dr. Legge
‘Gs the substance of a short treatise which my Chinese friend Hes
composed on this subject. Porcelain seals are also, it appears, still _
176
manufactured in the province of Fuh-Keen, and sold under the name of
‘seals from the Fuh-Keen potteries;’ but the best of them are spoken
of in Chinese books as very inferior to those made in former times.” .
The concluding part of Rev. Dr. Legge’s letter contains an ingenious
conjecture, which I must confess myself unable either to verify or dis-
prove. Hesays—‘ The question as to how these seals found their way
to Ireland will probably ever remain a problem not fully solved. The
above detail throws a little light on it. It was during the ‘Ming’ dy-
nasty that such articles came to be ‘the rage’ in China, and it was at
the same time that European commerce with the Empire commenced ;
Queen Elizabeth sent an envoy to the Emperor in 1596. Some of the
early visitors from England and Ireland must have taken the seals back
with them from China. How they came to be sown over so large a
tract of Ireland we shall never be able to discover.’
The settled point, so far, appears to be, that these seals cannot be
older than the end of the fourteenth or commencement of the fifteenth
century; how much later than this era they came to Ireland we have
as yet no evidence. The antiquity of the seal inscriptions is of no
moment; seal writing, like ‘ black letter,” is a remnant of past times
which has not yet entirely disappeared; indeed the Chinese, eminently
conservative in their ideas, still employ for their seals those extremely
ancient characters, which are well understood by the learned of that
land. At all events porcelain seals have turned up in Ireland from time
to time during about eighty years past; and even ifwe fancy that a hatful
was once imported by some savant anxious to puzzle posterity, and scat-
tered broadcast over the surface of the kingdom, still it seems he must
have been uncommonly diligent to deposit them in almost every county,
with perhaps such a preponderance of southern localities that we might
fancy their original owner had his habitation there. At all events,
almost half a hatful have been already picked up. ‘The evidence, so
far, we must conclude, fails to establish any ancient Irish traffic
with the flowery land, and these seals were neither known to or imported
by ‘‘Phoenician or Milesian, or the plundering Norman peers.”
Mr. Kaye, of the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China,
deserves my best acknowledgments, in the first instance, for the interest
he took in these inquiries. Residing in Hong Kong, he made diligent
inquiries for any information that could be procured. He failed al-
together to get porcelain seals at that city; and though he sent to
Canton, and had the shops searched, he could obtain none there but
specimens of recent soapstone seals. At last he learned that a gentle-
man had once got some of them, which he picked up at Macao. By his
exertions Rey. Dr. Legge was enlisted in carrying on the search; and
to him I owe the successful results, not alone of getting me authentic
Chinese specimens exactly similar to our Irish ones, but also for the
satisfactory account he drew up of their history, and of which I have
so largely availed myself. I will append to these remarks the list that
is subjoined, of all the authentic “finds” of porcelain seals in Ireland,
so far as I can complete it :—
List of Cutnese Szats found in Ireland to 1865.
1 | In Museum of Royal | Got near Kilmainham, Co. Dublin. Presented by Thos.
Irish Academy. Young, Esq.
Do.- No history. Presented by Miss Murphy.
Do. Turned up in a ploughed field, near Borrisokane, Co.
Tipperary, 1832. (From Dean Dawson’s Collection.)
This is No. 26 of Mr. Getty’s list.
4 Do. (No. 4 of Mr. Getty’s list.) Formerly in possession of
R. Fannin, Esq.
5 Do. Unique oval Seal, found at Rathkeale, Co. Limerick,
and presented by Rey. Dr. Todd.
6 | Not to be traced. (No. 1 of Mr. Getty’s list.) Found in North of Ireland.
Formerly in possession of Dr. Stokes, Merrion-square.
52 5 .. | (No. 2, do.) Described by J. H. Smith, Esq., Dublin.
In Belfast Museum. | (No. 3, do.) Foundin a piece of ground never appa-
rently cultivated, parish of Killileagh, Co. Down, in
1842.
9 - al “op (No. 5, do.) Got on north side of Carlow, on or about
the site of an old road, closed up since 1798, that led
from an extensive quarry to the Roman Catholic
burial ground, It was found at an inconsiderable
depth from the surface, when removing some clay, by
a workman in Mr. Montgomery’s employment.
10 ars ae .. |(No. 6, do.) Belonged to Mr. Vigors, Carlow.
11 ie oe .. | (No. 7, do.) Found about eighty-five years ago near
Mountrath, Queen’s County, in a bog, by a turf cutter,
who gave it to his employer. _ In 1840 it was in the
possession of Miss Beaufort, Hatch-street, Dublin.
12 oF - .. | (QNo. 8, do.) Described by J. H. Smith, Esq.; Dublin.
tut ict a oe (No. 9, do.) do. do.
14 | Not to be traced, (No. 10, do.) Got in Westmeath. Belonged to the
late R. Ball, Esq., Dublin.
15 _ ais .. |(No. 11, do.) Described by J. H. Smith, Esq., Dublint
MGI fei 4 gy stuC No: 12, do.) Owned by Mr. Christie. Dug up at
Kireassock, Co. Down, about fifty or fifty-five years
ago, in an orchard, in taking up the roots of an old
pear tree.
17 Do. (No. 13, do.) In the possession of the family of the
| late P. Boylan, Esq., Grafton-street, for at least
eighty-five or ninety years.
18 | In Belfast Museum. | (No. 14, do.) Found in Co. Down. Formerly in_pos-
session of the late Mr. Clewlow, near Belfast.
19 | In possession of [the | (No. 15, do.) Found in a potato garden whilst being
late] J. Windele, | _ ploughed, at Knocknamoriff, about eight miles west
Esq., Blair’s Cas- of Cork.
tle, Co. Cork.
20 | Formerly in the| (No. 16, do.) Gotnear Clonmel, Co. Tipperary.
Piltown Museum
(now sold).
Oo bo
onl
21 Do. (No. 17, do.) Found at Ballyhack, Co. Wexford,
under an ancient quarry.
22 oe J 3h (No. 18, do.) Found about 1841 in the parish of Bally-
vourney, Co. Cork. Owned by [the late] A. Abell, Esq.
| 7 a sve .. | (No. 19, do.) Sent to Mr. J. W. Murphy, by T. ‘Crof-
| ton Croker, Esq., on a visiting card of the late Colonel
| Wallancey.
ee
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34, 35
36
37
38, 39
40
41-51
52
53
54
55
56
Not to be traced.
178
(No. 20, do.) Got by J. W. Murphy, Esq., in an old
curiosity shop in London, and probably one of four
sold out of a private collection in Dublin.
(No. 21, do.) Property of the late R. Ball, Esgq.,
Dublin.
(No. 22, do.) Property of [the late] Dr. Petrie.
(No. 23, do.) Found at Clonliffe Parade, near the Circu-
lar- road, Dublin, in 1816. Property of Th. Singleton,
Ksq., Aughnacloy.
Formerly in Piltown | (No. 25, do.) Got in the Co. of Cork.
Museum.
No trace to be ob- | (No. 27, do.) This Seal is the engraved inscription in
tained.
‘“‘ Anthologia Hibernica” for 1793. No history ap-
pended.
(No. 48, do.) In 1850 in the possession of Mr. Henry
Jacob, Clonmel.
Formerly in Piltown | (No. 44, do.)
Museum.
oe
ee
(No. 45, do.) Found about 1805 in a cave on the
coast at Myrtleville, near mouth of Cork Harbour. In
1850, the property of T. Crofton Croker, Esq.
(No. 46, do.) Exhibited in 1847 at the British Ar-
cheological Association, and presented by Mr. George
Isaacs to T. C. Croker, Esq.
(No. 47-48, do.) Purchased from Mr. Evans, Maddox-
street, London, by T. C. Croker, Esq.
(No. 49, do.) Believed to be in possession of Miss
Jacobs, Waterford, in 1850.
(No. 50, do.) Lady Glengall. Found in 1840 or 1841
immediately outside of Cahir Castle, at west side,
when removing some clay. With the Seal were
found some human bones, which crumbled into dust
on exposure.
(No. 51, 52, do.) Belonged to Miss Jacobs, Clonmel.
(No. 53, do. » Belonged to Lady Louisa Kerr, found at
Glenarm Castle, in her grandfather, Lord Antrim’s
drawer, and supposed to have been found on the An-
trim estates.
No information can | (Nos. 24, 28, 29, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, of do.)
be procured re-
specting those
Seals.
Dr. W. Frazer, Dub- | Obtained some years before 1860 at Miltown, Co. Dub-
lin.
Dr. Belcher, Dublin,
lin, in some excavations in clay.
Received about 1857 from a friend, Dr. Browne, to
whom it had been, presented by some person in
Youghal, where it was said to have been found in a
cave on the sea shore.
Miss Deborah Moore, | Impression sent me by Dr. Briscoe, Piltown. The Seal
Quay, Waterford.
was obtained in rubbish whilst repairing an old house
on the quay at Waterford, about twenty-four years
back.
A second Seal was found in another place in Waterford,
and since lost by a child, to whom it was given as a
plaything. (Dr. Briscoe).
Some years since one or more of these Seals were found
at Rosbercon, near New Ross. Impressions were sent
to Dr. Petrie at the time. (Dr. Briscoe.)
57 \|J. Windele, Esq.,
Cork.
58 as oe
9
Found on breaking up an untilled field near Riverstown»
about seven miles from Cork city.
A Seal in possession of a lady at Kingstown (given on
the statement of Dr. M‘Gowan).
59 | Kilkenny Archzolo- ; Found at Thomastown many years ago, and presented
gical Museum.
by Rev. James Graves (Vol. ii. ‘‘ Kilkenny Archxo-
logical Journal’).
60 | In the collection of | An impression exhibited by G. Robertson, Esq., Kil-
James G. Robert-
son, Hsq.
61
Northumberland.
kenny, to the Kilkenny Archeological Society, of a
Seal in his possession January, 1855. (See Vol. ii.
‘*¢ Kilkenny Archeological Journal.”)
Mention made of some in the collection of the Duke of
One inscription translated by Rev.
R. T. Browne, Southwick Vicarage, Northumberland.
XX V.— Catratocue or 101 Drawines or Coats oF ARMS FROM ORIGINAL
SKETCHES FROM ‘TOMBSTONES.
By Grorce V. Du Noyer, Esa.,
M.R&. I. A., District Surveyor, Her Majesty’s Geological Survey of
Ireland; presented by him to the Library of the Royal Irish
Academy, to form Vol. X. of ‘‘ Antiquarian Sketches.”
[Read 10th of February, 1868. ]
| No. Name.
1 | Allen, .
2 | Baillie,
3 | Blair, .
4 | Blair, .
5 | Boyd, .
6 | Browne,
Bryan,
7 Brymnan, .
Brenan,
Brannion,
8 | Buchannan,
9 | Bull,
10 | Burney,
11 | Burns,
12 | Byrne,
13 | Cahan,
14 Do. :
Caldwell, .
a Pisa ;
16 | Campbell,
LUZ Do.
18 | Cary,
19 | Chad,
20 | Retannsnody,
Pie ieClark,s 4.
22 | Cochrane,
23 | Cooper,
24 | Craig,
Re AL PROC.-— VO. xX:
Place. Cornty
Larne, Antrim
Donaghenry, Tyrone.
Raloo and Ballygally, Antrim.
Raloo, Antrim.
Coleraine, Derry.
Ballygally, Antrim,
Island Magee, Antrim.
Dungiven, Derry.
Donahenry, Tyrone.
Larne, Antrim.
Larne, Antrim.
Donahenry, Tyrone.
Dungiven, Derry.
ditto, Derry.
Ballygally, Antrim.
Ballygally, Antrim,
Larne, Antrim.
Dungiven, Derry.
Oldbridge, Belfast, Antrim.
Larne, Antrim.
Ballycarry, Antrim.
Ballywilliam, Derry.
Carrickfergus, Antrim.
Raloo, Antrim.
2B
180
Name.
Dawson,
O' Donaghy,
iMDonene
M‘Donald,
Donel,
Donald,
Dunlop,
Dunlop,
Fannin,
Fisher,
Gardiner, .
Gavin,
Getty,
Given,
Glasgow, .
Graig,
Haddan, .
O’ Hagan,
Hamilton,
Holliday, ?
Holmes,
Houston, .
Irvine,
Irwin,
Jaffray, .
Johnston, ?
Johnston, .
Kein, .
Kain, .
Cain, .
Kincaid, .
M‘Knight,
Knox,
Learmouth,
Lecky,
Lege, .
Loan, .
Loughridge,
Magill,
Manfod,
Martin,
Mitchell, . .
Montgomeri, .
Mountgomery,
Moore,
M‘Munn, .
Munro,
Munroe,
Date.
1776
1801
1740
1761
1731
1682
1727
1780
1799
1800
1791
1716
1782
1780
1799
1755
1738
1778
1775
1757
1782
1792
1697
1820
1725
1634
1694
Ua)
1815
1780
1750
1786
1788
1614
1780
1737
1770
1772
Place.
Coleraine,
} Coleraine.
Larne,
Glynn,
Killowen,
Coleraine,
Dungiven,
Larne,
‘ Carrickfergus,
Ballyrashrane,
Ballygally,
Coleraine,
Larne,
Raloo,
Larne,
Ballynascreen,
Dungiven,
Coleraine,
Raloo and Ballygally,
Ballycary,
Killowen,
Dungiven,
Larne and Ballygahan,
Larne,
Templemaghery,
Donaghenry,
Raloo,
Dungiven,
Templemaghery,
Island Magee,
Island Magee,
Coleraine,
Raloo,
Larne,
Coleraine,
Carrigfergus,
Templemaghery,
Larne,
Ballygally,
Larne,
Larne,
Glynn,
Ardbrackan,
Larne,
Larne,
Larne,
Larne,
Coleraine,
County.
Derry.
Derry.
Antrim.
Antrim,
Derry.
Derry.
Derry.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Derry.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Derry.
Derry.
Derry.
Antrim.
Derry.
Derry.
Derry.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Fermanagh.
Tyrone,
Antrim.
Derry.
Fermanagh.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Derry.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Derry.
Antrim.
Fermanagh.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Meath.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Antrim.
Derry.
181
No. Name. Date. Place. County.
73 | M‘Neal, 1757 Larne, Antrim.
74 | Parke, 1791 Ballygally, Antrim.
75 | Patterson, 1762 | Ballygally, Antrim.
76 | Patrick, 1735 | Coleraine, Derry.
77 | Percy, Coleraine, Derry.
78 | Rammage, Coleraine, Derry.
79 | Rea, 1771 Glynn, Antrim.
80 | Robinson, Larne, Antrim,
81 | Robinson, 1765 | Raloo, Antrim.
625) Slaw, a... Ballygally, Antrim.
83 | Shaw and Burns ? 1625 | Ballygally Castle, Antrim.
84 | Shutter, . Larne, Antrim.
85 | Smith, 1786 | Larne, Antrim.
86 | M‘Sparran, Dungiven, Derry.
87 | Steele, 1800 | Ballygally, Antrim.
88 | Stephenson, 1722 | Dungiven, Derry.
89 | Symington, 1737 | Ballycarry, Antrim.
90 | Templeton, 1770 | Donaghenry, Tyrone.
91 | Thom, 1793 | Larne, Antrim,
92 | Todd, 1736 | Coleraine, Antrim,
93 | Thompson, 1769 | Raloo, Antrin,
Wate, : 1751 :
94 .. 1758 Larne, Antrim.
95 | Watson, Coleraine, Derry.
96 | Wilson, Coleraine, Derry.
97 | Wilson, Donaghenry, Tyrone.
98 | Willson, 1800 | Ballygally, Antrim.
99 | Willie, 1777 | Ballygally, Antrim.
100 | Young ? 1750 | Ballyrashrane,
he Young, 1799 Ballygally, Antrim.
DrEscRIPTION OF THE FOREGOING 101 Coats or Arms.
No. 1. Atrew. Per bend engrailed; in chief, two crescents; in
base, a mullet or estoile. Crest, a pelican or swan;
motto, Virescit vulnere.
No. 2. Barttre. Party per fesse; chief in tierce, each charged
with three mullets in tierce; in base, the moon decres-
cent, between letters A. B.; motto, Amor, honor, et jus-
LiCl.
No. 3. Buarr. Three mascles on a chief engrailed over saltier en-
grailed, charged with the same. Crest, a stag segant ;
motto, Amo probus.
No. 4, Brarr. A saltier charged with four mascles; in chief, a
mullet ; dexter and sinister side, the moon increscent ;
in base, a garb or wheat sheaf. Crest, a stag at speed on
wreath over helmet in profile ; plain for esquire; motto,
Amo probus.
- eee oe ee mM,
-
No.
No.
No.
No.
Or
410:
aulel
= 2s
~~ EOu
ae
182
. Boyp. Party per fesse, chequée, three crescents—two and
one. Crest, a hand in benediction appaumée; motto, —
Confido.
Browne. Party per cheveron ; three flewr-de-lys—two and
one. Crest, quatre foil slipped with two leaves—over
helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
. Brynan, Brynnan, Brenan, Brannion. In bordure, two
swords en saltier; erect or combattant. Crest, a helmet
on a wreath in profile; barred, for baron or knight.
. Bucnanan. In a tressure fleury, a lion rampant. Crest, a
hand appaumée holding a fish over wreath on helmet in
profile ; plain for esquire.
. Bort. A tower embattled, bearing three bulls—one and
two—supporters, dogs. Crest, a mounted knight at
speed, sword in hand, combattant.
Burney. Party per fesse; in chief, a bended bow, with
arrow strung ; in base, three boots or human legs cou-
pée below the knee. Crest, a lion’s head erased; motto,
Sapere aude indipe | sic on tombstone ].
Burns. In chief, two mullets over a bugle horn. Crest,
the moon increscent over wreath on helmet in profile ;
plain for esquire.
Byrne. In dexter chief, the moon decrescent ; in fesse, a
mermaid; in base, a garb, with three birds pecking—
one dexter and two sinister. Crest, a hand appaumee
over wreath; motto, Rubra manus duorum bonum.
Canan. Party per cross; in first, a lion rampant; in
second, a garb; in third, a fish; in fourth, a lymphad or
gally. Crest, a lion passant on a wreath.
Canan. In bordure, party per cross; in first, a lon ram-
pant; in second, a garb; in third, a fish; in fourth, a
boat and man. Crest, a lion passant over wreath on
sovereign helmet affrontée, barred.
. CALWELL, CaLpwett. Three piles in chief, or a chief
daucette, over a field wavey or undée. Crest, an eaglet
displayed over wreath; motto, Jn domino conjfido.
. CAMPBELL. Gyroney, in a bordure, charged with crescents.
Crest, head of sauglier, or wild boar, over a wreath.
. Campzett. In bordure engrailed, a mullet on a canton ;
in fesse, head of sauglier coupée ; in base, two swords en
saltier inverted. Crest, a wolf’s or dog’s head and neck
erased, over a wreath on helmet in profile ; plain for
esquire.
. Cary. In bordure a bend charged with three cinque
foils; in chief, a swan. Crest, a swan on wreath over
helmet in profile; plain for esquire; motto, Sime macule. —
. Cuap. On a bend, three cinque foils; in chief, two; in
base, one cinque foil.
No.
No.
20.
21.
edie
. 23,
5 ok
5 oO:
vom
Ana
183
CHIcHESTER and Rerannsnopy. Impaled, in dexter, a chief
vert over a field chequée, for Chichester; sinister, three
wolves’ heads erased—two and one—for Retannsnody.
Crest, a bird with snake in bill on a helmet in profile ;
plain for esquire; motto, Jnvitem sequiter bonos; or, Ho-
nor sequiter fugentem.
Crarx. In chief, a leopard’s or lioness’s face between two
books, over a fleuwr-de-lys. Crest, arm and hand holding
a book.
CocuranE. Party per cross; first, party per pale, gyrony
on sinister side; second and third, boar’s head erased ;
fourth, a canton gyrony. Crest, boar’s head erased on a
wreath ; motto, We oblivisich.
Cooper. Impaled dexter, party per fesse; in chief, three
annulets; in base, a crescent over three martlets—two
and one ; sinister party per bend engrailed; in chief, an
escallop. Crest, a lion’s head erased on wreath over
helmet in profile; barred, for baronet or knight.
Craia. Party per fesse charged with three crescents, a chief
vivre, ermined in the points, or a chief indented of two
lines, ermined in the points. Crest, mailed arm and
hand, with sword erect combattant.
. Dawson. A bend engrailed, three martlets. Crest, a mul-
let.
. O’Donacuy and M‘Donacuy. In a bordure a chevron ; in
chief, two lions rampant facing; in base, a sauglier.
Crest, arm coupée at the elbow, with hand and dagger.
. M‘Donatp. In bordure three eastern crowns—two and one;
mullet in honor point. Crest, mailed arm, hand with
scimitar combattant, on a wreath over helmet in profile,
barred, for baronet or knight; supporters, savage men
clubbed.
. Donez, or Donatp. In bordure a lion rampant; in dexter
chief, a hand coupée at the wrist. Crest, a castle on
wreath ; motto, Wy hope is centred in thee.
. Duntor. In bordure an imperial eagle, or eagle with two
heads respectively looking to the dexter and sinister side.
Crest, a hand holding a pennon over wreath on helmet in
profile, barred, for baron or knight; motto, Merito,
Duntorv. Three bugle horns—two and one; party per chevron
chequée. Crest, imperial eagle on wreath; motto, Swi-
vey raison.
Fannin. In bordure three martlets—two and one, party per
chevron. Crest, a martlet on wreath over helmet in pro-
file; plain for esquire; motto, Solo in deo spes.
Fisoer. Three fish. Crest, horse’s head and neck coupée, on
a wreath; motto, Gaudiam adferro.
184
No. 38. Garpner. Three wolves’ or dogs’ heads erased—two and one;
party per chevron charged with two lioncells. Crest, a
demi Wyvern.
No. 34. Gavin. In bordure a saltier engrailed over a sword in pale.
Crest, mullet in middle chief.
No. 35. Gerry. Three boars’ heads coupée, with escutcheon of pre-
tence—void. .
No. 36. Given. Party per chevron, gules; in chief, three mullets;
in base, a lion rampant. Crest, mailed arm and hand
holding a mullet pierced.
No. 37. Guascow. In pale, a tree in leaf rising from a mound; dexter
side a fish, with ring in mouth; sinister side, a bell sus-
pended from a branch. Crest, the dove with olive branch
on wreath over helmet in profile ; plain for esquire.
No. 38. Graic. Lion rampant. Crest, demi lion rampant crowned
royal, with dagger erect in dexter paw; motto, Pro rege
in tyrannos.
No. 39. Happan. Party per chevron—two and one; three garbs. Crest,
a wreath.
No. 40. O’Haean. Party per fesse; base, party per pale; in chief,
an imperial eagle. Crest, a square pennon on a helmet
in profile; plain for esquire.
No. 41. Hamitton. Impailed dexter side, three cinque foils—two
and one, with lozenge in honor point; sinister side three
bends sinister, with crescent in dexter chief. Crest, an
oak tree fructed and penetrated transversely in the main
stem by a frame saw on wreath over helmet in profile,
barred, for baron or knight.
No. 42. Hamitton. In bordure three cinque foils—two and one.
Crest, oak tree and frame saw; motto, Zhrough.*
No. 48. Hamitton. Three martlets—two and one; party per fesse,
erminée. Crest, a garb on wreath; motto, God feeds the
Crows.
No, 44. Hay. Three inescutcheons, void—two and one. Crest, bi-
corn head and neck erased, over helmet in profile; plain
for esquire ; motto, Malum bone unice.
No. 45. Hortrpay. In bordure a saltier in a canton, or quarter cut
off ; in sinister side a sword in pale erect over a crescent.
Crest, boar’s head on wreath over helmet in profile; bar-
red, for baron or knight.
No. 46. Hortmpay? In bordure, three mullets in chief over a bugle
horn. Crest, wolf’s or dog’s head erased on wreath over
helmet in profile; barred, for baron or knight.
* See ‘‘ English Heraldry,” by Boutell, p. 152. London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin,
1867.
Tee tart CS TOMER TART em sito Cen ee
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
47.
48.
ae):
00:
agok.
y od
. Oo.
o6.
57.
08.
59.
60.
(Sy bs
62.
63,
185
Hormes. Lion rampant of the field. Crest, stag’s head and
neck coupée on a wreath. aes
Hovsron. Three quatrefoils, two and one; party per chevron;
erminée. Crest, an hour-glass on wreath over helmet in
profile; barred, for baronet or knight.
Irvine. Three goblets or garbs—two and one; party per
chevron. Crest, a hand coupée, at the wrist holding a
thistle, slipped, on helmet in profile ; plain for esquire.
In bordure. Three estoiles of eight rays—one and two; party
per fesse. Crest, arm coupée at the elbow; hand holding a
thistle, slipped. Motto, Sub solr, sub umbra vir.
JAFFRAY. Paly of three; second, fourth, and sixth, erminée.
Over all a fesse, charged with three mullets. Crest, the sun
in splendour, on a wreath, over a helmet, in profile; plain
for esquire. Motto, Post nubsba Phebus.
Jounston. In bordure. Three human hearts—two and one.
Crest, hand coupée at the wrist, with dagger.
Jounston. In chief, three wool sacks; in base, a saltier, in
bordure. Crest, a rouelle spur, winged on a wreath, over
helmet in profile; barred for baronet or knight. Motto,
Nunquam non paratus.
. Ker, Karn, Carn. On a chief, three mullets; a hand
coupée at the wrist. Crest, a garb on wreath, over helmet,
in profile; plain for esquire. Motto, Amor probus.
. Kinxarp. In bordure, a fesse erminée; in chief, two
mullets; in base, a tower. Crest, naked arm coupée, at
the wris st, with hand holding dagger erect on helmet; in
profile ; barred for baron or knight.
M‘Kntenr. In bordure. Party per cross, first and fourth;
a hand and wrist coupée, holding a cross patée fitchée;
second and third, a tower. Crest, a tower.
Kwox. Three boars’ heads coupée—two and one; in pale, a
battle axe. Crest, hand and wrist coupée, with battle-axe,
combattant on a wreath.
LrarmoutH. Per cross, first and fourth ; a chevron, charged
with three mascles; second and third, a fesse, charged
with three cinque foils. Crest, quartre foil, slipped, with
leaves; on a wreath over helmet, in profile; plain, for esquire.
Lecxy. ‘Three mullets—two and one; party per chevron.
Lree. Stag’s head, cabossed. Crest, coronet with four plumes.
Motto, Gaudit tentamine virtus.
Loan. Three swords, paily, erect, of the field; two mullets
in chief. Crest, demi-lion rampant, holding a mullet in the
dexter paw, on wreath, over helmet, in profile; plain for
esquire. Motto, Virtute et fides.
Lovenringe. In chief, three mullets; in base, a stag tripping.
Crest, a martlet on a wreath.
Maertt. Three martlets—two and one.
No.
No. 7
No.
3 No.
. 64.
“65:
ted
. 66.
. 6%.
Sep5.
--69,
«40,
PUT
. Munroz. Impailed; dexter side, a helmet in profile; plain for
. M‘Nuat. In bordure, party per pale; dexter side, party per
. Park. Per fesse counter componey ; three stags’ heads, cabossed.
. Paterson. In chief, three mullets, on base embattled; three
. Parrick. Three greyhounds running—two and one. Crest,
. Percy. Three towers—two and one. Crest, a tower with demi-
186
Manrop. Lion rampant; queue fourchée. Crest, a garb, —
on wreath, over helmet, in profile; barred for baron or
knight.
Martin. Three crescents; party per chevron. Crest, a lion
rampant, with crescent in dexter paw, on wreath.
Mircnetn. Three greyhounds running, in pale. Crest, hand
and open book on a wreath, over helmet in profile; plain for
esquire. Motto, Press forward to the mark for the prize.
Monreomert. In bordure. Sword and club in saltier (sword
erect from sinister, club depressed from dexter side), in middle
chief, and dexter and sinister side, a fleur-de-lys; in base,
three signet rings—one and two. Crest, hand holding fleur-
de-lys, slipped, over wreath on sovereign helmet affrontée
of six bars. ror
Movunteomery. Party per fesse, sword erect in pale—first
and fourth; three fleur-de-lys—two and one—second and
third; three roundells or annulets, two and one. Crest, a
ship in full sail on wreath over helmet in profile; barred
for baron or knight. Motto, Garde bien.
Moors. Party per fesse, charged with three mullets. Crest, a —
garb on wreath over helmet in profile ; plain for esquire.
M‘Mounn. Party per chevron; three anchors—two and one.
Crest, a lymphad on wreath, over a sovereign helmet affrontée
of six bars. Motto, Hold sure.
Munro. A sovereign helmet affrontée of six bars crested with
eagle displayed. Crest, cocatrice, head erased on wreath over
helmet in profile; barred for baron or knight.
esquire, crested with a raven; sinister side, lon rampant.
Crest, helmet in profile ; plain for esquire.
fesse charged with a fish, in chief, a hand coupée at the wrist;
in base, alion rampant; sinister side, party per fesse, charged
with three mullets; in chief, a lion rampant; in base, a
lymphad. Crest, mailed arm, with hand holding dagger
combattant on a wreath.
Motto, Providentia me committo.
pelicans. Crest, hand with dagger erect on wreath over | 4
helmet in profile; plain for esquire. Motto, Pro rege ec
grege.
a stag tripping; on wreath over helmet in profile; plain for
esquire.
lion rampant, holding a pennon; supporters, wingless wy-
verns; tails; nowdless.
187
No. 78. Ramuace. In bordure; ragged staff in fesse; three unicorn
heads, neck coupée—two and one. Crest, unicorn’s head and
neck coupée, on wreath over helmet in profile; barred for
baron or knight.
Moro. Bre. - En. bordure ; three stags at peed: Crest, a stag at gaze
on a wreath. Motto, In omnia promptus.
No. 80. Rozinson. In bordure; three wyvern heads crased —two and
one, with three moons incressent in fesse. Crest, hand sup-
porting earl’s coronet on wreath; over helmet in profile ;
plain for esquire.
No. 81. Rozryson. Three wolves’ heads erased—two and one, with
three crescents—one and two. Crest, a crown royal over
helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
No. 82. SHaw. Three covered cups, jewelled—two and one.
No. 88. Saw and Burns? In bordure party per pale; dexter side,
three covered cups—two and one, with mullet in honor
point for cadency, for Shaw; on sinister side three tablets—
two and one. With hunting horns in fesse for Burns?
Motto, Gods providens 1s my inheritans.*
No. 84. SuHurrer. Three bars wavey, in middle chief, a demi-lion
rampant. Crest, a ship in full sail, on wreath over helmet,
in profile; plain for esquire.
No. 85. Situ. Party per saltier, charged with a garb in fesse, in
chief, dexter and sinister side, a crescent. Crest, hand
holding a pen, on wreath.
No, 86. M‘Sparron. In bordure, a garb over a sickle. Crest, dove
with olive branch ; supporters, dexter side, a lion rampant ;
sinister side, an eagle folded. Motto, Pro patria.
No. 87. Sreere. On a fesse three mascles; in dexter chief a mullet.
No. 88. SrepHenson. In bordure, a crescent in middle chief; in fesse,
a rose or cinque foil; on dexter and sinister sides, two
martlets, in pale; in base, three javelin heads, in pale,
depressed. Crest, swan or eagle; in profile, displayed, on
wreath, over helmet in profile ; plain for esquire.
No. 89. Symineton. Party per pale; dexter side, a sword erect,
per bend, with mullet in chief, and base; sinister side, an
eaglet displayed. Crest, a unicorn head with neck coupée,
on wreath, over helmet, in profile; barred for baron or knight.
No. 90. Temprreton. A cock in chief on a cross, saltier, with club
erect in sinister chief. Crest, a church. Motto, Pvetas.
No. 91. Tom. A bend, charged with two crescents, and mullet.in -
fesse. Crest, a stag’s head and neck erased; on a wreath.
No. 92. Topp. Per bend; three human hearts—two and one. Crest,
mailed arm with hand holding dagger, combattant.
* From the lintel of the doorway to the old castle of Ballygally, Larne, now used as
a coast-guard station.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. aC
188
No. 938. Tuompson. Per fesse; engrailed, charged with three mullets;
in dexter chief, the sun in splendour. Crest, a garb ona ~
helmet, in profile; plain for esquire. Motto, Amor probus.
No. 94. Wate or Warr. On a chief, the moon increscent between
two mullets; in base, a tree in leaf on a mound. Crest, a
crescent on wreath, over helmet, in profile; barred for
baronet or knight. Motto, Gradatim.
No. 95. Watson. Per chevron; three martlets—two and one, and
three crescents—one and two. Crest, wolf’s head erased, with
neck coroneted, on wreath. Motto, Hsse quam videre.
No. 96. Witson. In bordure, per chevron; in chief, two mullets ;
in base, a crescent. Crest, mailed arm with hand and dagger
erect.
No. 97. Witson. Per chevron; three crescents—two and one.
No. 98. Wuitzison. Per chevron; three mullets—two and one. Crest,
demi-lion rampant, on wreath. Motto, Semper vigilans.
No. 99. Witte. Impaled; dexter side, party per fesse; in chief, a
fox passant; in base, two mullets; sinister side, parte per —
cross; first and fourth, three mullets—two and one; second
and third, three signet rmgs—two and one. Crest, an
hour-glass, on wreath, over helmet, in profile; plain for
esquire. * i
No. 100. Youne. Party, per fesse; in chief three lions rampant; in
fesse. Crest, a wolf’s or leopard’s head erased over a coronet.
No. 101. Youne. A trellis. Over all a fesse; charged with three roses.
* Arms on sinister side, possibly for Montgomeri.
Note.—The mottoes are given as they are cut on the tombstones.
In almost every instance the form of the shield adopted in the drawings is conven-
tional, as it would have occupied too much time to have copied that given on the carv=
ings.—G. V. D.
189
~
*
XXVI.—On tue Roratory Morton or tHE Heaventy Bopies. By
the Rev. W. G. Penny, M. A., Professor of Mathematics in the
Catholic University of Ireland, and late Mathematical Scholar in the
University of Oxford.
[Read February 24, 1868.]
1. THE object of the present Paper is, in the first place, to ascertain
whether the various disturbing forces which act upon the heavenly bo-
dies produce any permanent effect upon their rotation; and, secondly,
supposing such an effect to exist in general, to ascertain under what
circumstances it will cease to do so—that is to say, what are the con-
ditions under which they would rotate permanently without any but
periodic changes.
The inquiry may be of some interest, for two reasons :—First, it has
been ascertained that the observed acceleration in the motion of the
moon has been only partially accounted for by the diminution of the
excentricity of the earth’s orbit, to which cause part of it, though not
much more than half, is undoubtedly due; that is, if we calculate
what onght to have been the angular distance of the sun and moon at
the time of an ancient eclipse—say 2500years ago—it is found that,
after making allowance for the acceleration produced by the cause men-
tioned, that their angular distance so calculated does not agree with
what it was actually observed to have been. Now, such an error might
be produced either by an error in the supposed velocity of the moon, or
of that of the sun, 1. e. of the earth ; but both these have been care-
fully examined, and found to be inadequate to explain the phenomena.
There is, however, a third cause which would give rise to the same dis-
erepancy between theory and observation—namely, an error in the mea-
sure of tyme—just as an error in a ship’s longitude at sea might be
caused by an error in the rate of the chronometer. Just so an error in
the angular distance of the sun and moon a certain number of years ago
might be caused by an error of any one of the three elements which
: enter into it—the length of the year, the length of the month, and the
| length of the day; and so it is evident that, if the length of the day has
| undergone any sensible alteration since the date of the eclipse above
spoken of, the real length of time that has elapsed since then must be
different to what would be supposed if the length of the day had re-
| mained invariable; and thus the relative positions of the sun and moon
would also be different. Accordingly, it was suggested by M. Delaunay
that possibly the length of the day—or, in other words, the velocity of
the earth’s rotation—had varied.
: In the next place, the moon, and itis said satellites generally, turn
: always the same face towards their primaries; thatis, they rotate about
their axes in the same time that they perform a revolution about
their primary. And it has been asked whether there is any cause for
this ; in other words, whether the body about which they revolve exerts
any influence upon them which would affect the rotatory motion, so as
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 2D
CE ee eT aE es Al
190
to make it coincide in period with that in the orbit, supposing that
there had ever been a time when they did not do so.
The general results arrived at may be thus stated :—
(1). That in all bodies which are perfectly symmetrical with respect
to the three planes containing their principal axes of rotation, such as
an ellipsoid (not one of revolution), there is no permanent change pro-
duced; nor in any in which the moments of inertia about the two
principal axes which are perpendicular to that about which it is revoly-
ing are equal; I think there is a permanent change whenever the three
moments are unequal, though the body may be perfectly symmetrical
with respect to each axis;
(2). That in other cases there is in general a permanent change
produced ;
(3). That in the case of the earth disturbed by the lunar moon, the
change produced will be so very small as to account for a very minute
fraction of the whole amount required to explain the phenomena above
alluded to;
' (4). That one condition under which there will be no permanent
variation, is when the time of rotation nearly or exactly coincides with
that in the orbit; but this is only one out of several other such rela-
tions as might exist; just as there are always several positions in
which a body might remain in statical equilibrium; and that in some
cases, though not in all, the forces are such as to produce the relation
above spoken of; and, lastly,
(5). That the effects are enormously more rapid in the case of a sa-
tellite described by its primary than vice versd.
I have supposed, in treating the question, only one disturbing force
to be acting upon the body, and also that its orbit is a fixed plane ;
neither of which, especially for the earth or moon, is strictly the case,
but will be sufficiently near the truth for the present purpose; also, I
have supposed the body to be entirely solid, instead of being partially
covered with a thin layer of fluid. Mr. Airy, however, is said to have
examined the effect of the tidal wave, which it was supposed might by
its position, &c., produce some retardation upon the earth’s motion, and
has found it to be insensible.
Result (4.) has been spoken of as only an approximate one—indeed,
to pretend to extract anything more out of differential equations which
can only be solved by successive approximations, as is the case in the pre-
sent instance, ‘would seem almost to amount to a contradiction of terms.
2. The differential equations of motion are
dw, C-B ly SY Oe ee
Pane fA LIAN aaa aa
dt Fin dia ta "@= ay ty- nyt (@— a)"
dt IB Ae B oe pea A.
d B- A 1 by, — #
= C Bas ye a __,
((4—-aP+y—y+s—2,7)?
191
The solution of these equations will give the values of w,, w,, and w3,
and these being known, the value of w = / w2 + w,? + w,*, or the value
of the velocity about the actual or instantaneous axes of rotation is
known also; and if any one of the quantities w,, w,, or w;, contain any
term which increases with the time, and is not periodic, there will be
a permanent change. The body is supposed to be rotating very nearly
about the axis of z, about which w, is the velocity, and where w,, wp», ws,
are the angular velocities about the principal axes, 4A, B, C, the moments
of inertia about the same ; also 2, y,, 2,, are the co-ordinates of any par-
ticle m referred to the principal axes, the origin being at the centre of
gravity of the disturbed body, and z, y, z, are the co-ordinates of the
disturbed body, the plane of x, y being that of the orbit, the intersec-
tion of the planes of z,, y,, and x, y, the axis of x, and the origin as
before.
Let 2 be the angle between the planes of x, y, and x, y,; 0 the lon-
gitude of the disturbed body measured from the axis of x on the plane
of the orbit, @ the right ascension of the axis of x, measured on the
plane of x,, y, that is, the angular distance of the axis of x, from that
of x; r the distance of the disturbing body from the centre of the dis-
turbed, and 7, the distance of any particle m from the origin. Then we
shall have by spherical trigonometry,
zx 1+ cose 1 — cosz
gee =-@ 6
: 3 008 (p - 8) + 5 008 (p + 9)
y 1l+cose. ik —.¢0s ¢ %
c=- sin (@ — 0) —- — sin (@ + @)
va 24
@=— sine sin @.
Equations which are usually given in the form
= sin 6 cos@ + cose cos@ sing, &e.
But the form given above will be much the most convenient for the
present purpose. The equations (A) can only be solved by successive
approximation. The first approximation will be when the right hand
member is 0, that is, when there is no disturbing force, or when the dis-
turbed body is spherical. The next will be when the bodies are supposed
to be spheroids of revolution. This very nearly represents the case of
the heavenly bodies; but inasmuch as they have a variety of irregu-
_ larities both of form and density, will not accurately do so; and it be-
comes therefore necessary to examine what will be the general effect of
the said inequalities of surface; and specially to see whether there will
be any permanent alteration in the velocity of rotation arising from
them. Supposing such to exist, it is manifest that in consequence of
the bodies being so nearly spherical, it will take place very slowly ;
but the ultimate amount of alteration will be none the less than if the
= - ae Ss: phe: = < 7
I OE ED = 5 <
192
inequalities which produced it were more considerable; only it will.
take more time to arrive at a permanent state.
To calculate, then, the effect of the disturbing force, we must de-
velop the right-hand members of equations (A). To begin with the
first. The quantity to be developed may be put in the form
=m (xy, — y2) {(a? + y? + 8?) —2 (wa, + yy + 221) if re +y, +87} - =
3
1 CE + YY + 8%, 1 \"2
or me (oy, ~ yx)(1-2 is Le aS
1 LE, + YY, + 8%. 3 7,"
= 52m (ay - yn) (148 2 eis
15 (va, + yy, + 2%,)?
wo Sa UD SE +, ie. (B)
1 3
an! (3y, — YZ) + 7a Lm (8) — Yi) (ea, + YYs + 23;)
3
yr?
5 (s& (my,) — y= (mz,) + — (ze = (may)
+3y =m (y)? — &7) + (2? y?) 2m (48, — ey E(m 2,x,)
rejecting for the present the further terms in the development.
By the property of the centre of gravity and the principal axes, the
terms =(m y,), &e., and also =(m xy,), &c., vanish; and it isre -
duced to
3 3
5) zy =m (y;? — %,°), OF 5) ay 2m (y,? + #,7 — (8,7 + 2,”))
3
or as *y (B - C),
hence the first of equations (4) becomes
dw, De Ba aa C-B
eae ee ents SB
similarl dw, A-C 3 A-C
Tatts ee ae
Wi weO Lue! arta Mae! P
and if in these we substitute the values of zy and z, given above, they
will become
dw, Hi C-B
dt A
3M
eae ole
C-B. 1 + cos
7 sin = cos (p — 26)
cose cosd — NA
cos (¢ + 26)
193
dw, A-C 3uA-C., cose+1 ,
ot Be 5 RE in 5 sin (® — 20) —
: 1:
oO
dw, B-A 3 w» B-A (1+ cose?
2a a eee eg epee ee) ain (OG = 20
eer, 8, 3 ane e)
+4 sin sin 26 + ao sin (2 + 264
In the first of these three there are three terms on the right-hand side,
each of which being integrated will give a term in », of the general
form 7 sin (x); and corresponding to this there will also be a term in w,
of the form X cos (x). Now, if these two are substituted for w, and
: . B-
w, 1n the function a
third of the above equations, it is evident that they will only produce
a periodic term; but this is because one of them is a sine, and the
other a cosine. If, however, they had both of them been sines, or
_both cosines, the case would have been very different, and the multi-
plication of them together would have produced a constant term.
What we have to do, therefore, is to see whether the further develop-
ment of the disturbing function will produce any such terms. And it
is very readily that it does produce a considerable number of them, cor-
responding to different combinations of ¢ and @ of the same kind as
those in the equations last formed. Those which I shall select for exa-
mination at present are those which have $ — @ for their argument; so
that we must develop the disturbing function so as to include all terms
of the form sin ¢ — @ or cos @ — 9 wherever they occur in the first tw°
equations ; that is, those for w, and w,.
Let us resume, therefore, the two last terms in equation (8) which
had been rejected, and which will contain all the terms of lowest di-
mensions of the form required, we shall then have for this part of the
function on the right side of the equation for w,
w,w, which occurs on the left side of the
1 p
“ge rf See (wax, + _ + + #8)?
Ar
3 7? 15
ae =m (zy; — y2;) a + cs =m (zy; -
substituting the values of z, y, &c., in this, and retaining only terms of
the form sin ¢ - 9, cos ¢ — 9, the first part of this expression will give
1 3 ose ,
— 55 az (mnie) - sin (¢ - @)
for shortness, let
1 + cose 1 - cose
7) =a and 2 = B
194
also let = (m r,*z,), &c., be denoted by r,2z,, and similar expressions for —
the others.
Also the latter part will give
= OUR =m (zy, — Y21) (Wa? + yy)? + Vai? + Ary iY) + Qxz 4,2, + 2Y2Y,2)
Multiplying these two factors together, and retaining all such terms as
are either of one dimension z and y, or of three dimensions, which are
the only ones which will produce terms of the form required, we
have
15 pw ae a ceo
bore Sek ary, 0,28 + (y?— 227) y,2z, + 2y 2,3 + Q(acy? — x2") x,y \r
A2dr
Now,
x=acosP—O0+PcosG+6, and y=-asingG-O-fsing+ 0
x = 4 (a? 4{R*) + 40? cos 26 — 26 + af cos 2M + aB cos 20
+ +P? cos 2p + 26
Multiplying tl this by the value of y, and ee terms whose argu-
ment is ¢ — 9,
oe
aty = (- (a! + oft) + Le! + af? — Japt)sin GO =— 1 (a9 + 26a) sine
which is the coefficient of 2,22, above.
Also in like manner
y? =— 3 (a + 26a) sin d — 6
and
= — isin (2a — 8) sing - @
Thus the coefficient of y,’z, becomes
— (2 (a? + 26?a) — sin*) 4a — 28))
and that of ae
zis— } sin’ 2a - Bsing -— 8,
also
>= 3(a? + B*) — 4a? cos 2h — 20 + 4aB cos 26 — LaB cos 2h
— 1? cos 2 + 20
*, 2y? = F(a + 2a8*) cos d —
and
r2z*=4sin*s 2a — B cosh — O
195
so that the coefficient of
. ayyz, 18 (a? + 2af? — 2a — B) cos — O
making these substitutions, we have
| ad == TR GEG sree Aik
+ eH lat 4 2a) a7e, + (8(@ + 26%a) — Fa — 2B sin%) 9
+ sin’, (2a — f) 2,5) sin (¢ - 0)
115 === ae MTT
; = (a3 + 2aB? — 2a — B sine) 24,2, cos P — O
and the whole coefficient of sin — @ will be the quantity just found,
minus the quantity first found above, that is, it will be
Bly [Co + 20%a) a + (BC + 28%) sin’ 4a - 29) 9%
: = 2 ==
+ sin*s (2a — B) 2,3} - ae 121
1 Sa
call this, for shortness, a M,, and the coefficient of cos @ — 9, just
given, = NY. Then the equation for w, will become
dw, C-B 1 _ > | a
ar rca wu, = 7M, sin —0 — 7 N cos o — 8,
and in like manner
dw, A-C 1 —— 1 tee G.
oh eee Be algae ity 2 ee
Pore + pee psn gp + a Ml, cos b a)
where M, is what M, becomes when 2, and y, are interchanged. In
order that these may be integrated, it will be necessary to express @ and
@ in terms of ¢; but before doing so it may be well to make a remark
upon the quantities =(m x,°2,), &c., which occur continually. We may
always choose the axes so as to make
= (na) — On = nay.) = Ovisen:
but not so as to satisfy any further conditions, such as
Ze Y,), = nz2z, — 0.
But there is one case in which a certain class of these quantities will
always vanish. Whenever the body is perfectly symmetrical in term
196
and density with respect to the planes which contain its principal axes,
it is manifest that all quantities of the form = (m a,?z,2), &c., when
either p or g are odd numbers, will vanish. Thus, suppose g to be an
odd number, then any particle m having s, for one of its co-ordinates
will always be accompanied by another having —z, for one of its co-
ordinates; hence the sum of these will vanish. Now, these are the
sort of quantities, both in the example which I have chosen, namely,
terms depending upon sin ¢ — @ and cos@ — 9, and in all other cases
whatever where constant terms can be produced. Where this is the
case, therefore, the quantities in the equations for w,, &c., on the right
side will vanish ; but this will not be the case for such bodies as the
earth, moon, &c., whose form, though nearly spherical, &c., differs
from it on account of the irregularities of surface, &c.
Integration of the Differential Equations.
For this purpose the following equations for determining ¢, &c.,
which are given in all dynamical treatises of motion abouta fixed point,
will be useful, viz. :—
d Os p
< . ag — — (01 sin @ + w, COS ?)
d 1 :
dv :
Tt = 0 COs g — W2 sin ®,
in which yp is the longitude (measured backwards) of the moveable axis
of x, referred to a fixed line.
The first of them will give us an approximate value for @: to use
it we must first find w; Now, neglecting the disturbing force, as also
products of w,w,, which are supposed very small, and are, moreover,
multiplied by B - A, the third of equations (.4) becomes
hose
7 NOs FOR 5 ==" 70
Neglecting, therefore, small quantities in the first of the equations of
this number, it becomes
BO nm, ord=nt
dt mee Q = nb,
if the time is supposed to commence when the #.A of the example « is
0; also for @ it will suffice to put m, +e. Thus the equations for a,
and w, become, on putting for a3, nt for ?, &c.,
NOT
dw, C-B I ——— 1 ———ae
on PZ ne, = 7 M, sin (n—mt+e)— 7 N cos (n — 1, t + €)
ie)
dw, A-C 1 ——— 1 pees
=, tps, = Nsin(n-mtt+e)t ze M, cos (n—n, t + €)
d.
If we differentiate the first of these, and for the value of == , which will
occur in the result, substitute its value as derived from the second, we
shall obtain the following equation, from which , has been eliminated:
Pee RCA (de, Cap Pe
et tn (en - Sn ce ae tae)
in a (OS IRON yee a
+w("S" 4 AB ) sin (w= t + 6)
The terms introduced into , by the integration of this, will be
) MN, C-B
| me ay
|
n 1
Pees
a n? —(n-1,)?
A B
| n-n C-B
| Sei
| v( aR n| Pile
[zee n —(n—n')?
call this, for shortness,
A, cos(m—”,¢+e) + B, sin(n - n, t+ €)
Tn like manner the integration of the equation w, will give
a, = A, cos(n—m, t+e) + B, sin(n—m t+e)
n-n A-C Wiles, os AL (Of
n( B - ar") (Fon + SP un |
a > GI
| VTE S53. ALS
| where
nr? —n —n?
A B ;
The complete integral will also contain arbitrary quantities of the
form
C-BC-A bane
COS loaan > apa fs
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 25
, » ¥ ¥ wos C~ hy WF =
Ree ee
198
For the earth, however, the constant eis quite insensible ; but for the
moon, Laplace says that it is variable. However, it will not affect the
recent inquiry in either case, and therefore may be dismissed for the
present. |
Formation of the Constant Quantities in the Differential Equations.
If, now, we multiply together the two values of w, and w,, given.
-above, we shall have
a0, = { A, cos(m — mt +) + B, sin(m — n, 4 +.6)}
{Ay cos (m ~m, t+ €)+ B,sin(n—m, * + €)}
= $A,A, oF B,B,) ap
periodic terms; retaining the constant part
B-A 1B-A
Om CSC ae 9 FW Sai (4.4, + BBs}
or, putting for A, &c., their values, and dividing numerator and deno-
minator by
2 C-AC-B
—_——____——-
LUANG A esas 2
age AB ,
_1B-AW.(,+ M,)
© DUR. D.
where
C-AC-B ,
Daa aa n—-n—-N,
This part, therefore, of the differential equation for w3 contains a
constant term; but before we can say that the ‘entire equation does so,
it is necessary to develop the term on the right side of the equation.
Now, if this is expanded, it will be easily seen to consist entirely of
sines and cosines, of which the general form may be said to be
I sin (pn — qn, t + a)
where J is some function of 7, and p and q are whole numbers.~ It
would appear, therefore, at first sight, to contain no constant term ;
but in reality it will be seen that it does. For, it is easily seen that
every term in w, and w,, such as those found above, will introduce a
periodic term into the value of, as also of ¢ and @, and the multipli-
cation together of periodic terms may produce a constant. ‘To see what
terms in the development spoken of will be necessary, we must find the
variations of 2, @ and 9, then,
£99
dt ‘
=; = 4, COS G — w, SIN @.
d
Put for ¢ its first approximate value nz
a, CoS 6 =4(A, cos(2n — n,¢ + e) + B, sin(2n - nm, b+ €)
+ A, cos (m,¢ + €) — B, sin (nt + e)}
#, sing =4(A, sin (2n — n,t + ©) — B, cos (2n -— m2 + €)
+ A, sin (mt + ¢,) + B, cos (nt + «)!
taking the difference, and integrating,
[A,+B, . —— A,—-B lie Ee
Oa sin (2n—mt +e) + Sa cos Gn=n,t + 9)
- B, . B
+i (= sin (”,t + €) ——— cos (7,¢ + }
1 1
for the variations of ¢ we have
do COS“ :
7 eee (, S10 G + a, COS ¢),
its variations, therefore, will arise partly from those of w,, and partly
from those of #, and #, We may set aside the former for the present,
and. confine ourselves to those of w, and w,.
Then, priming the function
COs + Cannes )
—— (a, SIn @> COS
fine So ea a cis
exactly in the same way as above, and integrating, we have
l cose (A, +B,
2sine |2n-n,
1 cose (Ai —B, A? +B,
Tana | Oe cos (nf + €) — i
tis Tat Ae
2n — Mb +E-
cos (2n-—mt+e aE
By. ——
P= nt+ a sin (2n—n,t + €)
1 ps,
sin (mt + 9}
also since the differential equation for y is
1 :
Wee ae SIN @ + #2 COS )
the variations of y will be the same as those of ¢, only not multipled
by COS t.
aa Soe Seen oe TES fies
titled tt ae
200
We must, therefore, carefully seek out all terms in the development
of it, whose argument is either 2¢ - 9 or 6. The latter, however, will
be found to disappear. Then,
15 2
ws =(y%, — £Y;) - &. +— 5 — 2 cal N, = &e.
Vi
fe LTRS Pied re 50
= aed dale ri)) > Lar + YY Pts ey + LLY LY, + 2x2 2,2, + 2yzZ y,2,
= a oe) S } aye (y* — #*)2 +(x,” - y) vy
=+G Sue cos 26 — 20 + 2a cos 26 + P* cos 29 + 28)
r
XL YZ, Sine sin 0
4 eG sin 2¢ —-20+a6 sin 26+?” sin 35+ 20 ) (GPW)
sin « sin 8
1 » 15 SSS a
ara y(t — 248) tigi sin ¢ sin 29 — 0
he te a? — 2a) (a, — y,2) sin + cos 29 — 8)
eG Pa ens Y 17%
Now, taking the value of i found above, we shall have
cin c= sin (4 +4 a
: wee sin 2n — mt )
n
neglecting, for the present, the other term,
in +, + 4 cos au
= sins, + 2 cose
1 2 1 on -
Dy Hales
; Sin 2n - ™ +
5 1 oo
cos ¢ = cos4,-—4 sing sin 27 — n, -, &e.
2n—N ©
: 1 + cose
Then, since a stands for ee ie shall have
ee a LE ——
a? =3(T¥ e054? T+ 00s 4, S1D t, ae A+B pe cin zn = |)
and
ete sp bs A,+B,.
— 2aB =-}sin=- 3( sin’ +sin 4 Cos 4 = ——~ sin 2n — n
cee:
a
201 ‘
*, a? — 2aB=}(1 + cos u*® — 2 sin*,)-4 sing (1+38 cosy)
A, + B, . = Tae
- gin 2n — n!,
2n-n!
Multiplying this by the value of sin 7, we have
(a? — 2a8) sine = (1 + coss,? — 2 sin*,) sing
+ (3 (1 + cos 4,” — 2 sin s,) cose, — ¢ sine, (1 + 8 cos.)
oe
A BS
2n —n!'
sin 2n — ,. .
Also, considering the variations introduced into ¢, we have
, cos, A, + B;
£— —— 0s 2n - 0!
2 sine, 2n—n}
@=nt +
also 9 is the true longitude measured from the moveable axis whose
longitude measured backwards is Y; therefore if 2,¢ be the longitude
measured from a fixed axis, that measured from the moveable axis will
be n't + ¥; or, from the value of y given above,
ie Av B
: cos 2n — n!
sine, 2n-n!} :
1
n=
htt
2cos4,-—1A,+B,
2 26-O= —nmt+4 -
26 2nt—nt+s due ear
cos 2n — n!',
and
2cos¢,—1A,+ B,
sine, 2n—n)
sin 2¢ - 9=sin 2n-—n' + }
Multiplying this by the value of (a? — 2a8) sinz, we shall have for the
constant term depending upon A, + &.,,
Ay eB,
1 / ——— : ie
— | 1 + cos 4? — 2 sin *,) (3 cos 4.-1)—= sin*s, (1+ 8 cos 4)
8 2n —n'
16
which may be put into the simpler form
A,+B,
2n -n'
1 ae
i() COB aia sin *4, (1 +3 cos «))
and in like manner the quantity (a? + 2a) sine will contain the con-
stant quantity
1 Digi: A,-B
a (1 + COS 4 mas (1 +3 cos 4) a oet
202
On substituting these values, the right-hand side of the equation for
A+ B,
determining w, contains the constant terms
2n —n'
uae
a = [1 + COB g sin *4(1+3 cos | Jaana
B
eh 2 ale
L (ay? - 9,7) on - 7)
This latter factor may be more conveniently put into the form
A,
— A Se ae BT 2 ae eer
BU oy ge RO Yo ae a ye Ol ree
Let us first find the value of the first pair of these terms. Now,
1/X, _ C-B
A= 5(qaoe ls "|
and
1 (2 -n' C-B
B, = D fue A SP WT n)
where
p flo ee
M,= asl Gi (a? + 26a) x72, + 3 (a? + 26%a) —sin ** 4a — 28 Ys
+ sin 2Qa— 6 3,3- = ar,?2:
15 :
< (a3 + 2af? - 2a — B sin®) ay,2,
then
A, DY” or m an ry 4") B,
becomes, considering first the term multiplied by x — 1’,
15
\s : i [ers 2Ba) «22 a,°2, + (38(a> + 26?a) — sin 2c 4a — 4a — 2) Ye
—_ —__ 15
1y°S HY 2, + ma (a? + 2B a
+ sin 2 2a — a | - 57
as — 7
— 2a— 8 sin *) (a22' - ea) AD
or
( (2c + 26a) — 2a - B sin *x) (28+ Yy721) + sin*s 2a— Pz,
ee
73 ary 1) th 1 AD
203
This coefficient, it is easily seen, is equal to 4(Jf, + M,), so that we
may replace the above expression by
MyM
4 M+ HM, DY ye A
in like manner it will be seen that the part multiplied by » becomes
1 M,+ HU, aE B- Cy
Dame ht SS AB
thus, the two terms in question become
1M, + My LYYiz, (N—-M " B-C
MDGS Ona A ip
and in like manner the latter pair become
1 (= ra LY 21 (7 —7' A-CO
—— n
oan. espe AB
2
therefore the sum of the four is
1M,+H, %4y,2, ] z)taE
2g D aoe f A 3B A %
1B-A ‘
= 9 Wie MM, + M, LY 12)
thus the constant terms of the right-hand side of the equation for a,
become
aa a a IL IRA IL SEL
He (1+ cose Zins 1B cos) me 3 Gao \—p)
also on putting for a and f their values, it is easily seen that the value
of NV is
15 pw OF Ah aes ara oe
%) yt (1 + Cos ¢ — 4 sin ny 1 + 3 COs :) LY iA,
so that the expression just found for the constant term in the deve-
lopment of WV reduces itself to
1B-A (x
2 ABC\ “D
And this is identical with that part on the other side of the equation for
das
di’
these terms identically destroy each other.
which arises from the multiplication together of #, and w,, so that
204
No account, however, has as yet been taken of the first terms which
occur in the development of Z, namely,
3 wp B-A
2
a’ sin 26 — 20 + 2a8 sin 29 + B? sin 2¢ + 20
Now, it is evident that these will contain constant terms, which, if
they do not identically destroy each other, or are destroyed by terms
which may arise in other parts of the differential equations, will give
terms indicating a gradual and permanent change of motion. Let us
see how constant terms might arise in the above expression.
In the first place it has been already seen that the expression for 2
contains, amongst others, terms of the form
HT sin 2n =n, K cos n', &e.,
we shall thus have
cos «= cos (7, + Hsin 2n — n' + K cos n,) = cos (¢, + P)
suppose
P3
=cos4 {1-$P? +4} + sina[ P aa v)
=cos 4, {1- Hsin 2n-n' Keosn'} + Psina, &e.
=cos 4, {1-} HA sin 2n -2n' +1 HK sin 2n} + P sin 4.
In like manner if sin (2¢ — 20) be developed, it will contain the
term sin 2” — 2m!, terms multiphed by P, and constant terms. The
first of which, when multiplied by HX sin 2n — 2n}, will produce a
constant term, and the second when multiplied by P sinz,, and the
third when multiplied by cos 4. i
Again, the first approximate values already found for 7,9 and 9,
will, by substitution in the differential equations, produce terms having
the arguments
2n—2n,, 2n, &c., ine g and y.
And these will arise in two ways: first, it is evident that such a term
as H cosn' occurring in the expression for 7, would, when introduced
into « or cos?, where it occurs in the terms in the differential equations
already used for determining terms in »,, &c., having the argument
¢ —-9orn-—~n’', would introduce terms into w,, &c., having the argu-
ment ” — 2n,, and these, when multiplied by cos ¢, where it occurs in
the equation for 7, viz. #, cos ¢, would produce terms having 2” — 27!
for their argument in the expression for 7. These terms, however, will
be multiplied by higher powers of sinz than those which arise in the
manner about to be examined, and therefore for a first approximation,
at least, may be neglected, especially in cases where 7 is small; and
205
even where it is not, it will be best to reserve them, and, if necessary,
to take them into account after lower powers have been examined.
The other, and more important way in which such terms arise is as
follows :—Take the value already found for ¢,, viz.—
1 cose, (A,- ————— 1—~ D2
ie de Ss ” cos 2n — n) + cos 7!
2 Wsinye; Fe — 7! F
Aly = Joy 4 eee Ag eb oe
-— ae omnia een sal
2n —n )
this will give
1 cos ty (= = B, A, + Jey
cos P = cos n — — ——_—— =—
oe 41sing, n' 2n—n)
‘ ( As "Dae LAs Poe, see
sin n — 7) — + cosn — n!
\ 2n—n' n'
Multiply this by », =4 w, = A, cosn — n' + B, sin n — vn, and retain the terms
involving cos 2n — Qn — 2n, and we have
eos p 1 COs aT A, art Jif uA + B,
Ww =— =
8 1sin 4 n 2n —n} ;
Blas 18,» Aly te IK AREAS
Z = ae) 4, cos 2” — 2n!
Qn -n' n
in like manner we shall find
al pee (So ae =) 7
8 sine (\ 2n-7! n}
2n—-n} n}
aC aS = )2 cos 2n — 2n!
v t 1 cosz A,—B, A,- B, A,+b, A,+ PB,
ee ene care Qn — n} si ni
Zl iS IBY VATED, A BA Blips 3 ons
= cos 22 — 2n*
n} In-n J
1 cose 2n—2n}
8 ahh , (Art B, A+ B A, + B, APN B, A,- Are.) (2n —n')n}
cos 22 — 2n,
1 cose
SOS ape ar =
8 sin ¢
Art B, eee Am aR
1 5
(Qn) 0 sin (2n = 2n")
RA PROC-—VOL, X. 2¥F
Se a ee ee. ae
206
To find ¢ — 8 we have
d(o ~ cos:—1 .
meter é) eh sin @ + w, Cos P)
and by proceeding exactly as above we shall find
#, COS P+ w, sin P=4(A,+ H,) sin 2n-n'+4 A,- B, sin n'
+3 A,— B, cos 2n—n! +4 Ag+ B, cos 1}
1 cos 4,
8 sin 4
DW Sen hae ae = aS 1 l
(4,+B, A,+B, - A,B, 4,-B,) GS i 3)
sin (2n — 2n*)
also if «=1, + = where = denotes the sum of the quantities which occur
in it, we shall have
cose—1 cose—sine.2>—1 cose,—1-sine =
sin ¢ SIN ¢, + Coss = ‘ COS, +)
sinz,| 1+— >
sin 4,
0 5 {5 poe ee
sin ¢, \ sin,
neglecting higher powers of = than the first, since these only are
wanted. Multiplying together these factors, we shall have .
_a(e-) _ cos4-1
- 1A,+ B, si — 7) ,
Pp any, € , + Bb, sin 2n i+, &.|
us (44 BB © AB, Tees (1 , os —1coss,
sin ars
sin 2” — 2n!
Qn -— ni)
Cos ¢, — 1 cose, 2n
sin %s,
Integrating and changing the signs on both sides
-11/A,+B ce Ba
poo ea Seu ane ee
sins, 2\ 2n—n!
-} (AFB, AFB, - 4B, 4=B) ——* 00 (2n - an!
n—n' 2n-nh
We have now to substitute these values for «,, &c., in the function
3 pet eek
ea + cos+)* sin 26 — 20
which occurs in the development of J.
207
In the first place,
1 cos: {/A,+B, A,+ B, - A,-B, aay
8 sin «
~ >> SS
Cos 4= COS (. + a+= (2n n) Am
sin 2n — 6n!
A,+ B, A,+ B, - A,-B, A,B,
=coss, {1-47} -sins, 2-4 cose Gnawa
sin 22 — 6n}
2
eet cos 71
iene, rus ery
sin 2n — n' +7,
; BP ———
.. COS ¢ = C084, — Sin 4, S— ¢ Coss, ——————_ Sin 2n — 2n!
(2n —n*) 2
where P = A, + B,, &c.
San we —_—_—_—_————————> e —_—_—_—_—_—_—_—
1+cose =(1+coss,)?— 21+ oss, sins, 2—41+4C084, cos 4,
, Sin 2n —2n} + sin s =?
(2n—n') n
jee og 4 Test one MAL eran: P
=1+0coss, —-214+4 coss sins, 2+ (Z sin ae Cr SC
sin ( 2n —n')
also
ae ta
sin 20 — 20 = sin 2n —2n' f -4 sere @,)
sin ¢,
cost; — 1 ————— n
2 4 cos 2n — Qn, =, -i P——— cos? (2n—2n')
Bina | 2n-n' n— 10 n'
where =, is the sum of the terms found in the first approximation, On
expanding 2>?, this becomes
cos 4, — 1?
sin 22 — 2n! fF -4 -—— sin 2n— zn +, &e.
sine 7-7) 7}
WWeosie ula 1
4 sin% (2n-n')n!
1 n
+= :)P.
8 Wn-nn—n'n
= CORE —
=sin 2n—2n' + —.
s1n ¢
1 Ss
cos 22 —2n'. 2, —- lz
208
If now we put for =. and =, their values, and multiply this by the
value found above for 1 + cos.?, we shall have, observing that the
constant terms in =X, cos 2m — 2n' destroy each other, and retaining
the constant term,
(1 +cos +)? sin 26 — 20 = (-
1 cose, —1? cosy +1° ie
sin 2¢ 8
: Pom | gy leone di n P
sin ? | 2 SS eee Ss (nN Gin hn n
7 - eer s] on - 7 7} 8 0 (2n-n) ( ‘)
the former part may be put into the form
$-—isin%-—$1+4 cos: 2 cosy
or
: ———— —_—_—— —___—2
—isin*—$4cos¢ (1+ coss;—1-—coss) or —§ 1+ cost
therefore the whole expression becomes
1
uy Z iti il INE ol ela Se | (LP
esa — (x —n')n' ar
1
——__—. P.
(m — n') nt
Therefore, finally, the function which we have been examining contains
the constant term
or
fit le
—t1+ oss,
B-A p 3 | _—___, l ee
( C0 \eggi tw? Gen te ee
or, as it may be more shortly written
(=3 AN oa toe 1
eo Coe
On putting for A,, &c., their values, and multiplying out, the latter
factor becomes
al eet vee M,A-C'+M,C-B\ ,
De? RB (%—n D? Sa apa ié
ek C-B Af) A-€ CB)
D\*\ 2B ” BA) | OB? AB. }
NN — Ny
This may be much simplified for bodies nearly spherical, and might be
put into the form
NV M,+ U, pe Ce Cay
D AB Oia INIR
209
if we neglect small quantities which will be multiplied by B- A, &c.),
or observing that the latter factor is the same as D, it becomes simply
N M,+H,
Dee.
and the term becomes
=)
B-A31+ cos: p IL pte +a) 6
which is true for every value of . Suppose, for simplicity, that cos.
does not much differ from unity; then on this supposition we should
have
15 p
anes pe (ld
LS ery ROE: ee
en
; is (x72, + 3y 721) = 5 &e.
15— —- bw o — —_ —
-. M,+ ll, - Gai + ¥;72, — 8r,73;') = aa (3 (@72, + y?2,) - 2,°)
upon substituting these values for VV, and M, + I/,, the expression a
becomes
B-A135(p\ 1 1 (3(efa+yFa)- 2°)
ABC 64 \7} (n-n')n' D 7
LY 2 (4)
This term, it will be observed, is multiplied by the cube of =
whereas the terms which have been previously examined were only
multiplied by the square. If now we resume the expression in the de-
velopment of VV which is multiplied by
u A, +B. ee dea Al Be
ee ee aay," 2 1
2n-n'
we shall see that, on continuing the approximation, (4, + B,) and
(A, — B,) will receive an increment such that when their new value is
substituted for them in the above expression, it will be multiplied by
the cube of : The term which so arises will not destroy that pre-
viously found, but will be of the same order, and will modify it ;
therefore it must be sought out. To find it,
Let us return to the original equations for w, w,, namely,
da, Bu O-B., 1 + cos ; ———
= Uae ay ae 5 008 Y — 20 - coss cos p
1 -—cos;
cos P + 20
ESE GF I RF
a ae eS ee a
210
S1n ¢
=_— —
°
on Sid Age IG. 1+ coss
dt 27° B 2
INGO) = -
If, now, we take the terms already found in the first approximation
for 1, d, vy, viz.,
A,+B,
a cos n', &e.
A,—-B, °
t=t,4+4 -sinwi +4
2 n} 2
and substitute them for . and @, &c., in the above equations, we shall
have terms whose argument is » — »!. And it will suffice for the pre-
sent if we substitute the values in the first term which occurs on the
right-hand side of each of these equations; viz. that depending upon
@® — 20; for, although that depending upon @g, that is the second,
would produce terms of the same form, yet the increment so formed is
best considered in conjunction with the term in VV which corresponds
toit, namely, that depending upon sin 26. Making, therefore, the sub-
stitutions mentioned, we shall have to find the increment of ,,
ge OS Ole wh en
dhl) Se wa a i = sin n —n}
Vile
er cose
n
This might be integrated in the same way that the equations for
w,, &¢., were treated above; but as it will suffice for the present pur-
pose to reject quantities multiplied by products of
C-B i ha C-A
A Be
we may integrate it without introducing the second differential coeffi-
cients. It will give
OM ds i A, - B, Te
M1 Bg gl cob Sein t) "Gl avian ca ae
A,+B, . ——
Cx ee
which, if we make the same supposition as to 7 which was made before,
becomes
836 C-B( 4+ B, ——, , A+B, . —.
1} SS oe SSS xia EET BE NY =
147 A ft aan Gemma o* ©
for the increment of w, above spoken of.
211
Similarly, for the increment of w, we have
8uwC-A(A,4+B, ——, 4,-B, . ——
= aS ; cOSH —N Sra maa
that is, 4, is increased by
3 pb ==" |- A, - B,
(
4r A | (n—n)a
and 5, by
whence A, + B, is increased by
3u(C-A Oe 1K A, -B,
47°\ B A ) (2 — n!) n!}
where A, and B, on the right-hand side stand for the first approximate
values of A, and B,.
Similarly A, — £, is mcreased by
4
i Wie HG ae
The increment, therefore, of VV introduced by these, will be
= 5S 2) SS SS) a ee ee
CFOS 4\ B A (2n — n+) (n — n+) n}
A, + B,
2
5 (oi ore m,) (n— re
which, if we put for A,, &c., their first approximate values, and reject
quantities depending upon higher powers of B — A becomes
B- A 135 2 T Toocea os
ABC 32 \r?/} (2n—n') n! D i
DYyz, (B)
It now remains to take account of the variations of ¢ produced by
those of w,,
. ap
(since a &e.)
But with regard to these, it 1s easily seen that however they modify
the preceding results, they cannot destroy them; and for this simple
reason, that every term in w,; which will give rise to such terms will be
212
some quantity divided by C; and this, again, when substituted in the |
differential equations for w; will produce a quantity divided by C®, |
which therefore cannot destroy the terms above found. To proceed,
then, we have in the first place,
Ws | go, =- BTA SH Ty cons cin (6-26), |
which will give
BaA Sh aes,
Bs 0 ae == 1+ cos sin 2n—27}
and hence
B-A
P=nt + G
a) Reh SE ee
1+ cose sin 2n —2n! = nt +P sin 2n — 2n!
r
suppose,
.. cos 6 = cosn +4 P cos 8n -— 2n' - 4 P cosn— 2n!
multiply this by
w, =A, cosn—n, &e.,
and we have
w, cosP=...+4A,P cos 2n —n! -1A,P cos 8n- 2m! + &e.
with terms of the same kind for w, sin ¢, arising from B, sinz — n}
“.w,cosp—wsing=} 4, — B, P (cos 2n - nm! — cos 2n — 3n')
sin2n-—mn! sin 8n— 27}
Seis cies ere ae |
(the terms of the form 4,+ B cos 2n — n', and may be rejected ; be-
cause A, + B, contains B — A for a factor; and as they are multiplied
by P, which contains the same factor, they would produce terms mul-
tiplied by B- A. Similarly,
cos 2n -—n!} i cos 2n — 3n!
2n—-n} Qn — 3n}
with corresponding quantities for yp.
There is another way, also, in which terms will arise which must be
taken into account, as follows :—The term P sin 2m — nm! when intro-
duced into the value of @ in the equations for w, and w, will augment
the value of A, so as to make it become A,(1+4P). Similarly, B,
will become B,(1 - $P), &c., and hence the term in
is augmented by
‘ sin 2n —n';
1
2 9n-n)
and the terms in ¢ and y¥ are augmented in the same manner. Adding,
then, these additional increments to those just found, we shall have for
the whole increments depending upon P,
ee a ae By) = #2) B cos (20 — nt S79) Peos In Bn! 3}
2n-nN 2n —
Gosia ALB, Ses OOse | 44 Jy
a oes ire 2 Or) | 1 a es 1
P=n ane i ae oe n Sain ar sin 2n — 3n')
+ P sin 2n — 2n!}
1 Ab abs ee 1 A oBs
a 1 1 2 s ae 1 era byes | sero on — 3n) can 1
he ony f Sinan 2n eat: Saye ae) sin 2n — 3n
proximation, and then substitute for 7, &c.,in N. Also it must be re-
membered that corresponding to the term sin z sin 2¢ — 0, which arose
from the multiplication together of sins sin @ sin 2¢ — 20, there will
be another term, sine sin (26 - 30). Making the substitutions, there-
fore, we shall have
These terms must be added to those given ins, &c., by the first ap-
; _s>— « =z /1 1
se ied 1200) 5 oe : 5+
1
ay a)Pa-B,
which will therefore give the term in V
15/1 1 1 1 l —_——_
3 l3ip-w tte - 5)? 4B
the last part of this, however, namely, that multiplied by — =, will
4 vanish ; for the term sin? sin 6 sin (20-26), will produce in term in
of the era Q A, - B, B, cos 2n — n}, which, when introduced into the
first part of JV, viz.
im sin 20 — 26!
ee
R. 1. A. PROC.—VOL. X. DG
ee eee
214
it is easily seen, will destroy the term spoken of. If, then, we cancel
this term, and substitute for P, A, — &,, their values, we shall have,
observing that such a quantity as o may be replaced very nearly by
unity, and rejecting any terms multiplied by products of B — A and
C- A, &c., for this part of V |
eee cess
ri} 882 ABC \Q2n-—n! 2n-8n)}
8 (ae + y,"2) — 23
r? (n—n')
1
Pl peu,
The terms found are the only ones depending upon the same com-
bination of x,°z,, &c., and having the same divisor J,, and not multi-
plied by sin *,, or higher powers of B — A.
There is one other term, however, it will be advisable to take into
account. It arises thus: the term P sin 2n - 2n!, when introduced into
cos 0 — 6', &c., in the equations for #, and ,, produces not only terms
having z - ”’, but also terms having 38” — 3n' for their arguments; so
that »,, &c., will contain terms of the form H cos 3n- 3n!, &. Now,
these terms will obviously contain the same combination of x,’z,, &c.,
in their coefficients, that A,, &c., do; and for this reason they had
better be retained. ‘Their divisors, however, will be deficient; but if
we neglect quantities depending upon products of
C-BC-A
A B
it is plain that the divisor of the latter may be put equal to 4 of the
divisor of the former ; in fact, H will become + 4,P.
In like manner if #, contains the term £ sin 3n— 3n', we shall have
K=1B,P. The effect of these terms will be to introduce into « the term
1 ANG;
12 2n —~ 37}
with similar terms in # and ¥; and these, when introduced into the
term — sins sin 2¢ — 30 will give
opel 1
P sin 2” — 3n',
TD 1) Dis = Sie ieee get 3
that is, they will reduce the term multiplied by
i
2n — 3n'
in equation C to $rds the value it has there.
215
Suppose, now, we make this reduction, and collect the results, as
given by equations (A,), (B,), and (C), and we have, finally,
Hie 105 (BA Vg 1 iu
ae) 82 3 | ABC Dn-n Melonaen
= Bale + Y\°2) — ie =m (eyy21).
It contains, therefore, a constant term ; and hence , will contain anew
periodic term multiplied by the time.
Corresponding also to equation (A), there will be a term arising
from the second term in the first part of N, viz., sin?¢ sin2¢, and in
(B) a term arising from cos ¢ in the equation for #,, &c., as has been
before mentioned: but these destroy each other.
There will also be constant terms depending upon the arguments
6, @— 20', and 2¢ — 61,
which arise in the same way as those given above; that is, in every
case the term arising from ,#, on the left side is identically de-
stroyed by aterm on the other side, while on the other hand the
first term of the function WV will produce, just as above, a term which
is not destroyed, and another arising from the substitution of the
next approximate values of #,, &c., in the second part of VV; also in
all cases the constant term produced by the function sin 2 sin 26 in the
first part of V is identically destroyed. The constant terms, however,
in all these latter cases, are multiplied by sin”, and depend upon quite
different constant qualities. The one which has been examined ap-
pears to be the most important, and is the only one which would exist
independently of sinz; that is, when the plane of the equator does not
differ sensibly from that of the orbit. The rest it is needless to say
more about at present; and it only remains to discuss that already
found.
Discussion of the foregoing Results.
(1.) Application to the Earth.
The principal object there is to ascertain whether sufficient change
has been produced in the motion of the earth to be perceptible by the
observations of the last 2000 years. In the term S which occurs, put
yr =a, and multiply numerator and denominator by » + m, where m is
the mass of the earth, it becomes
Pe ee
fet py @
we h 8
ave ( # ty : ( be a ns.
Fe GNI HA
And for the moon, disturbed by the earth, we should have for the cor-
responding quantity
oy Oe. putting M#—" =,
216
My Ne 16
b+ fey
The expression for may therefore be written
B-A 135 a ) ie gr goa a,
C 32 \p+m,/ (n—n'y ae 6 (2n — 3n')} @
= (in (3(a*2 + y?2) — 2)) ZS (m ayy,2,)
Aa, Ba,
Also D = (m — n')?, nearly.
Where a, is the radius of the earth, @ the radius of the orbit, to estimate
the numerical value of this, we have
bh y= 5)
n® : (itso = Pea. 1 {n at if :
(n — pac par: alt \30 nearly, gees er ie
2 l 2 z)- 2
Ble oe ie —;; as to the quantity Se ee
1
~ 60
it appears to be identical with one which occurs in the “‘ Lunar Theory,”
and which has been estimated by M. aEEcee from a great number of
observations on the pendulum at about z5/55 (see M. Pontecoulant,
‘‘ Systéme du Monde,”’ vol. iv., p. 497). And we cannot, without mak-
ing nawarranaple suppositions, attribute a greater eae than this
either to , or to the remaining quantity. Suppose, to fix the
ideas, that we were to put each of them at about 3,45. Also, the mul-
tiplier
ie n' nn nn
—— may be written — =—.oF =
30° nm 308 304
and to find the annual variations we must take } to represent the mean
motion in a year, i. e. about 17.000000”, which, expressed in linear
measure, may be put at about 85, so that we have for the annual
variation of 2
[35 "1535 -1 1
82 80° 304 60? 30008 ,
and the change in 2500 years will be thus multiplied by 2500, 1. e. about
1 i
70 (1000000): ”
Now, to produce an effect such as is required to account for the accele-
217
ration of the moon, i.e. about 7z,, it has been shown in the ‘‘ Connais-
sance du Temps,”’ for 1800, that a variation in the length of the day of
about a ten-millionth of a second, or, roughly, of about a million mil-
lionth part of the entire length would suffice; whereas, the value above
given only amounts to about a seventy millionth part of this. And in
like manner we shall find that the other terms mentioned, viz. those
depending upon the argument 6', will only produce quantities which
may be put down as quantities of the same order, and apparently not
more important than the above. The above effect is wholly due to the
moon; that owing to the sun will be still smaller. Also, the earth
has been treated as a solid body, no account being taken of its being
partially covered with fluid. But Mr. Airy, I believe, has shown that
the effect of the friction of the tidal wave in altering the rotation is
quite insensible ; so that we may conclude that no effect sufficient to be
perceptible in 2000 years has been produced by the action of gravity ;
and hence direct perturbation of the rotatory motion is wholly inade-
quate to explain the phenomena mentioned.
A possible explanation, however, may be given by supposing that
the slight alterations in figure which have been going on from geologi-
cal or other causes may have been of a kind that shall suffice to cause
such an alteration as would be required. If w is the angular velocity,
it is well known that
w= een
=mr’
c being a constant, m and r the mass and distance from the centre of any
particle. Now, the mass remaining constant, it will be seen that a va-
riation in length of the radius of gyration amounting to about a three
thousandth part of an inch would be sufficient to produce the requisite
effect. It is no violent supposition to suppose that such a change may
have happened : perhaps the real difficulty would be, on the other
hand, to suppose that a body with a radius of 4000 miles had remained
so constant. But, on the other hand, the variation ought to be in 2n-
crease, not a diminution in the radius; and there is nothing to show
that any changes that have taken place have tended in this direction
rather than the other, further than this :—that any departure from the
circular form in the sections parallel to the Equator tends to increase
the radius of gyration; so that if the general effect of geological changes
has been to increase the inequalities of the surface, their effect would
also have been slightly to lengthen the day, and hence, also, to cause
an apparent acceleration of the moon.
(2.) Application to the Moon.
The chief question of interest which here occurs is: ‘‘ what are the
conditions of stable rotation ?”’ or, in other words, what must be the re-
_ lation between m and vn’ in order that there may be no permanent varia-
tion in the rotation? To answer this, it will be necessary to put down
dw3 _.
the general form which the equation for = will assume after the ap-
218
proximate values, including those arising from perturbation, have been
substituted for «, 6, and 9' in the general equation. When this has been
done, its general form will be
d CN ewe eee tee
ae = N+ A, cos(n —- n't + €) + B, sin(n—-n't + €)
+A, cos (2n—-2nt + 2e) + B, (sin 2n—2Qnt + 2e) +, &e.
+ P sine’ cos(p—qt+qe) + sins,” ?sin(p —qt—ge) +, &.
where JV, is the constant part, and where A,, &c., do not contain sin «
as a multipler, and where the last line represents the general form of
those terms which are multiplied by sin«,, of which the terms in the
expansion of VV which have been used are an example, viz.
eee 65)
t= sin ¢ — cos(2n - mt +e), &e.
Uh 2
Let us omit for a moment the periodic terms, and consider the value
of 1, or rather that part of it found above, and which will be the only
part when sins, = 0. This term may be put under the form
Jal oui bs 1
pasate a
Now this changes its sign, first, when the latter factor does, 1. e. when
12n—7n, becomes 0; that is, when z is something less than 3n’. This,
therefore, would, as far as this term is concerned, be one condition
under which the rotation would be stable; but this would be no more
than an approximate value, because it does not take account of terms
multiphed by sin *, which, for the moon, though small, is not 0.
Again, it changes its sign when n — n' does; that is, supposing the co-
1 Bret Wee 5
efficient of Tape to be positive, it would cause an acceleration or retar-
dation according as ” was greater or less than m!; but in order that there
; ine, sae dw.
might be stable rotation when n= !, it is evident that — ought to
change its sign by passing through zero, not by passing through infi-
nity, as it appears at first sight to do when n —n!'=0. Let us examine
what the true value is under such circumstances. It is quite evident
that it must be either 0 or infinite, since it is only by passing through
one or other of these that it can change its sign. To see which it really
is, it will be necessary to look back to the process by which the func-
tion containing 1t was formed; and if we do so, we shall see that the
term is in reality only the first of a series, consisting of odd numbers of
n — n', having its signs alternately positive and negative; so that
1
|
|
|
; |
|
|
|
219
although, if we were to take only the first turn, it would certainly be
infinite when n — n' = 0; yet it does not follow that the entire series is
so. On the other hand, it is quite evident that it is not; for it arises
from the multiplication together of such terms as sins and sin n. Now,
whatever be the value of « or x, sin « and # are never greater than unity,
and hence their product must consist of terms whose sum cannot be
greater than unity. In expanding sin x, &c., we only took the terms
of lowest dimension that occurred, that is, we put
L=%+a, or sine=sin (t+ a)
% 4 1 i a?
= sins (1 —1a?4+=a* +) + cose, a— = — &e.
4 ibaa
The higher powers of the quantities represented by a were rejected ; if
they had been retained, we should have had a series such as that men-
tioned. If, then, the nonperiodic term cannot become infinite, and yet
changes its sign when n becomes equal to n', it is plain that for such a
value it must disappear, and that as far as this term only is concerned,
n—-n!=0 will be approximately a condition of stable rotation. If,
however, we had taken into account terms depending upon the argu-
ments 6! 26 — 6', &e., it will be found that we should have introduced
into the constant terms quantities multiphed by sin*%, and which do
not change their sign when n = ”'; so that the entire value of NV, will
be a quantity which does not change its sign, and cannot become 0 when
m=n'; and the relation between n and u' thus obtained by equating
JV, to 0 will be the relation which ought to be used instead of n = n' ;
but it would appear also that in addition to this relation, the conditions
will also be very approximately satisfied by n='. ‘To show this, let
JV,,-nt be the value which NV, assumes when n = n!.
dw
Then, the equation for re becomes
| a = NV,...1 + A, cose + B, sin e + A, cos 2e + B, sin Ve.
A, may be rejected. Now, if we put this = 0 it will give us avalue by
which « may be determined so as to satisfy the equation oe = 0 when
m =n'; for, for no value of ¢ can sine and cose be simultaneously equal
to 0; and since N,-,1 is very small compared with 4, B,, and espe-
cially B,, itis evident that a possible value of « may be found to satisfy
the equation
Nyen + A; cose + &. = 0.
In other words, it must have a principal axis inclined at a particular
angle to the radius vector of the disturbing body ; and this angle,
though it appears to be small, cannot be 0. And these appear to be
the only conditions when the mean value of «is nothing; but in other
220
cases there will be other conditions, which will be seen thus :—Let_
Nip) Tepresent the value which JV, takes when the relation between
n and n' is such that yn = gn’. Then, when this is the case, the equa-
tion for w; becomes
di»
7 = Newt P sin i, sin(pe) +9 sing cos (pe) + periodic terms.
Now, the terms sin (ve) not containing the time, are constant quan-
tities, and to find, when —
above to zero, and this will give us an equation for determining what e
must be in order that the body may revolve permanently with the relation
pn = qn’. That such a condition may be possible, will, of course, imply
that the coefficients, &c., in the above equation, have such a value as
to give values of sin ye and cos pe not greater than unity. And it is
evident, in order that such a requisition may be fulfilled, the coefficient
of either of them cannot be small with respect to Vj. And this will
show, that though there are several such relations, there can only be
a limited number ; for, as the quantities p and ¢ become large, so also
is 0, we must equate the three terms given
1 ; AA
does the power of = or =o which multiplies such terms, become
large; and hence for large values of p and q, the coefficients in ques-
tion rapidly diminish, the more so when ¢ is small, and there will not
be many of them which are larger than JV,,4,, and consequently not
many different conditions of stable rotation. How many there are it is, of
course, impossible to say without more knowledge than we have, or ever
can have, of the numerical values of the various quantities concerned.
We may conclude, then, certainly, that there will always be either
an acceleration or retardation of a body revolving freely about a fixed
point, and acted on by a disturbing force moving round it, except when
certain given relations exist between n and ”'; but which of the two it
will be it is quite impossible to say, without knowing more about the
form of the revolving body than we do of the moon; for without such
knowledge we cannot determine the algebraic signs of the various co-
efficients. One thing, however, appears highly probable, and it is this:
that if the conditions of equable rotation can be satisfied by values of
n not very much greater than n’ such as 2 = $n’, or, on the other hand,
by values not very much less than n’, such as n = n’, if its rotation had
ever been very much greater, or very much smaller than it is, it would
seem that the change ought to have ceased when it came to a position
of equable rotation, such as either of the former, without further
diminishing or increasing till it became equal to x’; and from hence
it would appear that its rotation can never have been very different
from what we actually observe it to be.
221
XXVII.—Nores on Ixisu Sponers, Parr I.—A Lisr oF THE SPECIES.
By Epwarp Prercevat Wrieat, M. D., F. L. 8., Professor of Zo-
ology, Trinity College, Dublin.
[Read February 24, 1868. ]
In June, 1858, when engaged with Professor J. Reay Greene of Cork
in investigating the marine zoology of the south and south-west coasts
of Ireland, my attention was attracted by the large number of sponges
met with while dredging in the bays of Castletownsend, Crook-
haven, and Bantry. The only work at that time which described the
species of British sponges was that by the late Dr. Johnson; but the
zoologist was led to expect the publication each year of a work on
sponges by Dr. Bowerbank; which, naming the species, from more
fixed and better marked characters than those of colour and external
form, would greatly facilitate the study of this order. While thus
waiting, no opportunity was neglected of studying the characters of
our Irish Sponges, and a series of dredgings was made in Bantryjand
Ventry Bays, along the coast at Connemara—the rich collecting ground
of M‘Calla and Dr. Farran—and around the Arran Islands: during
which I became more and more persuaded of the extreme uncertainty,
nay, In some cases, impossibility, of naming the species, even from
fresh specimens, without an examination by means of, often, very high
powers of the microscope. During 1862 Professor Oscar Schmidt’s
work on the Sponges of the Adriatic Sea was published. This con-
tains very many of our Irish sponges—very often not only the same
genera, but the same species. During 1865 and 1866, with the excep-
tion of dredging excursions to Malahide, a fertile field in spring time for
marine sponges, annelids, and nudibranchiate mollusca, I did little
more than read up the now rapidly increasing literature of the subject.
Just as 1 was leaving for a short trip to the Indian Ocean Dr. Bowerbank’s
monograph made its appearance, and on my return I resolved to work up
the species of sponges met with in thiscountry. There arein my own col-
lection many species not yet investigated, and several probably new; but
previously to describing these I have thought it advisable to examine the
collections of Irish sponges in the Museums of the Royal Dublin Society,
Trinity College, and Belfast, and determining when possible, by my own
examination of the specimens, what species were to be met with in
these collections. The series of specimens in the first named museum
was apparently almost altogether collected by M‘Calla, though I doubt
not but that the majority of these species were named by Prof. Scouler.
In some cases, either from the falling off and accidental misplacement
of labels, and in others because certain characteristics of the species
were not at the time properly known, I have found mistakes in the
nomenclature, but these were of small consequence, and detracted in
no way from the value of this collection. The few specimens in the
College museum were unnamed, but had the localities generally affixed.
.R. 1,4, PROC.—VOL. X. 2H
222
Those in the Belfast museum had either been submitted to Dr. Johnson
or to Dr. Bowerbank; and in quoting such species I have referred to
them as such; again, several species have been named for the first time
by Dr. Bowerbank from specimens forwarded to him by Professor
Dickie, and these I give on the very excellent authority of Dr. B wer-
bank. The total number of species thus enumerated amounts tofifty-
three, oralittle more than one-fourth of those described as British; but
_ I doubt not that the collection still in mypossession will enable me,
ere long, to double this number ; and there is no reason why the number
of species of sponges on our coast should be less than that of Great Bri-
tain. At present we have representatives of almost all the British
genera.
While regarding Dr. Bowerbank’s monograph as the text-book for the
British sponges, I have still thought it advisable to add here and there a
few synonyms. Dr. Bowerbank divides the sponges into three Orders—
1. Calcarea, 2. Silicea, and 3. Keratosa. For facility of reference to the
monograph on sponges I have followed this arrangement, referring the
student to Professor Oscar Schmidt’s work, to Dr. J. E. Gray’s ‘‘ Notes on
the arrangement of Sponges,’”’ and to Professor Wyville Thomson’s paper
“On Vitreous Sponges,” for further information on the subject, as weli
as for some criticisms on the arrangement of Dr. Bowerbank. The order
Corticatz for the Barked sponges appears to me to be a very natural one.
So is that of Halisarcine for Halisarca, this genus being destitute of
spicules, while the Keratosa of Bowerbank, equalling the Spongina of
Lieberkiihn, will probably rank as an order equivalent to that of Corti-
cate ; but doubtless many classifications will be made and then become
obsolete ere a satisfactory one be established for this group of animals.
ee
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS REFERRING TO BRITISH SPECIES.
George Johnston.—A History of British Sponges. Edinburgh, 1842.
Oscar Schmidt.—Die Spongien des Adriatischen Meeres. Leipzig, 1862.
a is Supplement, enthaltend die Histiologie und Systema-
tische Erganzungen. Leipzig, 1864.
a 9 Zweites Supplement enthaltend die Vergleichung der
Adriatischen und Britischen Spongien Gattungen.
Leipzig, 1866.
J. S. Bowerbank.—A Monograph of the British Spongiade. Vol. I.
1864; Vol. II., 1866. Ray Society.
J. E. Gray.—Notes on the Arrangement of Sponges, with the Descrip-
tion of some new Genera. ‘‘ Proc. Zool. Soc., London.”
May 9, 1867.
Wyville Thomson.—On the ‘‘ Vitreous Sponges.” ‘“‘ Ann. and Mag. of
Nat. Hist.,”’ February, 1868. :
223
Sus Crass 1.—CALCAREA. Bowerbank.
v Grantia compressa (Fab.)
Artynes compressa, Gray. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 555.
On stems of algze, all round the coast.
« G. ciliata (Fab.)
Parasitical on Fuci, all round the eoast. Of large size in the tidal
estuary of the Liffey.
Leucosolenia botryoides (Ellis and Solander.)
Grantia lieberkiihn Sdt. Die Spongien, p. 17, and 2nd Supp., p. 8.
Parasitical on Fuci and Hydrozoa, all around the coast.
¥ L. lacunosa (Bean.)
Nardosa lacunosa Sdt. Die Spongien, 2nd Supp., p. 8.
Belfast Lough. G. Hyndman, 1858.
. L. coriacea (Mont.)
Malahide. Dublin Bay. A. H. Hassall. Killough. W. Thompson
, Leuconia nivea (Flem.)
Grantia solida Sdt. Die Spongien, p. 18, 2nd Supp., p. 8.
West coast of Ireland. M ‘Calla.
v L. fistulosa (Johnst.)
Portaferry. W.T. Fde Dr. Johnston.
Sus Crass 2.—SILICEA. Bowerbank.
Pachymatisma johnstonia Bowerbank.
Halichondria johnstonia (Bowerbank). 1841.
Pachymatisma johnstonia Bowerbank. 1842.
Amphitrema I Callit Scouler M.S. 1846.*
This sponge is mentioned by Dr. Bowerbank as found on the south
coast of Ireland. Specimens marked Amphitrema ‘Callus are in the
Royal Dublin Society’s Museum, from Connemara, and are, without
doubt, part of the collection made by Mr. M‘Calla in Bertraghboy Bay
for Dr. Scouler. Specimens are often found incrusting rocks at low
water mark. At present I only know of its occurrence on the western
coast of Ireland. Roundstone.
* Two large masses of sponge are in the Royal Dublin Society’s collection, marked
Amphitrema M‘Callii. This name was then changed to that of Raphyrus Griffithsii.
One of these is certainly Pachymatisma Johnstonia, Bk., which name must stand, as
Professor Scouler never published his name for this species. The other specimen is pro-
bably Papillina Griffithsie (Bk.).
224
Polymastia mammillaris (Miill.)
Suberites appendiculatus (Bal.) Die Spongien, 2nd Supp., p. 13.
Pencillaria mammillaris Gray. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 527.
White House Point, Templeton. Larne Lough, G.H. Bertraghboy
Bay.
Tethea cranium (Lamarck.)
Dingle Bay. Arran.
T. lyneurium (Lamarck.)
Donatia aurantium (Nardo). Isis 1838. de Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond. 1867, p. 541.
Connemara, W. M‘C. Strangford Lough, W. T.
Dictyocylindrus howsei (Bowerbank.)
Raspaihia howser Sdt. Die Spongien, 2nd Supp. p. 15.
Strangford Lough. Prof. Dickie.
D. hispidus (Montagu).
Raspailia hispida Sdt. Die Spongien, 2nd Supp. p. 15.
Roundstone. M‘Calla. Fide Prof. Scouler. ‘‘Annal. and Mag. Nat.
Hist.,”’ vol. xvil., p. 176. 1846. Strangford Lough. W.Thomp-
s0n.
D. stuposus (Mont.)
Vipulina stuposus Gray. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 545.
Roundstone. M‘Calla. Vide Chalina cervicornis (Pall.)
Phakellia ventilabrum Bowerbank.
Spongia ventilabrum Linneus.
Acinella ventilabrum Sdt. Die Spongien, 2nd Supp. p. 15.
A large number of specimens of this sponge were taken by Dr. R.
Ball on the Nymph Bank (1820).
Microciona armata Bowerbank.
Scopalina armata Sdt. Die Spongien, 2nd Supp. p. 15.
Belfast Lough. Dr. Dickie.
M. carnosa Bowerbank.
Bantry Bay. Rev.A. Merle Norman. Of this species Prof. Oscar Schmidt
writes (Zweites Supplement der Spongien des Adriatischen Meeres,
p. 15) :—‘‘ On the contrary, M. carnosa Bk. is something quite dif-
ferent. In its habit it approaches Myxilla rosacea Sdt.; but the
very irregular spicules (Nadelziige) are enveloped in a horny cement
The morsel given to me by Dr. Bowerbank as M. carnosa, proves to
be identical with that likewise received from his hand as Halichondria
incrustans, of the spicula of which I give outlines (Fig. 17) ;”’ whence
it is probable that Microciona Bk. will equal Scopalina Sdt.
220
Hymeraphia verticillata Bk.
Laothée verticillata (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 543.
“‘This species was brought up from a depth of 100 fathoms by the
sounding line, by the officers of H. M. 8. Porcupine’ (Prof. W.
King). * Prof. 0. Schmidt observes that Dr. Bowerbank’s genus Hy-
meraphia is without doubt closely connected to Microciona. Per-
haps this is less true of the present than of any of the other species
of the genus—the presence of verticellately spined spicula, and the
primary skeleton spicula being surrounded by a fasciculus of second-
ary skeleton spicula, are characters, with others, that forbid this
species to be placed in Schmidt’s genus Scopalina.
Hymeniacidon caruncula Bk.
Bantry Bay. Rev. A. M. Norman. Schmidt (/.c., p.19) states this to
be a Renvera (Nardo).
H. sanguinea (Grant).
Dublin Bay; Lambay Island (W. T.); Bertraghboy Bay and Arran (Dr.
Bowerbank and self); Connemara and Clew Bay (W. T.) Indeed it
is to be met with all round the coast.
H. viridans Bk.
Glengariff (Rev. A. Merle Norman); Berehaven.
H. aurea (Montagu).
Bantry Bay (Rev. A. Merle Norman).
H. armatura Bk.
Strangford Lough (Prof. Dickie).
H. floreum Bk.
Carmia florea (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 537.
Strangford Lough (Prof. Dickie).
H. suberea (Mont.)
Suberites suberea, Nardo. fide Gray. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 523.
H. carnosa (Johnst.)
Tethya carnosa Scouler. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1846, xvii., p. 176.
Suberttes carnosa Gray. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 523.
These two latter species are common everywhere in suitable locali-
ties around our coast. It is often very difficult to distinguish between
them.
Cliona celata Grant.
I here record only one species of this genus, though I doubt not but
that I have specimens belonging to several others, which I reserve for
future study. The genus Cliona (Grant) should give place to Vioa
226
(Nardo, 1841); but I am at a loss to know why Schmidt fancies this
species has been overlooked by Bowerbank. Dr. Gray has distributed
the species of Mr. Hancock among seven genera.*
Halisarea dujardinii.
Will probably be found wher attentively looked for all around our
coasts. Prof. Dickie has found it on Strangford Lough, and I have
taken it at Malahide. There is evidently some mistake about the
species of this genus, as Dr. Bowerbank informs me that he meets
with spicules in the above species, while Lieberkuhn and Schmidt
describe it as aspiculous, making it the type of an Order.
Halichondria panicea (Pallas).
Common everywhere. Schmidt says this species should be, without
any question, referred to Nardo’s genus Reniera.
H. thompsoni (Bowerbank).
Dendoryx thompsoni (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1865, p. 537.
This species is described by Dr. Bowerbank from a specimen taken
in Belfast Lough by the late W. Thompson.
H. inerustans (Esper).
Dendoryx inerustans (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1865, p. 537.
Roundstone Bay (M‘Calla). Bantry Bay and Malahide, and probably in
all suitable localities around the coast. Schmidt does not think that
this species should be placed in the genus Halichondria.
H. dickiei (Bowerbank).
Dendoryx dickiet (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1865, p. 537.
Strangford Lough.
H. pattersoni (Bowerbank).
Dendoryx pattersonv (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 535.
Both these species are from Strangford Lough, where they were found
by Prof. Dickie. They appear to be very closely allied to Hal. in-
crustans (Hsper).
H. hyndmani (Bowerbank).
Alebion hyndman (Gray). . Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 534.
Found by the late G. Hyndman in Strangford Lough.
H. nigricans (Bowerbank).
lophon nigricans (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 534.
Strangford Lough (Prof. Dickie).
H. farinaria (Bowerbank).
Belfast Bay, on Pecten opercularis (W. Thompson).
* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 18, vol. iii., p. 332.
227
Isodictya cinerea (Grant).
Connemera; (M‘Calla), Dublin Bay; (A. H. Hassall); Clew Bay (W.
Thompson).
I. peachii (Bowerbank).
Bantry Bay; Rev. A. M. Norman.
I. simulo (Bowerbank).
Same locality as last.
I. simulans (Johnston).
Adocia similans (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 522.
Connemara; (M‘Calla), Dublin Bay, A. H.H. I have taken it at Ma-
lahide, and probably it will be found all around the coast.
I. fucorum (Esper).
Common in all suitable localities, investing Fuci and Sertulariz.
I. gracilis (Bowerbank).
Larne Lough (Prof. Dickie).
Spongilla fluviatilis (Pallas).
Ephydatia fluniatilis (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 550.
To be found apparently in every suitable locality in Ireland. In Dublin
very common in the canals, and of too frequent occurrence in the fresh
water pipes of the city.
S. lacustris (Fleming).
Spongilla lacustris (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 552.
Lower Lake of Killarney. Prof. Allman (1848). Lakes in the counties
of Wicklow and Galway not uncommon.
Desmacidon zegagropila (Scouler).
Halispongia egagropila Scouler MS. Johnston, ‘ British Sponges,”’
puilsg, Plate XI, Fig. 1.
Esperia egagropila Sdt. Die Spongien 2nd Sup. p. 18.
Aigoyropila varians (Gray). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 538.
Desmacidon egogropila Bowerbank, ‘‘ British Sponges,”’ p. 352.
Dr. Bowerbank, in his ‘“‘ Monograph of the British Spongiade,”’ ap-
pears to have overlooked both the Irish localities for this species, as
well as the fact that its specific name was given to it by Prof.
Scouler. It was first found in Roundstone Bay by Mr. M‘Calla. W.
Thompson records it from Derry. Bertraghboy Bay.
Papillina suberea Sdt.
Raphyrus Grifithsie Bowerbank, 1864.
Halichondria celata, var. a (Johnston).
Raphyrus celatus (Gray). Proc. Soc. Lond. 1867, p. 516.
228
Roundstone Bay (M‘Calla). Ihave taken it at the same locality in
1866. Dr. Gray makes Halichondria celata, var. a of Dr. Johnston
a species under the name of Raphyrus celatus (Gray).*
Sus Crass 8.—KERATOSA. Bowerbank.
Spongionella pulchella (Sowerby).
The type specimen of this sponge was said to have been found on the
coast of Ireland. It has been examined and determined by Dr. Bow-
erbank, Carrickfergus (Templeton).
Chalina oculata (Palmer).
Probably everywhere along the coasts.
C. cervicornis (Pallas).
Dublin Bay (the late Professor Harvey). I am quite uncertain as to this
species. It is said in Thompson’s ‘‘ Natural History of Ireland,”
vol. iv., p. 480, to have been taken in Belfast Bay by Templeton and
Hyndman; Waterford, Miss Ball; Bertraghboy Bay, Dr. Farran and
M‘Calla. But it is possible these were all specimens of Dyctyo-
cylindrus stuposus (Mont. )
C. montagui (Flem.)
Dublin Bay, and Connemara (M‘Calla).
C. limbata (Montagu).
Bangor. Dublin Bay, named by Dr. Johnston (fide Thompson). Round-
stone (M‘Calla). Parasitical on Fuci, and met with at Malahide and
Bantry Bay.
C. seriata (Grant).
Treland’s Eye (Thompson). Tory Island (G. Hyndman).
Dysidea fragilis (Montagu).
Spongelia fragilis (Nardo).
Around the coast in every suitable locality.
* Halichondria celata, var. a. massive and wide of Dr. Johnston, is without doubt
Raphyrus griffithsie of Bowerbank. There is, therefore, no necessity for Dr. Gray’s
species, A very singular blunder in connexion with this species will befound in a paper by
Mr. W. Andrews on Irish Sponges (** Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,” 4th Series, vol. i., April,
1868, p. 307), where, referring to Halichondria celata, Johnston; and citing as syno-
nyms Kaphyrus griffithsie Bowerbank, and Cliona celata Grant, he says :—‘‘ No sponge
has caused more confusion than this, whether we consider its range in deep and shallow
water, its varied distribution of attachment, or the very dissimilar outline of form and
structure it not unfrequenily assumes—so much so, that H. celata of Johnston had been
divided into twelve species.’’? Dr. Bowerbank’s original mistake, the origin of which he
explains so clearly (‘‘ British Sponges,” vol. ii., p. 215), is here, in spite of all precau-
tions, perpetuated.—[ Note added in press, July, 1868, E. P. W.]
{
a
229
XX VIII.—Tue Cave on KnockmMorez, NEAR DERRYGONELLY, CouNTY OF
FERMANAGH; WITH REMARKS ON THE CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE
Scorrincs anp EARLY CHRISTIAN SYMBOLS INSCRIBED UPON ITS SIDES.
By W. F. Wakeman, Esq.
[Read April 27, 1868. |
Kwnocxmore, a lofty precipitous rock of limestone, is a most conspi-
cuous feature in the scenery of northern Fermanagh. It lies about
three English miles to the east and south of the post town of Derry-
gonnelly. Its northern and eastern sides present perpendicular cliffs,
in several places some hundreds of feet in height. To the southward
and westward are descents to the plain, more or less abrupt, so that the
appearance of the rock, or ‘‘ knock,”’ is that of a gigantic Dun, somewhat
oval in form, and measuring over two miles in circumference. The
greater portion of the upper surface of this remarkable height is broken
into miniature ‘‘ knocks’ and glens presenting generally spare depth of
soil, and exhibiting, in one or two places only, traces of ancient culti-
vation. The cavern to which I have now the honour to draw the at-
tention of the Academy is situated in a low rocky ledge, which forms
one side of a very secluded glen lying near the summit of the ‘‘ knock.”
That this cave, like that of St. Kevin’s Bed at Glendalough, is, in portion
at least, the work of human hands, will be evident to any observant
visitor. ‘Time indeed, and the damp of many centuries, have rounded
the fractures made by ancient artists ; but, nevertheless, the touch of the
excavator is still manifest, and at first glance the place bears a striking re-
semblance to not a few of the souterraines, constructed, as we have reason
to believe, by some of the earliest races by whom Erinn was occupied. Its
dimensions are—height of cave at the mouth, ten feet; breadth, five.
These measurements gradually lessen to a distance of about eighteen
feet from the external opening. There the excavation presents an
oblique turn to the southward, and continues for a distance of about
nine feet further into the heart of the limestone. The height of the
chamber at the extreme end is about five feet. The opening faces the
north-east, and is well sheltered from the wind by a grassy knoll which
extends in front to the right and left. The cave would be considered
a dry, airy, and even luxuriant habitation by persons accustomed to
use the ordinary rath souterraine as a place of repose, or of retreat.
But the most interesting circumstance in connexion with the Knock-
more Cave is the occurrence of a number of well-defined engravings,
distributed apparently in groups, more or less isolated, upon its sides.
These scorings, writings, or symbols, are placed, without any attempt
at symmetrical arrangement, upon almost every smooth portion of the
rocky surface of the interior. Many are extremely well marked; others
have become all but obliterated through the action of time, the ero-
sion of the stone, and, I am sorry to add, the outrages of visitors, who
in many instances have not hesitated to mingle their names, initials,
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 21
:
q
230
&c., with the primitive designs or scorings. The ignorance and van-
dalism of some modern ‘‘excursionists’” is evidenced by their having
even scraped portions of the rock in order to secure a fairer field for
idle scribbling.
Nevertheless, a very considerable portion of the ancient carving still
remains, and in no place has it been wholly destroyed. Its character
will be best understood by reference to the six sheets of rubbings, most
carefully made by myself, and which I now beg to present to the
Academy .
With the simple crosses, or crosses enclosed in a rectangular
figure, antiquaries are already familiar. They occur plentifully upon
the mysterious rock at Ryefield, county of Cavan, noticed by Mr. Du
Noyer in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Kilkenny and South-East of Ireland
Archeological Society.’’ A similar figure may be seen in the group of
carvings on the cell of the grand chamber at Sleive-na-Caillighe, near
Loughcrew. This style of cross also occurs at Dowth, on the Boyne.
It will be seen from the rubbings that at Knockmore it is found in its
simplest style, and in some instances elaborated in a manner very un-
usual.
Figs. 1 and 2, sheet I., represent the cross in its plainest form. In
sheet II., figs. 1 and 2, in sheet III., fig. 1, and in sheet V., figs. 1 and
2, it may be seen enclosed within a rectangular, or lozenge-shaped
scoring. In sheet IV., figs. 1 and 2, it is enriched by cross hatching
in a style which I have not elsewhere noticed. Detached crosses of the
plainer kind in different stages of decay occur on various parts of the
walls. Ihave only rubbed such as are very distinctly marked, and
which appear to be associated with neighbouring engravings.
Sheet No. I. is a very careful rubbing of the most complicated of
all the designs which the cave exhibits. We find here two of the pri-
mitive crosses; an interlacing knot or figure of 8; some long wild
scores, and others shorter in character—the latter having much the
appearance of oghamic writing; a tree-like figure, somewhat similar to
a very remarkable carving at Newgrange; a couple of deep-jagged
punctures (figs. 4 and 5), and a number of wavy lines, not unlike the
rude carvings sometimes found upon the walls of pagan sepulchral
chambers. It is not my intention now to speculate upon what relation,
if any, the carvings in each group may bear one to another; but I may
say that they all appear to have been made at the same time and by
the same kind of instrument.
Sheet No. II. presents some of the crosses already referred to, and
another (fig. 3) which may be considered a second variety. The scores,
fig. 4, have all the appearance of oghamic writing. The four cuttings
represented upon this sheet would seem to form a group in themselves.
Sheet No. III. contains two varieties of the early (prehistoric ?)
cross (figs. 1 and 3), and a very perfect interlacing knot. It may be
remarked that a similar knot, sheet IV., is accompanied by an early
cross, and that in each instance the latter device occupies a position
to the left of the knot.
rol
Sheet No. IV. exhibits two interlacing knots accompanied by
the (prehistoric ?) cross, and displays a design formed of two vertical
scores crossed at right angles by a third. All these designs are
deeply cut.
Sheet No. V. Here are two primitive crosses, (figs. 1 and 2),
and two carvings, which have an alphabetic look. This group is
quite detached from any other carving.
Sheet No. VI. Whatever may be thought of the age and cha-
racter of the simply scored crosses, and of similar markings enclosed
within lozenge or rectangular figures, which the cave exhibits, and
which have been just noticed, there can be little doubt amongst an-
tiquaries that the interlacing cross here shown must be referred to
early Christian times. It occurs upon the left-hand side, not far from
the entrance, and is beautifully and deeply engraved. Immediately
beneath the left arm of the cross in early Irish character, firmly cut,
is the letter D, followed by two strokes, which indicate that other
letters had followed. Unfortunately at this place the rock has been
greatly scratched and rubbed by modern visitors. The letters were
probably D NV J, a form of dedication, not unfrequently met with on
pillarstones in the south of Ireland. Ido not wish to hazard any un-
necessary speculation in connexion with this curious inscription, but
should the rubbing come under the notice of the Lord Bishop of
Limerick, his Lordship, from intimate knowledge of the subject, would
probably be able to throw light upon the ogham, or oghamic writing
which accompanies it, and which appears to possess a very distinctly
marked character.
That a cave in many respects so interesting, and, as its scars attest,
so frequently resorted to by ‘‘ excursionists,’’ should not have hitherto
attracted the notice of an antiquary, is a fact scarcely to be accounted
for. True it is that about six years ago Mr. P. Magennis, a master under
the National Board of Education, who lives near the eastern cliff of
Knockmore, in a laudable thirst for investigation, made an attempt
to copy some of the carvings. He then entered into correspondence
with several gentlemen interested in archeological inquiry—with
the Rev. James Graves amongst others. Mr. Graves, with his cha-
racteristic zeal, caused the drawings, or’a portion of them, to be laid be-
fore Professor George Stephens, F.S. A., who, in a letter from Copen-
hagen, Denmark, dated Dec. 16, 1861, described them as representing
“Scribbles of the Northmen, Wild Runes, and Blind Runes,” not
now decipherable. Mr. Magennis, who kindly accompanied me to
the cave, was very willing to acknowledge that his attempt to copy
the lines was anything but successful. There are at any rate no
““scorings”’ at present in the place from which the rubbing or ‘“ dia-
gram,” as copied in a woodcut in the Kilkenny Journal, from which
Professor Stephens appears to have drawn his deduction, could have been
traced. The carvings are all varieties of well-known Irish work—some
of them probably of the age of the stone chambers—and the interlacing
202
cross, the knots, and letters of an extremely early Christian period—.
all of them much older than the date of the first authenticated descent
of lettered Northmen upon the shores of Ireland.
XXIX.—Own Rock Carvines. By Hopper M. Wesrroppr.
[Read May 11, 1868. ]
Tae presence of carvings on rocks, stones, monoliths, cromlechs, and
other megalithic structures in many countries, bearing a remarkable
analogy and likeness to one another, has justly excited much wonder and
speculation. Sir James Simpson has published a very careful and accu-
rate account of the sculpturings of cups and concentric rings in various
parts of Scotland, accompanied by excellent illustrations; Mr. Tate has
published those discovered in Northumberland ; Mr. Du Noyer has also
written some interesting papers on the rock carvings found in Ireland.
In Brittany the blocks used in the construction of the gallery and
chamber of the great sepulchral mound at Gaor Inis, in the Morbihan,
are densely covered with continuous circular, spiral, zigzag, looped, and
various other types of carving. The stones of the tumuli and cromlechs
at Loc Mariaker present figures of various military weapons and arms,
with some imperfect figures of animals.
Analogous carvings of circles and very rude sketches of ships (ra-
ther canoes) and crews have been found on rocks and cromlechs in
Scandinavia.
Rude representations of animals, with inscriptions, occur on rocks
near Mount Sinai, which have been attributed to wandering pastoral
tribes.
Humboldt'mentions rocks covered with sculptured figures in several
parts of South America. He thus notices some on the Orinoco :—‘“‘ We
were shown near the rock Culimacari, on the banks of the Cassiqui-
are, and at the port of Caycara, in the Lower Orinoco, traces which were
believed to be regular characters. They were, however, only misshapen
figures representing the heavenly bodies, together with tigers, croco-
diles, boas, and instruments used for making the flour of Capsava. It
was impossible to recognize in these painted rocks ( piedras pintados), the
name by which the natives denote those masses loaded with figures),
any symmetrical arrangement or characters with regular spaces.
Mr. Squiers has discovered analogous carved rocks at Masaya, in
Nicaragua, and Mr. Bollaert notices several in different parts of South
America.
At the Cape the caves inhabited by the Bushmen, one of the rudest
races of humanity, are frequently found painted with the representations
of the animals of the neighbourhood, and sometimes with battle and hunt-
ing scenes.
Various have been the conjectures with regard to the origin of these
239
sculptures, the age at which they were carved, and the race of men who
carved them.
Professor Nilsson attributes those found in Scandinavia to Phoenician
origin, and considers the circles as symbols of the sun and other hea-
venly bodies—a most untenable hypothesis, as there exist no similar
carvings among Pheenician remains to connect them with. Further,
analogous and identical circles and carvings are found in America and
other countries where no Phoenician influence could possibly have
reached. Others suggest that they are symbols, or symbolic enumera-
tions of families and tribes, or some variety of archaic writing or philo-
sophical emblems.
We shall, I think, be led to a more just conclusion as to their origin
if we bring before our mind that man, in his rude, early, and primitive
age, bears a great analogy in his actions and thoughts to those of a
child. The savage and primitive man has the same fondness for imita-
tion, the same love of laborious idleness as the child. A child will
pass hours whittling and paring a stick, building a diminutive house or
wall, and tracing forms on the turf. The savage will wear away years
in carving his war club and polishing his stone adze. These conside-
rations lead me to attribute these carvings and sculpture to the laborious
idleness of a pastoral people, passing the long and weary day in tending
their flocks and herds; they amused themselves by carving and cutting
those various figures of the sun, the moon, or any animals or objects in
their neighbourhood, on the rocks near them. For, as Sir James Simp-
son remarks, man has been in all ages ‘‘a sculpturing and a painting
animal.”’
These rude outlines by primitive men, in various countries, like the
rude attempts at drawing by children, cannot but bear a family resem-
blance to one another, their utter absence of art being frequently their
chief point of relationship.
These views may seem absurd, but they have the sanction of a high
authority. Humboldt, when noticing the sculptured rocks in South
America, considers these figures, ‘‘ instead of being symbolical, rather
as the fruits of the idleness of hunting nations.”” As some would recog-
nize alphabetic characters in these carvings, he observes further (Cor-
dilleras, I., 154) :—‘‘ We cannot be too careful not to confound what
may be the effect of chance or zdle amusement with letters or syllabic
characters.’ Mr. Trutio relates, that in the southern extremity of
Africa, among the Beljuanas, he saw children busy in tracing on a rock
with some sharp instrument characters which bore the most perfect re-
semblance with the P and the M of the Roman alphabet, notwithstand-
ing which these rude tribes were perfectly ignorant of writing.
Sir James Simpson’s note, at page 107 of his work, corroborates this
view :—‘‘ Three years ago, my friend Dr. Arthur Mitchell saw the her-
ring fishermen, 7 a day of idleness, cutting circles with their knives on
the face of the rock without the operators being able to assign any reason
for their work, except that others had done it before them.”
234
Carvings occur also on the cromlechs lately discovered in the north |
of Africa, near Constantine. At first they were thought to be designs
or characters ; but a more careful examination led to the conviction that
they were lines traced by the Arab shepherds with the point of a stone
or knife.
Several of the walls of Pompeii and of the Guard-room of the Pre-
torian Cohort, on the Palatine Hill at Rome, are covered with rude
scratchings (graffiti) and writings; and at the present day the same
fashion continues on public walls and in more retired places—all pro-
ceeding from the same spirit of idleness. The love of fiddling and of
doing something in idle moments is natural to man im all ages and
climes.
Man, indeed, is the same in all climes, and is instinctively led to do
the same thing in the same way under similar circumstances in regions
widest apart. As Humboldt remarks—‘“‘ Nations of very different descent,
when in a similar uncivilized state, having the same disposition to sim-
plify and generalize outlines, and, being impelled by inherent mental
disposition, may be led to produce similar signs and symbols.”
Hence we find identical forms in the carvings and sculpturings in
countries the most remote from one another.
Identical circles, with crosses within them, are found carved on the >
cromlechs of Scandinavia, on blocks forming an interior chamber of a
tumulus at Dowth, and on the rocks near Veraguas, in America.
These rude carvings cannot be considered as ornamentation, as their
total want of symmetrical arrangement, and the absence of continuity in
their repetition, preclude this.
Some of these traced figures may, however, be like the ‘‘ bo marke’”’
of the Scandinavians, private marks of property adopted by the Scandi-
navian peasants, or like the ‘‘ totem’’ of the Red Indian, the mark of
his nation and of the individual. Carving, then, in idle moments is
as natural to the savage or rude nature of Scandinavia as to the idler
of the present day, who carves his initials or monogram on a tree or
bench.
Sir James Simpson has shown that most of these carvings belong to
the Stone age, which was synchronous with the pastoral phase of civi-
lization. Some of a ruder description may belong to an earlier age, or
the hunting phase.
XXX.—On tHe Geonocy or THE County oF ANTRIM, WITa Parts oF
THE ADJACENT Countries. By Joun Ketty, C. E., Fellow of the
Royal Geological Society.
[Read May 11 and 25, 1868.]
GEOGRAPHY AND OROGRAPHY OF DISTRICT.
Tue county of Antrim is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean,
on the east by the Irish Sea, on the south by the counties of Down
and Armagh, and on the west by Derry and Tyrone. It is 54 miles
long from Bangor Head, on the north, to the Aqueduct bridge, near
Moira, on the south; and 34 miles in its greatest breadth, from Black
Head, near Carrickfergus, to Toome Bridge. It contains, by the Ord-
nance Map, about 1190 square miles.
This county, and the eastern part of Derry, are so nearly similar in
mountains, in rocks, and in fossils, that for the physical features, the
geology, and the paleontology, they may be joined together, and
treated as one. General Portlock has, however, written on Derry, and
parts of Tyrone. JI do not mean to go into details afterhim, except
by an occasional reference where there may be suitable matter to illus-
trate the adjacent parts of the country. In the map, therefore, accom-
panying this paper, I omit the whole of the county west of the Bann
River and Lough Neagh.
This area, taken as one, is composed of two high ridges of land,
one on the east, and one on the west side of the district: both assum-
ing anorth and south direction, and with a widedepression between them,
which runs in the same direction, in which hes the valley of the Bann
River and Lough Neagh. This depression may be taken to be at the
level of the sea; for the Bann, at Coleraine on the north, and Carling- ~
ford Bay on the south, are at the sea-level ; while the bottom of Lough
Neagh, about midway between them, may also be considered to be so;
for though the surface of the Lough is 48 feet above the sea, its depth
is as much, ora little more; so that at those three points the surface of
the rock is on the same level, and the intervals between them, I
may say the bottom of the depression the whole way, not much
different.
Taking the Antrim side in itself, it forms an inclined surface, high
on the east side, near the coast, and low on the west, along the afore-
said valley.
It is a matter of some interest to compare the heights of the two
ridges on the Antrim and Derry side. For this purpose I have drawn
up the following Table from the Ordnance Survey, showing the heights
along the crests of both ridges :—
236
COMPARISON OF THE HEIGHTS oF MouNnTrAINS ON THE EAst AND West Sips
OF THE GREAT BASALTIC AREA OF ANTRIM AND DERRY.
Derry Side. | Antrim Side.
Feet. Feet.
Benyevenagh, five miles north-east Knocklayd, three miles south of
of Newtownlimavady, .. 1260 Ballycastle, .. . 1685
Keady, four miles north-east of Glenmakeeran, four miles west of
Newtownlimavady, e 1101 Cushendun, .. 1321
Donald’s Hill, six miles south-east Ksherry, four miles west of Cush-
of Newtownlimavady, .. . 1318 indall, on : 1197
Benbradagh, three miles north- east Trostan, four miles south- west of
of Dungiven, .. 1531 Cushindall, .... 1810
Carn Hill, three miles east of Dun- Nachore, 0 miles south- west of
given, ais 1479 Garron Point, 1179
White Mountain, six Piles Howse Collin, six sities set of Glenarm, 1419
west of Draperstown, ae 1773 | Slemish, eight miles south-west of
Craignashouk, five miles north- Glenarm, ast tines 1457
west of Draperstown, Blo 1586 | Agnew’s Hill, four miles west ‘of
Slieve Doan, four miles west of Larne, .. 1558
Draperstown, .. . 1733 | Divis, four miles west of Belfast, 1567
Slieve Gallion, five miles south- east
of Draperstown, .. .. .. 17380
From Divis to Knocklayd is 40 miles; so that the abovementioned
nine mountains in Antrim are, on the average, five miles asunder. On
the Derry side the distances of the mountains asunder are nearly the
same.
Such is a brief outline of the physical features of the district.
ROCKS OF ANTRIM.
The older stratified rocks of this northern district, taking the usual
succession are:—l, Quartz Rock; 2, Mica Slate; 3, Primary Lime-
stone; 4, Devonian Brown Sandstone ; the Carboniferous System, com-
prising: 6, Old Red Sandstone; 7, Mountain Limestone; and 8, the
Coal Measures, These older rocks are succeeded by the secondary sys-
tem, which consists of: 9, New Red Sandstone, with its rocksalt and
gypsum; 10, Lias; 11, Greensand ; and 12, Chalk —or, as it is usually
called—white limestone.
Of the crystalline, or erupted rocks, there are: Syenite, Green-
stone, and Trap, or Basalt. This latter is the rock which appears at
the surface in the greater part of the country. It overlies the chalk
generally, but it is sometimes seen lying on other rocks.
The occurrence of the older rocks, though in one group in the nor-
thern parts of Antrim, is very irregular, and very limited.
STRATIFIED ROCKS.
Quartz Rock.
Quartz Rock, or as it is conveniently termed, Quartzite, consists of
granular quartz, of various colours; and very hard quartzose grits are
also sometimes included in it, though it would be better to confine the
237
term to the first-mentioned rock, which occurs stratified in great
thick bands or beds, constituting the oldest stratified rock known in
Treland.
Mica SLAteE.
The district in which Mica Slate is found lies in the north-east part
of the county. It extends from Gortnagross, three miles south-west of
Cushendall on the south, to Murlogh Bay, five miles east of Bally-
castle on the north, being about ten miles; and from Cape Castle, near
Armagh, on the west, to Tor Head, on the east, about eleven miles.
Of this a portion is covered with chalk, and a part with trap and other
rocks, so that there is not perhaps above eighty square miles of Mica
Slate uncovered.
Mica Slate is of different ages. 1. In Ireland the Mica Slate of
Donegal and the north of Mayo appears to be the oldest we know.
2. That on both sides of the great granite protrusion, which breaks up
through the Silurian rocks, andreaches from Dublin, through Wicklow
and Wexford, to Brandon Hill, in Kilkenny, is of a later date. Itisa
metamorphic rock, for it is on the sides of this protrusion, micaceous
_ at the contact with the granite, and this character ceases at two miles
distant from it. 8. The slates in the lias of the Alps are converted into
Mica Slate. Here are three Mica Slates in rocks, which are of ages
widely different.
The Mica Slate of the north-east of Antrim appears to me to belong
to the first type, but its age cannot be determined here, for there is
no base visible. Donegal is the best place in which to test its age. In
that county the lowest rock visible is a syenite not stratified, which
occurs upon the north coast, at Malin Head, at Dunaff, and at Fanit.
On this syenite of Malin Head lies a band of quartz rock of great thick-
ness, and on the quartz rock reposes mica slate, three miles wide, at
Glengad Head; next comes quartz rock again, which has a general
dip south-east. It is a mile and a half wide along the shore, and ends
near Culdaff. About that village it is associated with mica slate of the
oldest type again, and also with gray limestone, coarsely crystalline, and
with greenstone protrusions, which accompany the limestone bands.
The dykes of greenstone are sometimes a yard, and sometimes from two
to four yards thick—the beds being uniform—and very persistent in
thickness for great distances. What is remarkable here is, that the
greenstone is frequently found between limestone and mica slate, or
between limestone and quartz rock, as if the vicinity of lime had some
influence in softening the adjacent mass, when all might have been in
an incandescent state. Be that as it may, the repeated limestones,
greenstone, quartz, rocks and mica slates in the vicinity of Culdaff, un-
dergo many contortions. Proceeding from this village south-east along
the shore, or on the roads, the characteristic mica slate soon ceases: it
passes into a glossy slate, and then into a clay slate, at Kinnego Bay ;
the dip becomes more persistent and regular; the limestone ceases, and
PROC. R. I. A.—VOL. X. 2K
238
also the greenstone, and in this character it continues towards Innish-
owen Head. From near Culdaff, by Kinnego, the clay slate and grit have |
a persistent dip to the south-east for three or four miles, so that the
thickness of this system must be very great. Four miles, dipping at
45°, would give about 15,000 feet. Since there are no fossils known
in this great mass of slates and grits, I take it to be the equivalent of
the Cambrian rocks, and the whole of it lies over the mica slate of Cul-
daff, and is, course, newer thanit. From this statement it may be un-
derstood that quartz rock is the oldest stratified rock known in Ireland,
and mica slate, with its associated limestone, &c., the second eldest.
The mica slate near Culdaff is characterized by containing beds of
crystalline limestone, as just stated. The case is exactly similar in the
extensive mica slate district, between Dungiven and Derry; in which
generally the dip approaching Derry is N. W., the reverse of what
it is at Culdaff, suggesting the idea that it passes in a synclinal
band under the Innishowen clay slate mountains. Another small
district of mica slate, lying to the west of the road from Garvagh to
Maghera, has many quarries of gray crystalline limestone, from which
it is raised and burned for economic use.
Mica slate, is the lowest rock on the Derry side of the basaltic area
also, but there it is vastly more extensive than in Antrim. The whole
breadth of the county to the west of Dungiven is mica slate, from the
county boundary at the top of Sawel, a mountain 2236 feet high on the
south, to Ballykelly on the north, near the shore of Lough Foyle, a dis-
tance of 15 miles. The general dip of the rock the whole way from
Sawel to Ballykelly is to the north, at angles varying from 25° to 45°.
Unless there may be parallel faults in an east and west direction through
the country, by which the same groups of strata might be counted over
and over, the thickness of the mica slate on this, which is nearly a
meridian line, is very great; for 15 miles, with an average dip of 35°,
would give it a thickness of 45,460 feet. Ofthe mica slate of the
Knocklayd district, upwards of two-thirds of it belongs to the talcose
variety, the other one-third to the common, or that which contains a
large proportion of quartz, and a small amount of mica. The cliffs of
Cushleak, on the coast between Glendun and Murlogh bay, present
mica slate, containing subordinate beds of primary limestone, with veins
or dykes of syenite, and of felspar porphyry. Several veins of reddish
brown felspar trap are found also on this coast, and are seen inland on
the old road from Cushendun to Ballycastle. The limestone at Tor
point is about 50 feet thick; in colour it varies from gray to reddish
gray, and greenish gray. The texture passes from compact to granu-
lar. Itis intersected by thin veins of calcareous spar. Hornblende
slate is found in the valley of Glendun, and also in many places along
the coast, in the mica slate. Granite was found by Sir Richard Griffith
on the coast at Castle Park, half a mile north-east of Cushendun, and
at Ardsillagh on the mountain side higher up. I shall make allusion
to this granite in another part of this paper.
239
In the north-east of Antrim in the Barony of Cary, the geologist
travelling from Cushendun to Ballycastle will go over a flat-topped
platform of mica slate, of our oldest type 750 feet high, extending from
Knocklayd, on the west, to Tor Point on the east, about 6 miles. On
this mica slate platform rest three roundish districts of chalk, and trap
in Knocklayd, in Ballypatrick, and in Carnlea, near the east coast.
Between these two, little im space, but great in time, there are
missing many whole formations, as they occur in succession in other
parts of the globe. If the mica slate itself be not Cambrian, the
Cambrian is absent, so is the Silurian, and the carboniferous, with most of
the secondary rocks, as I have already stated.
Brown Devonian Grit.
This rock occupies a small district extending along the shore be-
tween Cushendall and Cushendun. It is three miles Jong in this
direction, and reaches inland from the shore about a mile and a halfin
the widest part, through the top of Cross Slieve Mountain.
The age of Sandstones is very difficult to be determined, because in
general there are no fossils in them, and they occur in formations of
every age.
This brown grit, between Cushendall and Cushendun, has been
ealled Old Red Sandstone by every one who wrote aboutit. Among
those were Mr. Bryce, Mr. Mac Adam Sir Richard Griffith, and others.
A brown hard grit, exactly similar in appearance, occurs between
Pomeroy, in the county of Tyrone, and Lisbellaw, mm Fermanagh ;
also a rock exactly similar in lithological character, in the Cur-
lew Mountains in Roscommon and Mayo; in Galway, in the vicinity
of Killery Harbour; at Mourne; at Kilbride, near Lough Mask; and
in the Dingle peninsula in Kerry. In all these places it is conform-
able to, and associated with, bands of rock, teeming with Silurian fos-
sils; and though no fossils have been found in it in this locality, nor,
indeed, in this purple grit, anywhere that I know of, it is, neverthe-
less, 1 am convinced, an undoubted transition grit.
It has even been stated that the part of this rock, in a band a fur-
long wide along the shore, is New Red Sandstone, because it contains
rounded pebbles, which give it a conglomeratic character, and that the
bottom beds of the new red sandstone in Red Bay are composed of a
rough strong conglomerate; but conglomerates are common to sand-
stones and grits of every age. Some of the most magnificent conglo-
merates in Ireland are at Lisbellaw and at Lisnarrick, in Fermanagh,
and at Blackwater Bridge, near Killery Harbour, in Galway, and these
are all in Silurian rocks. The lower beds of the Old Red Sandstone
exhibit a conglomerate everywhere it occurs. Conglomerates are no
proof of the age ofarock. Besides this, the conglomeratic character
near Cushendun is not confined to the coast. It is in the hills of Bal-
lybrack, a mile north-west of Cushendall, which seems to be all com-
posed of it. Itis seen in the bye-roads about that hill plentifully.
Hyen in the stream at Cloghs are seen in the brown grit many pebbles.
240
of brown quartz, nine inches in diameter, within the distance of a
small field of the mica slate. In every formation of rocks there are some -
groups of beds, which differ in lithological character from others. To
the east of Cross Slhieve, about half a mile inland, there is a band of
thin brown flaggy beds, and in these pebbles are extremely scarce, in
some beds none at all. The strike of the rock here is nearly parallel to
the shore, and so is this band, which may be about a furlong in thick-
ness. Pebbles of brown quartz prevail in the thick beds along the
shore, which is probably the fact that suggested the idea to Mr. Bryce
and Mr. MacAdam, that this shore-band is New Red Sandstone; but
if pebbles be large and numerous near the shore, so they are towards
the western margin, on the opposite side of the district, as I have just
stated.
An east and west section through this district, in the widest part,
measures 454 perches through the townlands of Carnasheeran and Magh-
eryroy; the dip near the shore is 40° south-east; towards the western
margin it is 30° in the same direction; say it averages 35°; with these
data the thickness of the rock on land is obtained, which is 43,000
feet; besides this, the beds on the east dive into the sea, and there
the additional thickness is unknown; it may be as much more.
Tue CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.
In Ireland the Carboniferous rocks may be divided into three sub-
divisions :—
1. Old Red Sandsone.
2. Mountain Limestone, or Carboniferous Limestone.
3. The Coal series.
The Old Red Sandstone.
There is but little Old Red Sandstone in the county of Antrim—
only a thin band lying on mica slate about a mile south-east of Carey
Mill. Here the two systems are uncontormable, as they are everywhere
else that I know,
I have given elsewhere,* in a tabular form, the junctions of the older
rocks with Old Red Sandstone, together with the dips and directions of
both, at seventy-eight localities, in twenty-seven of the counties of Ire-
land; and shown that in this number not one case occurred of Old Red
Sandstone being conformable with the underlying rock. In the same
paper I gave the average thickness of the Old Red, taken from sixteen
of the clearest sections I know, as 840 feet: four of the best gave an
average of 1018 feet; in short, about 1000 feet may be considered as
the average thickness of the Old Red Sandstone in Ireland.
In that paper I further endeavoured to show that, after the great
disturbing forces, which rolled the earliest stratified rocks into un-
dulations, followed by a powerful denuding agency, that broke up
* “ Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin,” vol. vii., p.115.
24]
and carried away the tops of many of the anticlinal convolutions
formed in them, and left the beds thrown up on their edges, as we
now find them, the conglomerate, or lower band of the Old Red Sand-
stone was the first—the foundation layer of the succeeding geological
age. This layer was laid down upon the edges of the older rocks as
they happened to present themselves, whether slate, grit, quartz, lime-
stone, or any other rock. In Ireland it rests on thirteen varieties of
older rocks; it lies on mica slate at nineteen places where the junctions
are exposed ; on gray slate in twenty-seven, and soon. This conglo-
merate of the Old Red Sandstone is a most important index in geology.
It is the boundary between two distinct periods of organic life.
Carboniferous, or Mountain Limestone.
Of the Mountain limestone there is also not much: there are two
beds of limestone about five feet thick, on the shore of Tornaroan one
and a half mile east of Ballycastle, visible at one place a little above
high-water. The strata have all an eastward dip at this place, and as
the limestone on the west side rises into the face of the cliff, and on
the east dips under sea level, there is but a small part easily accessible
for examination. This limestone has coal measures over it, and coal-
measures under it, and so far, it has a likeness to the colliery at Burdie
House near Edinburgh, in which the limestone has coal above it, and
coal below it in a similar way.
This Antrim coal district appears to be a prolongation of the coal
field of the Forth and Clyde valley, in Scotland, They are in the
same strike and position with regard to the older adjacent rocks; and
as no one can doubt that the whole of the carboniferous formation of
the British Islands was deposited at the same period, it is likely that
at Antrim and Glasgow, two places not very far distant, there would
be a typical likeness in the rocks which compose them both, as to litho-
logical character and succession. ‘The valley of the Forth and Clyde,
which is in the carboniferous rocks, may be prolonged on the map of
Great Britainand Ireland. It passes through Ballycastle, across Lough
Neagh, by Dungannon, Caledon, and Clogher to the Connaught coal
district about Lough Allen. ‘This shows that the limestone at Bally-
castle, as well as the coal rocks there, forms a part of the great band -
stretching between the Frith of Forth and the Connaught coal district.
Besides this, a small bag of fossils, got at Ballycastle in the limestone,
and examined by Mr. M‘Coy at Dublin, were all carboniferous, as the
following list shows :—
Cycloceras annularis (Flem.), . . Producta fimbriata.
Bellerophon reticulatus (Coy), . Athyris decussata.
Euphemus Uri (Pail.), . . . . Astrea pentagona.
Pecten flabillulum (/‘Coy), . . Fenestella carinata.
Producta Edelburgensis (Piuvi.),
242
The Coal Measures.
This series occurs on the north-eastern shore of the county ; from.
Ballycastle to Murlogh Bay it is somewhat above four miles long, and
its average breadth from the shore southward is a mile and a half. It
contains about 4300 acres.
The different groups of the coal measures of this district are vari-
able, and unlike each other in different places. The same may be con-
veniently divided into three subdivisions. The first lies along the sea
shore from Ballycastle to Carrickmore dyke; the second from Carrick-
more dyke, by Fair Head, to Murlogh Bay; the third the southern
border of the district, in the vicinity of Carey river.
At Ballycastle the coal measures are best seen in the magnificent
cliff, which stretches from near the town at Bath Lodge, eastward,
along the shore to Carrickmore dyke, about two miles.
This cliff ranges from 200 to 300 feet high, and exposes a fine
section of the Coal rocks, the whole way, about three-fourths of the
volume of which is white or yellowish sandstone. The cliff along the
shore is divided into parts by whin dykes, or sometimes clay dykes,
which, as a general rule, have a direction to the north, and cut the sand-
stone rocks vertically, separating the cliff into blocks, each of which is
heaved up, or thrown down from the adjacent blocks, at the dyke or
joint. All the beds have a general dip south-east, varying from 5° to
10° and sometimes more; and the outcrops of 200 to 300 feet thick of
them are visible, and among the rest the Coal, a bed four feet thick
here, accompanied by about twenty feet thick of black shale and other
soft rocks which underlie it. This black band appears as a conspicu-
ous object in the cliff, in some of the divisions high up near the top, in
some towards the middle, and in some low down. ‘The blocks or
divisions made by the dykes are each a separate colliery, the mode of
working in which was regulated by the height of the out crop of the
coal in the cliff, for when the coal was high up, the usual way was to
sink pits at the top, a little inland, which soon came upon the desired
treasure. When the coal was low down, levels or adits were driven
horizontally into the face of the cliff, a little above high-water, by which
the coal was soonest reached. In this manner, where the out crop of
the coal was high or low, pits above or levels below were the main
features of the principle by which the working of the several collieries
was regulated.
Writing in 1784, Dr. Robinson says, ‘about twelve years ago
(1772) the workmen, in pushing forward a new adit towards the coal,
unexpectedly broke through the rock into a cavern. The hole which
they opened was not very large, and two young lads were made to
creep in, with candles, to explore this new region. ‘They accordingly
went forward, and entered an extensive labyrinth branching off into
numerous apartments, in the mazes and windings of which they were
at last completely lost. After various vain attempts to return, their
lights were extingnished, and they sat down together in utter despair
—
243
of an escape from this dreary dungeon. In the mean time the people
without in the drift level were alarmed for their safety, fresh hands
were employed, a passage was at last made for the workmen, and the
two unfortunate adventurers extricated after a whole night’s imprison-
ment.”
“On examining this subterranean wonder, it was found to be a com-
plete gallery, which had been driven forward many hundred yards to
the bed of coal; that it branched off into various chambers when the
miners had pushed on their different works; that pillars were left at
proper intervals to support the roof; in short was found to be an ex-
tensive mine, wrought by a set of people at least as expert in the
business as the present generation. Some remains of the tools, and
even the baskets used in the works, were discovered, butin such a state
that on being touched they immediately fell to powder.”
The antiquity of this work is pretty evident from hence, that there
does not remain the most remote tradition of it in the country ; but it
is still more strongly demonstrable from a natural process which has
taken place since its formation, for stalactite pillars had been formed
reaching from the roof of the cavern to the floor, and the sides and sup-
ports were found covered with sparry incrustations, which the present
workmen do not observe to be deposited in any definite portion of
time.
“The people of this place attributed these works to the Danes; but
a very slight consideration of the matter must satisfy any one that this
opinion is ill-founded. The Danes were never peaceable possessors of
Treland, but always engaged in bloody wars with the natives, in which
they were alternately victors and vanquished.”
“Upon the whole, during the dreary interval of a thousand years
from the eighth to the eighteenth century, it is in vain to look for the
laboured works of industry and peace, in a kingdom where war was
the only trade, and where all property turned on the edge of the sword.”
This one four-foot bed of coal is supposed to be worked out now
along the coast. No works have been carried on for years, and it
would not perhaps be worth the trouble of entering into much detail in
describing it, were it not that the peculiarity of structure, occasioned
by the whin dykes, gives it a geological interest worth considering, Such
an amount of rock in any colliery is rarely laid open to view.
The following Table shows the names of the several collieries, begin-
ning at Bath Lodge, and proceeding eastward.
The first column shows the number of the colliery ; the second is
the name; the third is the average height of the outcrop of
the coal above sea level; the fourth column shows how much
~ the outcrop is thrown up or down from what it is in the adjacent
colliery, or block, to the west of it. It is thought advisable to
mark this at the west side of every colliery, so that in proceeding
eastward the reference may be more easy; the fifth is the dip of
244
the coal bed, as it appears in the face of the cliff; the sixth co-
lumn shows the distance in adits or pits, from the entrance to the
coal bed.
Sea| Be zs
a S 5 E = P g ‘oO
s Bea | baa Bg 5 hed by Adi
q = abt ee Coa] was reached by Adit, or
2 ame SS 2 a5 E ; oe # 25 by Pit, and distance to it.
z esa) ese jn rae
Bo eSlorae SES
< 5 a
Feet. Feet
Near Bath Lodge, 5
f pits, worked from 1749
to 1760; 45 yards to
? ° yi
1 | Saltpans, : W. 10 coal, Wwhichiwas, G/o
| | 9 feet thick, under sea
| level.
| 2 | White mine, 165 ? W. 10° Adit 26 yards to coal.
3 | Falbane, 180 | Down 10 W. 10° eae a fet SOE
f 2 .
ae W. 10° Adit 256 yards in;
| 4 | North Star,..| — | Anticlinal E. 12° { working in 1787.
5 | Westmine,..! 100 | Up 20 E. 10° ind ee
ip mis Old Adit 600 yards in.
6 | Lackglass, ../ 200 | Up 165 E. .20 (Adit 180 yards in;
= - Upper Muck Pit, 20
7 | Goldnumuck, | 170 Up 5 E. 20 { yards; Lower Muck
| | Pit, 50 yards.
te aie Adit 546 yards in; to
8 | Pollard, 265 | Up 155 E. 20 { the coal pit 473 yards.
9 | Griffin, 152 | Down 10 Oe Adit, 700 yards to coal.
es 205
10 | Gobb, 180 | Up 110 | Sypetoa Adit, 400 yards in.
lw. a
11 | Portnagree, 200 | Down 90
Table of the Strata, at Gobb Mine, from the top downwards.
1. Trap imperfectly columnar
2. Shale, .
8. Yellowish white sandstone
5) .
2
Black shale, with thin seams of coal,
. Hard gray, and yellowish white. sandstone,
be
o
6. Main bed of coal,
7. Shale with thin beds of f fireclay,
8. Impure coal,
9. Black shale, .
Carreed forward, . . 231
ft.
CO
—
Sy] SV Sen) SS) oy eae?
joo)
ft. Mink
Brought forward, . . 281 0
PTADLC USAT SLONC' 1 4 chu ee heie teks tease os a le) BBO
Mie cncand plack: Shale mnie time iat es cele ay, VO
MPEG ESAMOSLONC, ok varyrci des ibe) eke ae ow ee BORO
Pemmumayecamdstone Slate, oh mint fen eh oe fie Me QT O
14, Black shale, . . . ei ae heey BO nO
15. Yellowish white pandstone, Rt eae ita een ea rton re ft) Otc O
Poeiccllowish oray limestone, 23.05.) 2/6 Po Oe 88
17.. Coal, ME i en eg aw alee Per uke ey eee aay Bee G
18. White seyngleisanas MLE it ee eM Ltt OT O
19. Bluish gray sandy slate, 3 0
3730 6
In this section, the quantity of shale altogether is 60 feet, the sand-
stone 1s 248 feet ; the sandstone thus constituting nearly four-fifths of
the volume of the cliff.
T shall offer a few observations on these collieries separately.
1. The Salt Pans Collvery.—Here the rocks as they appear in the
low cliff at Bath Lodge, have a dip of about 10° to the south-west.
_ The coal was got at forty-five yards deep. Four pits were sunk near the
shore, somewhat above high water mark, from time to time between
1749 and 1760. ‘The bed was irregular in thickness, having been from
six to nine feet. As the first of these pits was forty-five yards deep, and
above sea-level, it may be said the coal bed was, on an average, about
forty yards below sea-level.
About forty yards from Bath Lodge, and at the foot of the cliff im-
mediately opposite the hall-door, a second bed of coal was discovered
this year, by Mr. John Dunsmore, in this colliery. The bed is two
feet four inches thick, and its outcrop about thirty feet above the sea.
These three circumstances—that is, the downthrow of the main
coal, the thickness of the bed that was worked, and the upper bed of
coal lately discovered —all go to show that this colliery is different from
all the others, in which there is but one bed of coal, four feet thick, all
above the level of the sea, as far as Carrickmore dyke. This colliery,
therefore, must belong to a part of the coal measures, either higher or
lower in the series than the other collieries, and must have been re-
moved from its original position with respect to the others by dislo-
cation. The last bed discovered lies from the cliff southward, and
appears to be still available for working, over the extent of this col-
liery.
Nos. 2, 8. The White Mine, and Falbane.—In these the beds of
rock, us well as the coal bed, all have a gentle dip westward in the face
of the cliff,
4. The North Star Colliery.—In this the rocks have an anticlinal
position, the whole group of beds rising in the middle like a flat arch,
so that the outcrop of the coal in the middle appears to rise over the top
of the cliff, and to have been carried away there by denudation. From
R. I, A. PROC,—VOL. X. 21
246
the southern dip of the rocks it could perhaps be traced a little inland -
from the top of the precipice. The bed of limestone, which is 148 feet
below the coal, rises sufficiently high to be visible in the face of the ©
cliff all the way in this division. From the anticlinal position all the
rocks at the west side of this colliery dip west, and all those at the east
dip east. The dip in both is about 10°.
Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, are all much alike. The rocks have a general dip
eastward. The coal crops out in the cliff in all, but at different heights,
as stated in the table.
No. 10. Gobb Mine.—In this the rocks assume a synclinal position,
and in the hollow formed by this downward curve flowed the trap which
caps the summit, and is fifty-one feet high there. The precipice pre-
sents no appearance of a fissure, through which this trap might have
been erupted. The mass of trap probably flowed southward in the syn-
clinal hollow before mentioned from the source, which might have been
a crater lying to the north.
11. The Portnagree Dwision has a western dip in its beds. The
whole block stands at a lower level than the Gobb colliery, and either
it slipped down, or the Gobb was upheaved.
There are in the cliff here seven whin dykes, and five clay dykes
separating those collieries. Some clay dykes are one, two, or three feet
thick.
It is probable that the whin dykes and the clay dykes are of two
different periods as to age. The whin dykes first, when the subterra-
nean gases and other matter were in an expanding condition; the clay
dykes afterwards, when the whole mass was cooling, and blocks
slipping down from their equivalents, along fissures made in the rock
from cooling by contraction.
The etfect produced by those dykes upon the Ballycastle collieries,
that of dividing the rocks of the coast into distinct blocks or divisions,
is to be seen in other places. A similar disposition of such blocks, se-
parated by dykes and slips, occurs on the shore on the south side of
Belfast Lough at Cultra, five miles from Belfast. Here there are seven
or eight dykes, running nearly parallel to each other, and at right angles
to the shore, which separate the Permian rocks of that place into divi-
sions. Those divisions of the Permian and coal rocks are thrown up
and down, exactly similar to those at Ballycastle. Here, however,
there is no high cliff in which the amount of the dislocation can be mea-
sured. The tops of all the blocks are under highwater mark, and nearly
level; but the variety of colour in the yellow and red sandstone, and
the yellow, red, and gray limestone of the Permian rocks, and nearly
black coal shales, which occur near them, show that different zones
of the group come into juxta-position at the surface, and that the
blocks at this place between the whin dykes have been thrown up
and down from their original position, like those at the collieries at
Ballycastle.
The northern shore of Antrim, from Ballycastle westward by the
Giant’s Causeway to the Bann, presents similar phenomena. It has
247
been broken up into great blocks, some of which are heaved up, and
some let down, in the same way as at the Ballycastle colliery. In this
part of the coast these changes are recognisable by the white limestone
band and the lias, the positions of which are well known, and which
show as guides in this part of the inquiry.
The Carrickmore dyke, at the Ballycastle collieries, is a feature,
which, though not a very prominent one, points to great physical
changes in the Antrim coal district. All the strata to the west of it,
towards Ballycastle, appear to belong to a different zone of the coal
measures from those on the east, towards Murlogh Bay: and which of
the two is the lowest and oldest is a matter not easy to decide here,
because the carboniferous limestone, and the old red sandstone, the
rocks which always accompany the coal measures, are not visible, and
there is no other sure guide as to succession in this district. All the
sandstone of the collieries already described to the west of the dyke is
white, or yellowish white. The sandstone to the east ofit isred. This
red sandstone continues towards Fair Head, and is there covered by the
greenstone of that fine headland. Here, however, the continuity is in-
terrupted by the talus of debris which covers the slope from the bottom
of the perpendicular greenstone cliff down to the sea. The next rock
which appears to the east of Fair Head, under the greenstone, is black
shale, with thin beds of non-flaming coal. J arther south is a down-
throw of the coal strata, to the south, as may be seen in Pl. XX VI.
In the following Table the succession of strata, exhibited in the face
of the cliff, is taken in a line, sloping to the southward, but the com-
puted thickness of each stratum, is given at right angles to the dip.*
Table of the Suecession of the Coal Measures at Murlogh Bay, com-
mencing at the top of the cluff:
ff. in.
1. Columnar greenstone, upper range at Fair Head, sy LOO?
2. Brownish red sandstone, . : i : : Snel) ae)
5. Bituminous coal, : : ; ; : : 1 0
4. Red sandstone, . j : : : A : 80:00
5. Black shale, : ; : : 6 0
6. Coal, highly bituminous (White mine), : 2 6
Tf Brownish red sandstone, . : ; er Oo)
8. Coal, highly re cneee oe : : : : 0 6
9. Red sandstone, . : A ; : : : 0 0
10. Black shale, : ‘ 0 0
Carried forward, . 250 0
* This Table, as well as that at p. 244, is copied from Sir R. Griffith’s Report of the
Antrim Coal District. I accompanied him on that survey in 1817, assisted in the mea-
surements of parts of it, and made the drawings that illustrate the Report.
248
ft... am.
Brought forward, . 250 0
11. Coal, bituminous (Goodman’s vein), . : 2. 6
12. Black shale, : : : : > 1600* 50
13. Coal, carbonaceous, uninflammable, ay ey z 2 6
14, Black shale, passing into flinty slate, . . . . 2 0
15. Trap, second columnar range, . ; ; a) H0-..0
16. Black shale, : 240
17. Coal, non- Alaming, alternating with thin beds of black
shale, . 8.4.6
18, Black shale, thickness unknown, the face of cliff being
covered by a talus of fragments ox rock of various
kinds, say, . ; : ‘ : : , tO. 10
437 6
In this part is red sandstone, black shale, and both bituminous and
non-flaming coal. To sum up, yellow or white sandstone is the pre-
vailing rock in the Ballycastle cliffs, with bituminous coal. At Mur-
logh Bay, black shale and red sandstone prevail, with thin beds of
both bituminous and non-flaming coal. Itis evident, on comparison,
that the coal measures at the two localities are not equivalents. From
the black shale, the red sandstone, and the non-flaming coal to the
east of Fair Head, it appears to me that the eastern part of the district
about Fair Head is the lower zone of the two I have been comparing,
and that the part west of the Carrickmore dyke belongs to a higher
portion of the group, which has been thrown down at this place, by a
fault, some hundreds of feet in depth.
There are other proofs that the strata westward from Ballycastle
have been thrown down from the position they occupied in the geolo-
gical succession. In Murlogh Bay is to be seen near the mica slate
' on the shore, a conglomerate, very similar to that of the Devonian
brown grit at Cushendun, and which I believe to be its equivalent. In
Ireland, black shale is the prevailing rock at the bottom of the coal
measures everywhere. In Murlogh Bay, as usual, it prevails below. The
rock over it is red sandstone of the coal-measures, which is also of com-
mon occurrence in the coal measures of Scotland. Over all these coal-
measures, in Murlogh Bay is seen new red sandstone and chalk, at 800
feet high in the cliff, and in part covered by the greenstone of Fair-
Head (Pl. XXVI.). The group of collieries to the west of Carrickmore
dyke appears to have been thrown down from the Fair Head coal-mea-
sures; and the western head of this dyke corroborates this view. The Salt
Pans colliery, from its coal being different from the rest in the number
and thickness of the beds, but above all from the hade of the clay dyke
which forms its eastern boundary, appears to be thrown down still far-
ther ; and last of all, the chalk, the unmistakeable index of the country,
on the shore at Ballycastle at, and in parts under sea level, is 800 feet
lower than it is, where it lies over the coal measures at Murlogh Bay.
All these circumstances hold out more than a probability that the coal
249
measures at Murlogh Bay are lower in the sequence than those next
to Ballycastle.
The Carey sub-division of this coal-field is separated from the shore
collieries on the north, by the high ground, or watershed between the
shore and the Carey River, and on the south it is bounded by the mica
slate of the Ballypatrick mountains. It is between three and four
miles from Glenshesk eastward, and a mile from north to south, hav-
ing the Carey River running westward through the valley a good part
of the way.
The country adjacent to the shore is nearly all covered with a sandy
drift, from six to ten yards in thickness. The stones in the drift are
white limestone, trap, coal shales and sandstones, and asmall proportion
of mica slate. There is but very little rock visiblein it. The junction
of mica slate with the carboniferous system is visible on the south side
of it, in the Glenmakeeran stream, at the east boundary of the townland
of Ballynagard, a mile and a quarter S. HE. of Carey Mill. White sand-
stone, black shale, and red sandstone, are seen at this place with a dip
of 30° N. lying unconformably on mica slate. Here there is alsoa
whin dyke; another at the bridge near Carey Mill, and a hummock of
trap, apparently a part of the same mass fifty perches east of the mill.
The miners say that these three protrusions of frap are in a continua-
tion of the dyke, called the Great Gau, which is ten yards wide near
Bath Lodge on the shore; but this may be doubted. Whin dykes are
plenty hereabouts, and to say that one rock of trap is a part of another
seen a mile off, and none to be seen between them, is too great a dis-
tance, in a country where there are often half a dozen of them in a
mile.
From there being no rocks visible, no account can be given of them
from personal observation. ‘The best that can be done is to record the
borings made in this valley by Mr. Brough, an experienced mining
engineer in 1817; and to give the result of some trials of a similar
_kind made by Mr. John Dunsmore, an experienced miner sent there by
the Lord Chancellor, in whose care the estate is vested at present. Mr.
Dunsmore kindly allowed me to copy his notes.
_ Mr. Brough made several borings in the Carey valley in search of
coal. Ofthese Sir Richard Griffith, in his Report of the Antrim Coal
District, gives us the details of four trials, which he got from Mr.
MacNeill, who was manager of the colliery at that time; but although
he prints the results of these trials, he gives no map to show the posi-
tions of them on the ground, nor any other means by which those posi-
- tions can be accurately determined. It is, therefore, necessary for the
benefit of persons that may be concerned in the mines hereafter, to have
this part of his Report revised. To show the necessity of this, in page
75 of the Report, the boring No. 4, in Drimadoon, is said to be three-
quarters of a mile south-east of No. 3, in Barnish, and immediately
north of the road. Jascertained the spot where Mr, Brough’s trial in
Barnish had been made, and I found that the nearest part of Drimadoon
on the road side to the site of the boring on Barnish isa mile and a quar-
290)
ter. Here is an error of half a mile—no small affair when a man is
looking for an old coal pit. Again, in the table at p. 72, the boring
No. 4 is shown to be 36 yards in depth; in the explanation of the same,
at p. 75, he says, ‘“‘ It was only sunk to the depth of eighteen yards.”
Such work tells its own story.
I travelled over the ground, and from the rough and inaccurate
account before me, make the following attempt to revise the posi-
tions of the trials, so that a future explorer may be better able to
find them.
ft take Carey Mill as a well known object in the valley, and from
this I measure, on the Ordnance Map of Antrim, Sheet 9, the distance
to the site of a boring in perches, ina straight line. Thus, the boring
No. 3, in Barnish, is 207 perches south-east of the mill, in the southern
corner of the townland. The four trials then stand thus :—
1. The first isin the townland of Drumahitt, eight perches from
Glenshesk River; 120 perches southward from the bridge on the nor-
thern boundary of the townland, and this point is 99 perches south-west
of Carey Mill.
2. The second was made in the townland of Eglish, close to the
river. There is no townland called Eglish on the map. I believe this
Eglish is Ballinaglogh—the townland on which the church is built.
Eglish, an Irish word, means ‘‘ The Church.” The place would be
80 perches west of the mill, on the north bank of the river, and close
to it. There is an Eglish to the south, in the mica slate country, but
cannot be the one meant. .
3. The third trial was made in Barnish, on the north bank of
the river, and is 207 perches from the mill, in a direction a little
to the south of east, near the south-east corner of the townland.
4, The fourth is in Drimadoon, as stated, close to the road, on the
north side of it. I take the spot to be at the western house, on the
townland of those lying close to, and northof the old road from Ballycastle
to Cushendall. This spot lies due east from Carey Mill, and 584 perches
distant from it. It is 24 perches south-east of the bridge on the northern
boundary of the townland.
By this plan of proceeding a mining engineer may lay down on the
Ordnance Map of Antrim, the lines as I point them out, and ascertain
the positions of the trials as I found them.
Of the four trials just mentioned I have full confidence in the posi-
tion of No. 3,. in the south-east corner of Barnish townland, because it
was pointed out to me by Mr. Dunsmore as well known. Of No. 2, I
am also pretty sure. In Nos. 1 and 4, I have less confidence, for the
data given in the Report before alluded to are both vague and inaccu-
rate. I have selected for these numbers spots where trials were most
likely to have been made. ern
The boring marked No. 6, on Brackney, see Map, Pl. X XIIL., 1s one
of Mr. Brough’s trials. There is no record of what was done at that place,
only the one, that it was not successful.
201
I now proceed to give in detail the rocks passed through in the
trials made by Mr. Brough, so far as they are known.
No. 1.—Journal of Boring at Drumahitt, 1816.
This place, on the Ordnance Map is 99 perches West of Carey Mill, 8
perches to the east of Glenshesk River, and 120 perches southward
from a little bridge on the northern boundary of the townland.
its Buel
1. Surface soil, 1 0
2. Drift, containing coal, white limestone, and whin tum-
blers, : : ; ; ‘ : ral eG
3. Dark blue indurated clay, 5 3 A , ‘ Pay nl Ole 0.
4. Coal, splint, . , : : : 0 1
oF Dark gray shale, : ; - Fj i : 10 4
6. Strong dark grey freestone, : 2 6
7. Black bituminous shale, with three thin layers of coal, 3 0
8. Dark gray shale, with thin beds of dark freestone, a NB 3G
9. Gray shale, nearly the same as last, but less freestone, . 16 8
10. Black shale, very soft, with coal smeet through it, ; 4 0
11. Bluish gray sandstone, with partings of brown shale, . 14 5
88 0
No. 2.—Boring in Search of Coal in Eglish, 80 perches east of Carey
Mill, close to the River on the North Side, October, 1816.
jean Toa
1. Gray freestone, . 5 0
2. Dark shale, seca
3. Gray freestone, Shoe)
4. Dark gray shale, 1 5
5. Gray freestone, . i 46
6. Dark gray shale, 1 8
7. Gray firestone, Talal
8. Gray shale, 2 11
9. Black slate, 3 6
10. Coal, 1 56
11. Dark eray shale, 14 0
12. Black slate, 6 3
13. Dark gray shale, 6 0
14. Coal, é : 0 7
15. Dark gray shale, bE
16. Gray freestone, . 1 3
17. Dark gray shale,. 19 6
18. Gray freestone, . 0 4
Carried forward, 74 0
© Oar ma Ow & Yr
. Dark gray shale,
. Coal,
. Dark shale parting,
2. Coal soft,
. Dark gray shale,
. Black shale,
. Blue shale,
. Coal,
. Fire clay,
252
Brought forward, . 74 O
Wr rewOOG Os
95 0
. 8.—Trial in Search of Coal at Barnish, 207 perches east of Carey
Mill on the North Side of the River, and close to it, 1816.
. Sand and gravel,
. Brown strong clay,
. Blue stone, very fine grit, with good casts of plants,
. Bluish gray shale, with thin bands of post,
. Bluish gray freestone, with soft shale partings,
. Dark gray shale,
. Strong white freestone,
. Bluish gray shale, with thin layers of post,
. Strong bluish gray freestone,
. Gray shale, with hard layers,
. Bluish gray freestone,
. Dark gray shale,
. Strong bluish gray post,
. Gray freestone, dark,
. Bluish gray freestone,
. Black shale,
. Gray shale,
. Strong gray freestone,
. Dark gray shale,
. Gray freestone,
. Gray shale,
. Black shale,
. Gray shale,
. Gray freestone, .
. Gray shale,
. Black shale, mixed with coal,
. Dark gray shale, ;
. Black shale, mixed with coal,
. Dark gray shale,
. Strong gray freestone,
ft.
48
be
B
ear —
MERON ATOM WAOHREHPHOAAWOADTHWHOADWDMA WRC!
rs
Carried forward, . 118 11
209
Brought forward, . sess
31. Gray shale, : 4 A
32. Dark gray shale,
33. Very dark shale,
34. Bluish gray shale,
39. Coal, - .
36. Pavement (Coal seat ? ironstone),
07. Blue shale, : :
38. Gray shale,
39. Dark brown shale,
40. Strong gray freestone,
41. Dark brown shale,
42. Gray shale,
43. Dark gray shale,
44, Light gray shale,
45. Dark red shale,
46. White shale,
47. Dark gray shale, ,
48. Light gray shale, with white spar of lime,
49. Dark red shale, ,
50. Light gray shale, ;
51. Light blue shale, mixed with spar,
52. Dark gray freestone, : :
53. Very strong, light brown limestone,
54. Marl, dark parting, ;
55. Bluish gray limestone,
—
«J —
—
—"
bs
Hr ON MH NXHOCONRONWOWN= OO & oO
_—
SOW OQHQarKFCONnNAndsOHMOANAD
Total passed through, 213 10
No. 4.—Boring in Search of Coal in the Lands of Drimadoon,
January 11th, 1817.
. ft. in
1. Strong clay, . 5 : ; 5 : oe uGr 3
2. Gray freestone, A ; és ; 3 . 2 0
3. Dark gray shale, : 5 ; : - 16 0
4, Gray shale, ‘ ; P : : ‘ 6 0
5. Gray shale, , ; , 3 : : 1 6
6. Coal, very good, Se ie ‘ : : : ; 0 10
7. Dark gray shale, : : : : . » loins
8. Black shale, 5 : 4 ; ; : ; 3 0 10
9. Dark gray shale, : : : : : j ; &
10. Coal, soft, 5 ‘ : ; i : : : 0 11
11. Fireclay (pavement), : : : , : 3 5
12. Light gray shale, : : : ! 5 0
Carried forward, . q 68 5
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 2m
204
ft. in
Carried forward, 68 5
13. Light gray freestone, . 1 10
14. Dark gray shale, L216
15. Light gray shale, 5 8
16. Black shale, 0 10
17. Dark gray shale, 4 11
18. Light gray shale, 2 0
19. Gray freestone, 1 4
20. Light gray shale, : . : : : : dy
ile Blue shale, : ; : : Re tice Org
22. Blue slate, bituminous, 4 7
23. Dark blue shale, 1 10
24. Dark gray shale, 2 11
25. Brownish gray shale, 2 0
26. Light gray freestone, . bod
27. Dark gray shale, 2 6
28. Light gray freestone, . 2-2
108 3
The Carey Mill division of the coal is now the only unknown part,
and the object of giving those borings is to afford all the information to
be had to miners who may be inclined to make further trialsinit. Mr.
Dunsmore’s borings having never been published, and the positions de-
termined, I consider them worthy of printing.
The following is the detail of his trials in the Carey valley. They
have as yet only been made in the lands of Brackney, which is situated
a mile and a half south-east of Ballycastle. Pl. XXIII. is a map of
this and the adjoining townland of Drumahitt, and is a copy on the
same scale (six inches to the mile) from that on the Ordnance Map
of Antrim, Sheet 9. Having ascertained the exact position of Mr.
Dunsmore’s borings on the townland of Brackney, a mile south-east of
Ballycastle, I marked and numbered them on a copy of the Ordnance Map
of Antrim, Sheet 9, from which the map on Pl. XXIII. is copied. The
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 on the map correspond with the numbers at the
head of the several borings which are given in the text, showing the
nature of the rock bored through at each place. It will be observed,
that in the last item but one of No. 1, he met coal, burned, 4 ft. 6 in.
This bed may be near a whin dyke, and reduced to cinders, like many
others in the same collieries, and might become a valuable bed a few
yards off; but from not meeting it in the borings, Nos. 2, 3, 4, it ap-
pears not to be extensive.
No. 1.—Boring on the Townland of Brackney, one mile and a half south-
pond
Li See ea
it
2)
a
Or # CO bo
mS 8 oO HTD STR CO BD
fed feed bet ed et ek ek ped
© CO aT OD Gis Co bo
bo b& b
Nr oO
23.
24.
. Very black shale,
. Coal, :
: Light eray shale,
. Coal, . ;
: Fireclay, ;
. Black shale, al Con} ania
. Coal, burned,
. Black shale, saaei with Coal,
. Surface drift, . : ; : : ‘
. Light gray shale,
. Gray sandy shale,
. Black shale,
. Brown shale,
. Hard sandstone,
. Coal, :
. Black shale,
. Light gray shale,
. Black shale, d
. Very black gual
. Coal,
5 Fireclay,
. Black shale,
. Coal,
; Riek shel mined with Coal,
. Coal, 5
, Block shale,
. Light gray shale,
. Hard sandstone,
200
east of Ballycastle (see Map, Pl. XXIII.), November 9, 1857.
ft.
. Surface drift, . ; , : : : : Rae.
- Light gray shale, 3 3 : : : Agel KO
. Gray sandy shale, 5 : : ; : :
. Hard freestone, .
Black shale, -
Foul Coal, .
Fire clay,
_ _
SERN NWKOOROOH Kae
bento
SMRSSSCONNAROCOHRWOS
Total, . 90
No. 2.—Boring, Townland of Brackney, December 3, 1857
Gray sandy shale,
wo -
—
NOR rFN OE NK OF K OO
Gray sandy shale,
Parting (black shale),
Very hard gray sandstone,
KH WORONNWAWAA®
poet
BE ROnAO=
ay
DPHOSTDWSSBOCADAARMRMROOCHEG
—
(=)
es
Carried forward, .
rea
eee ee ee
5
ev ae ee
25.
26.
27.
28.
ZOe
30.
31.
32.
33.
10.
Oo~w®g oh & HY eH
256
Brought forward,
Black shale, ‘ : :
Gray sandstone,
Brown shale, : : :
Gray sandy shale, ‘ : :
Brown shale, ; : :
Light gray shale,
Brown shale,
Dark gray shale, : : .
Gray sandy shale, : : ‘ : :
Total,
No. 3.—Brackney Boring, February 16, 1858.
. Surface drift, . :
. Blue clay, : ‘
. Dark gray sandy shale,
. Light gray shale, .
. Black shale, mixed with ironstone balls,
Coal,
. Fire clay, : : :
. Black shale, ‘ ; ;
. Coal,
. Dark gray shale, ‘mixed with coal,
. Fireclay,
. Dark gray shale,
. Foul coal,
. Gray sandy shale,
. Brown sandy shale,
Total,
No. 4.—Trial at Brackney, February 16, 1858.
. Drift, composed of earth, sand, and gravel,
. Soft sandstone, ; 5 :
. Light gray sandy shale,
. Brown shale, .
. Light gray soft shale,
. Black shale, :
Coal,
. Fireclay,
. Dark gray shale,
Black shale,
. Coal,
12.
Black shale,
Total depth,
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257
Brackney, No. 5. The result of this trial gave a depth of 36 feet of
sand. They bored no farther.
Brackney, No. 6, is the position of one of Mr. Brough’s trials, of
which, as before stated, there is no record left.
A boring was made by Mr. Dunsmore in the townland of Ballyvoy.
The site of itis 53 perches northward from the cross roads at the
pound, and eight perches west of the high road leading from those
cross roads to the shore. This boring was 72 yards deep, all in sand.
The beds of coal in the Antrim district, in ascending order, accord-
ing to the view I take, are :—
Murlogh Bay Division.
ft. in.
1. Coal, non-flaming, impure, with bands of black shale
2 feet kelow the second, or 70 foot range of basaltic
pillars, 7 or eight feet thick, say, . Kem
2. Coal, non-flaming, 2 feet above the second range of ba-
saltic pillars, . ; 2 6
3. Coal, bituminous, Goodman’s vein, further south, to-
wards Murlogh Bay, 2 6
4, Bituminous Coal, : A ; 2 : ODaRG
5. Coal, highly bituminous, white mine, : 5 2 6
6. Coal, bituminous, : , A ee)
Ballycastle Colliery, at Gobb Mine.
7. Coal, 153 feet below the main bed, . 1 6
8. Coal, and shale, 53 feet below the main bed, 2 0
9. Impure coal, 2 feet below main bed, 2 0
10. Coal, main bed, : 4 0
Salt Pans Colliery.
11. Coal, 40 yards below the level of the sea, the bed irre-
gular, being 6 to 9 feet thick, say, 3 ; ; 6:0
12. Coal, upper bed, at Bath Lodge, 4 . 3 f 2.4
er
Total yet discovered, 33 10
208
Retrospect of Borings in Carey Valley.
Name of Mine, Level, or Shaft. Sandstone.} Shale. Coal. Total, |
ft. in ft. in. ft. in ft. in |
Mr. Brough’s, No.1, Drumahitt,. . 16 11 D4 6 Or 74 6
i. jOie2, Melish sc)! Ss 13-79 75" 10 55 op 0
49 fi? oP bArBish, 2 28 0 69 8 0 4 Oi eek
Ms », 4, Drimadoon, . 8 5 81 10 thes 8) 92 0
Mr. Dunsmore’s, ,, 1, Brackney, . 1%.10 58 11 622 66 1
7 7 ae ete SAT A120 Gomes 135 10
So Seas d — Ti OU eee ie)
LEZ 46 2
Carey Valley, average, . . . . LP A RSA bt ane 85 8
| Murlogh Bay section, —. ....0% .| 160 0) °98)26 |) ® 0/51/1267 6
Ballycastle, coast section, . . . ,251 0 64 0 1.06) 2) 222126
By inspection of this table, it is seen that in the
Carey Valley section Sandstone is to shale= 1 to 7.
In Murlogh Bay Sandstone is to shale = 8 : 5.
In Ballycastle Sandstone is to shale = 4 : 1.
It appears that where sandstone prevails in the coal-measures there
is the greater chance of a good colliery; and that the beds are thin and
scarce where shale is prevalent, asin Carey Valley. The same observation
applies to the Monkland district, near Carluke, Lanarkshire, Scotland.
Ballycastle has not as much coal in the amount of the section as
Murlogh Bay; but one bed, four feet thick, was a profitable colliery,
and that in a convenient place. This is thought to be all worked outnow
above sea level; and unless by boring below the level of the sea on the
shore a good bed shouldbe still discovered, which might be the case, there
can be little hope of any more coal being worked profitably at this place.
Murlogh Bay, with two beds of good bituminous coal, two feet six
inches thick each, would be a good colliery in another place. There is
no shipping place, however, and five miles land carriage to Ballycastle
would add 5s. a ton to the cost. Still this colliery might be worked to
advantage, by cutting a good road from the top, along the side of the
cliff, down as far as the mouth of one or more adits, to be driven into
the coal beds, and working the colliery by such adits, as in the old
Gobb mine. By means of this road the coals could be carried to Bally-
castle to sell. Probably half of them would be carried away from the
mine by the people of the country. Such a road could be made for a
few hundred pounds.
Any man who knows a mine is doing good service to posterity by
publishing an account of the excavations made in that mine. When at
Ballycastle last August (1858), I saw at Mr. Boyd’s an old map, made
by James Williamson, in 1784. On this map was laid down, and num-
bered, apparently with great care, the position of every shaft and
every adit in the colliery. There was also a table of reference, giving
oe
259
the number of the shaft, the name, and the distance from the mouth
of the pit or adit, to the coal-bed. I made a copy of this table, and
transferred the several numbers of reference to the Ordnance Map of
Antrim, Sheet 5. I found many of the old pits and adits laid down in
their true positions on my map, and I marked a few that were not so,
copying from Williamson’s old map. AsIdo not mean to engrave this
map, I have made the following table, by means of which any person
interested can lay down the position of any or all of the twenty-six
shafts and levels, on a similar sheet of the Antrim map, and thus make
a map of the colliery for himself.
I fixed on Bath Lodge as a well-known object on the shore, and
this, with the road passing by it eastward, give sufficient data for the
purpose. Thus, to fix the place of the Low Muck shaft, No. 19, it is
seen by the table that it is 360 perches east of Bath Lodge, and 36
perches from the nearest part of the coast-road. Taking the first line
as radius, and describing an arch, and the second parallel to the road,
the two will intersect each other; the point of intersection is the posi-
tion of the shaft.
so B 3 be Hr
BwR | ©2 | 333
(Sey eS ae
: Name of fasts 23 SES
Name of Mine, Level, or Shaft. downland. 9 = BS lac: 2 = FE
| ge22 | 223 | 58s
MESS | sna | 2as
A a a
Yards
1. Engine pit, in Saltpans mine, . . | Broughanlea, 88. W. | 53S. 45
2. Sliding shaft pit, worked 1749, . | Broughanlea, 5 18. —
3. Gurdon shaft pit, worked 1750, . | Broughanlea, 8 E. IN. —
A, Air shaft pit, worked 1760, . . | Broughanlea, 24 E. 1N. —
5. Poulnageeragh, White mine, . . | Broughanlea, 62 E. 1S. —
6. White mine level, or adit, . . | Broughanlea, 91 E. 2S: 26
7. Pit, in White mine, . Broughanlea, 103 E. | 05 N. —
8. Scythestone house level, Falbane, Drumaroan, 110 E. | 1N. 160
9. Shaft, North Star colliery, . . | Tornabudagh, 259 E. 8 8S. —
10. North Star level, working in roe Tornaroan, 291 E. 1S: | 256
11. Wellmine, oldlevel, . . Tornaroan, 323 E. 2/8: 600
12. Upper Muck level, . . . . . | Tornaroan, 358 E 3S. 180
dopamolland level oy is 9. ious) 2y|Tornaroan, 382 E, 6S. 546
14. Griffin low level, . . . . . | Blotted off map, er oe 700
15. Gobb mine, low level, . . . . | Ballyvoy, 422 HE. | +N. 400
| 16. M‘Aleny’s door, or Gobb airway, . | Ballyvoy, 446 E. 88. =
17. Portnagree level, . . . . . | Ballyvoy, 483 BE. | 18. 40
tS) Pollard’shaft, \. 20027 J. wis.) Ballyvoy, 428 E. | 63S. 474
topeuow) Muck shaft, »....),. ....°|Tornaroan, 360 E. | 36S. 50
Zoe NMovrath shaft, . .. . . . | Tornaroan, 307 E. | 54S. 25
21. Shane M‘Auley’ 8 air shaft, . . | Tornabuddagh, 200 E. | 40S. =
aes es Shaft, . . 4. | Lordabuddash, | 219) Ke) 72°S: 38
Bae omit, |S). 2) ee | broughanlea, 84 E. | 35S. —
24, Shaft, 5 Cae - . . . | Broughanlea, 83 E. | 27S. 16
He Shaft, coal 43 feet thick, . . . | Broughanlea, (gE: op 2Sus. 21
32 S. 21
a ee ang tna saiiet| «4 «| broushaniea, 74 EB.
260
With regard to fossils, I had not a sufficient opportunity to get them
in those coal rocks, because the works are all stopped, and nothing is
doing now (1858). The best place to examine the black shales for
fossils is Murlogh Bay, where, if a proper excavation were made in
the roof of the coal, the result, no doubt, would be satisfactory. Two
old adits have already been driven into the coal there, near the south
end of the greenstone, which would facilitate a search. On a former
occasion I examined several blocks of sandstone that fell from the cliffs
near the Gobb Colliery, and got there some of the very finest specimens
of Lepidodendron, many of them a foot in breadth, and well marked.
There were also many round forms like trunks of trees, some of them
from one to two feet in diameter.
New Rep SanpDstTone.
The new red sandstone underlies the chalk of the north-east of
Ireland generally. The bottom of it, so far as I know, is to be seen
only in two places in the province of Ulster—that is, at Lissan De-
mesne, in the county of Tyrone, and at Cushendall. The conglome-
rate, which is general at the base of it, in both these places is composed
of pebbles of the adjacent rocks, mixed up with red sand, and all har-
dened. At Lissan the pebbles are angular, and of the same kind of red
granite which occurs a short distance to the north of it. Here there is
a large greenstone protrusion between the granite and the new red con-
glomerate ; and it is remarkable, that a single pebble of the greenstone
could not be fonnd in the conglomerate, although it is the rock imme-
diately underlying it—a fact which leads to the conclusion, that the
greenstone is more recent than either the granite or the New Red
Sandstone.
At Cushendall the pebbles are mostly of the same kind of reddish
and bluish porphyry, on which it rests, with many pebbles of mica
slate, the native rock of which is not in contact here, but exists in the
country a mile and a half to the west. There are also some pebbles
of brown granite rock in the conglomerate, and similar pebbles are nu-
merous both in the porphyry, and in the brown Silurian grit to the
north. This conglomerate is well exposed on the shore, to the north
of Redbay Castle. The pebbles of porphyry, which are numerous, and
of mica slate, which are few, range from nine inches in diameter
downwards.
The new red sandstone is most developed in the vicinity of Bel-
fast. There, south of the River Lagan, it joins the old grauwacke of ,
the northern part of the county of Down, and the manner in which
they join is worthy of observation. The junction is first visible on the
south shore of Belfast Lough, two miles south-east of Holywood: oppo-
site to this village it is half a mile wide, extending southward to the
base of the steep grauwacke ridge, which lies there. From this place
it joins the grauwacke as far as Warringstown, three miles south-west
of Magheralin, a distance of 26 miles. At the eastern end of this red
sandstone, beyond Cultra, it dips at about an average angle of 10° |
{
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261
north-west. At Lurganville, 20 miles south-west of this, and a mile
and a half south-east of Moira, it dips north-west at from 38° to 5°.
Again, from Waringston westward, the grauwacke joins trap as far as
Rich Hill, ten miles; next limestone south of Loughgall, three miles,
and then old red sandstone to Armagh, two miles. After that it is
in contact with carboniferous limestone, which continues by Middle-
ton, Monaghan, and Clones, to join the great limestone district about
Lough Erne. JI go into these details to show that there may be either
of two conditions existing along this line of junction; the first that
there may bea fault along the north-west margin of the grauwacke from
Hollywood to Armagh, a distance of above 40 miles. The chief ar-
gument in favour of this view is the kind of succession at the surface
that occurs in passing westward over the country on the north side
of this junction; there is new red sandstone, trap, mountain lime-
stone, old red sandstone. The other view of this case is, that as it
stands it may be without a fault. The dips along the junction are all
at a low angle to the north-west, away from the grauwacke, the usual
way in Ireland along scores of miles of such junctions. In this case the
carboniferous sea was deep at Armagh at the time of the deposition of
the limestone there, but very much deeper at Hollywood, where, by the
usual succession, the limestone must be 2000 feet below the surface, so
as to have room over it for the coal-measures, and part of the new red
sandstone, which are at sea level there. These upper rocks may have
been deposited at a low angle, having their outcrop resting against a
steep old sea shore at Comber, and according as they were deposited one
covered up the other, and none but the last appeared at the surface ;
this last, covering up all the others along this junction, and concealing
all the outcrops.
As I have already stated, this rock appears to be most developed in
the vicinity of Belfast. On the southern shore of Belfast Lough some
dislocated patches of the magnesian limestone are visible, and even a
small area of the top of the coal-measures, which immediately underlie
them, appears on both sides of the little pier at Cultra. From the west
side of the coal-measures at this place, in the new red sandstone, the
beds have a low dip westwards, which continues as far as rock is vi-
sible at low water towards Belfast. The coarse conglomerate which is
usually found to exist at its base is not to be seen at the base of the
red rocks here joining the coal series; but the locality is much dis-
located, and penetrated by whin dykes, and there is probably a fault
a west side of the coal-measures, in which the conglomerate is
uried, .
The whole formation in other countries is composed of conglome-
rate in the lower part, red sandstone in the middle, and soft red marls
in the upper part. In this locality, though we cannot see the lower,
the middle and the upper parts are well developed, and agree with the
| description above.
|
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262
The red sandstone is visible near the Botanic Garden, and in many
places about the town of Belfast; at Dunmurry quarries have been
worked in it for the railway bridges, which afford very good building
stone. Good building flags are also got in it near Carrickfergus, and many
other places.
From Belfast the new red sandstone continues in the face of
the hills, under the chalk, above Dunmurry and Lisburn, and along
the valley of the River Lagan to Moira. About Magheramesk, in the
upper part it is mostly soft, and reddish brown, alternating with
slaty and gray calcareous marls: it has a similar appearance in the
valley of the Forth, near Belfast, at Woodburn Glen, near Carrickfer-
gus, and at Chichester Castle, in Island Magee. In all these places
those upper red marls bear veins of a delicately white fibrous gypsum.
The new red sandstone continues northward, and is seen on the shore
at Ballygally Head, at Ballygilbert, at Carnlough, Garron Point, and
at Red Bay, where it ends, and turns inward in a western direction,
round the base of Lurrig Mountain, to Cloghglass Glen at station No. 23
of the Chalk Table (see p. 269), where it ends.
The thickness of the new red sandstone in Antrim is very various.
If the section were measured from Cultra, where the base is probably
not at the surface, to the white rock quarry (limestone), two miles
west of Belfast, it would probably exceed 3000 feet; but the low
westerly dip may not be persistent about the mouth of the Lagan,
where the strata are covered up, and a disturbance there would de-
range any calculation. Taking the section at Belfast, it is three miles
from the quays to the Whiterock quarry, and this, with an average dip
of 5°, would make the thickness 2700 feet in that section. At Duncrue,
near Carrickfergus, a trial was made for coal, and a shaft sunk 920
feet through red strata and salt: from the bottom of this shaft a boring
was continued 600 feet more, making a total of 1520 feet, without
meeting coal. I shall say more of this place presently.
Neither at Belfast, Carrickfergus, or Larne, nor anywhere I know
on the east coast, till we come to Red Bay, is the bottom of this rock to
be seen. At Knockan’s cross-roads, at the northern base of Lurrig
mountain, near Cushendall, where it lies on reddish and bluish porphyry,
it is only 500 feet in thickness. Here the outcrop takes a south-west
direction up the valley of the Ballyeemin River; and at three miles
south-west of Cushendall it thins out rapidly to nothing, and we see
no more of it westwards, although the overlying chalk continues; but
in this course the chalk rests on mica slate.
Salt.—About the year 1850, the Marquis of Downshire got trials made
in search of coal at Duncrue, two miles north-west of Carrickfergus,
by sinking through the new red sandstone there. It was probably
thought the sandstone might not be thick, that they would soon get
through it, come upon the coal-measures, which lie next below it, and
there work a coal mine, as has often been the case in England. They
failed to find coal, but they found salt. The first shaft sunk at Dun-
crue was at 280 feet above sea level. In 1852, the details of the strata
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263
passed through at that time (copied lately, 1858, from the official book)
were :—
ft. in.
1. Clay and red gypseous marls, . : ‘ so rb0send
2. Salt rock, ‘ : ; ; : j : 2270
3. Clay, in thin beds, red and blue, - y F 6 8
4. Salt rock, ; : ; A . : : 88 0
5. Clayey marl, red and blue, : : 14 0
6. Salt rock, very good, : . : F : : 39 0
772 8
(Signed) JAMES WARDHAUGH.
After that, the old shaft was sunk below the bottom of the salt,
still in search of coal, to the depth of 920 feet, and they bored from the
bottom of the shaft downwards by a borehole 600 feet more, making a
total of 1520 feet. At this depth they were 1240 feet below the level
of the sea.
The first shaft was abandoned and the present one sunk, where the
salt is raised, 43 perches farther down the hill south-east. It stands at
240 feet above the Ordnance sea level. The bottom of the salt excavation
is 550 feet below the surface, and therefore 310 feet below sea level.
The works are going on successfully. The salt beds are reported to lie
conformably between the accompanying beds here, and not in lenticular
masses, as is mostly the case. The rock salt is of a very superior de-
scription, yielding from 95 to 98 per cent. of the pure salt of commerce.
Some of the beds are of a beautiful bluish colour, others are brown,
some white, and some red. The soft red and brown clays often lend
their tint to any lump they come in contact with.
They raised, in 1857, 22,458 tons of rock salt; of this 4,877 tons of
white salt were manufactured at Belfast, principally for curing purposes
and for butter. The rest was exported to England, and various foreign
ports by vessels requiring return cargoes.
In working here they excavate galleries sixty feet wide, and leave
pillars thirty feet wide between them. A gallery is excavated in three
stages, each about fifteen feet in height, the whole cleared away being
thus forty-five feet high, sixty feet wide, the length not yet known.
A trial was made by the Salt Company, near the shore at Carrick-
fergus, sixty feet above the sea, apparently for the double advantage of
being nearer to the railway station, and from being on a lower level,
the probability of being nearer to the salt, so that there would be less
expeuse in lifting it to the surface. Here a shaft was sunk 760 feet,
when the work was overpowered by an influx of water. So far as
they went there was no regular layer of salt found, but merely some
thin strata, with a trace of salt. Those thin beds occurred at about one-
third of the way down. These particulars I have from Mr. Robert
Smith, Engineer to the Harbour Commissioners, Belfast, to whom, for
much kindness in this matter, I am most thankful.
264
In the ‘‘ Dublin Geological Journal,” vol. v., p. 234, Mr. Doyle writes
as follows :—‘‘ At Larne, as I have been informed by P. M‘Garrell, Esq.,
of the Magheramorne limeworks, borings were made in search of coal in
1839, in the townland of Ballyedmond, near the village of Glynn. The
salt reached was eight yards thick; but as the borings were discon-
tinued at the depth of 174 feet, itis probable the thick deposit lies
farther down. Between this point and the mine at Duncrue, at the
village of Eden, there is a salt spring, which would lead to the supposi-
tion that the whole district between Larne and Carrickfergus contains
a saliferous deposit.”
Since these notes were first written, a new salt mine has been dis-
covered at Red Hall, two miles north of Carrickfergus. The details of
the borings in this mine, as he got them from the engineer in charge of
the mine, are as follows :—March 9, 1853.
ft. ft.
1. Gypseous marl, . : : 550°0
2. Workable saliferous Laie. : 100:0
3. A stratum of red salt, . 2 : : 225
4, A saliferous layer, ; : 26-0
a. Pure salt, «; , : 84:0
6. Mixed rock salt, . A : 14°5
72) Pute- Balt : thai ; 39:0
—— 286:0
8. Thin blue band, . 6°6
9. Dark-coloured Paele resembling “EARGTE 4:0
10. Freestone, . : . : 101
11. Gray rock, not yet ‘through, é ; : 2:4
paired, pif |
859°1
The last four items look as if they had got into the coal-measures.
Lras.
The Lias is one of those rocks of Antrim that appears in fewer
places than any other, and even where it does appear I do not know
even one good section by which its thickness can be determined.
It appears to be pretty well developed at Larne; there it occupies
the coast, most part of the way from the old saltworks, to Waterloo
House, where it is covered by greensand and chalk. Bank Head at
this place is 95 feet high, and there is a section of lias shales and sand-
stones at the shore here, showing a dip of 25° north-west. From the
best estimate I could make, I consider the whole rock is as thick again,
and half as thick, as the perpendicular height of Bank Head, making
about 240 feet.
There appears to be a fault at the entrance to Larne Lough. The
lias at the north-west side of the ferry is elevated above sea level; on
265
the south-east side the surface rock is trap, the layers dipping eastward
into the water.
This rock is visible in many places round the shores of Larne Lough.
Land-slips have taken place occasionally, by which the public road was
rendered impassable. An account of one of these slips, by Mr. James
Mac Adam, is printed in the ‘‘ Dublin Geological Journal,” I., 100.
The lias is also visible at Collin Glen, four miles south-west of Bel-
fast. Again, in the little deerpark, a mile south-west of Glenarm,
where it is about 100 feet thick, and where the whole eastern face of
the hill is covered with masses of chalk, which have slipped down from
the outcrop of that rock, which rises inland, and takes a south-west
course-from this place. This is occasioned by the soft beds of bluish-
grey clay which are interstratified in the lias rock, and which, when
at all accessible to water, grow quite soft, and are not able to hold up
any superincumbent mass when it so softens. When one mass of rock
slips down, or is removed, new fissures are made above it, by which
the drainage water of the surface descends again to act upon the blue
clay stratum, and thus become the source of another slip, and so on.
It is seen next at Parishagh, a mile north-west of Glenarm. The
line of the road appears to be cut out of the steep ground near the bot-
tom of the lias there—and a troublesome neighbour it is to the road.
Every week of wet weather acts upon it, so as often to cover half the
road with the black muddy mass which slips down from the higher
ground. In the townland of Bay, half a mile farther on, last summer,
(1858) about half the width of the public road slid away into the water
for several perches in length ; and to prevent danger at night, there was
a temporary fence of stakes and ropes put up along the edge of the
breach.
So it is wherever the lias clay occurs in steep. escarpments. At
Garron Point, three large masses of chalk have slipped down from the
cliff, where the outcrop of it stands between 200 and 300 feet above sea
level, besides many smaller masses. A mile or two to the west of
this, towards Ardclinis, the public road has many a time subsided, and
slipped down in parts, so that it is often inconvenient, and sometimes
impassable—so much so, that it requires constant attention to keep it
in order.
No more lias is seen to the west of Ardclinis until it reappears
twenty miles off on the north coast at Whitepark, near the village of
Ballintoy. At Clegnagh, the height of the top of the chalk precipice
is 811 feet. The chalk is about 210 feet thick, so that there is about
100 feet from sea level up to the base of the chalk; of this, the green-
sand may be 20 feet, leaving 80 feet over water for the lias; it may
be as much more under. It is seen only in spots, as there is a great
talus of sand hills along the base of the cliff down to near the water.
The shore itself under high-water, is all covered with sand, smooth,
hard, and gently sloping seaward.
Lias is again visible at the Skerries rocks, and at Portrush; but
here it is in the condition of a flinty slate, and very hard, being in con-
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266
tact with, and adhering to, protrusions of greenstone. The part not
hardened has been washed away. It would not probably be known here,
being so like the greenstone in aspect, only for the Ammonites and other
las fossils which it contains.*
GREENSAND.
The Greensand of Antrim, like the chalk, is thin, compared with
the English equivalent. It is well known to the men who quarry
the white limestone, for, when they go down to it, they stop, and go no
deeper ; they call it “‘ mulatto.” It is not used for economical purposes,
except a little, as freestone for scouring furniture, by the country people,
or sometimes as sand for mortar. In the stream at Collin Well quarry,
itis about 35 feet in thickness, and if there be any lias here, it must
be only a few feet, for the red marls are visible a few feet below this
rock. The clearest section is at the White rock quarry, two miles west
of Belfast.
There, at the base of the chalkis Greensand, 10 feet thick.
Hard brownish white sandstone in beds, . 10 feet.
Greensand, : i : ‘ 3 . 10 feet.
Total, : : : . 80
Below this everything is covered up with drift.
- Woodburn river, two miles west of Carrickfergus, affords a good
section, and is a good place for getting the fossils.
At White Head there is a bench of greensand stripped about 50 feet
long, and six feet high clearly exposed. There is more below this, but
it is concealed by a talus of loose materials. It is visible here in four
or five places, but no good place occurs to measure the whole. Near
Waterloo House, a mile north-east of Larne, a pretty good section of it
is on the shore. At Glenarm it is not visible; for where it enters the
sea, the shore is in sucha state, covered by knolls of chalk that tumbled
down from the outcrop of that rock, that it is not visible; nor is there
any other good section of it seen, that I know, for miles from this place
to Aultmore river, two miles south-west of Cushendall, where it is only
eight inches thick.
The lias (except at Larne) is generally very insignificant in thick-
ness, and the greensand still more so; in fact they occupy so little
horizontal space, that unless exaggerated, they would not appear upon
the map at all. Their position is known, of course, by the outcrop of
the chalk, which accompanies them at the surface everywhere.
* See Dr. Richardson’s paper on this Rock in the “‘ Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy,” vol.ix., p.22; and the Discussion between Sir R. Griffith and Mr. Bryce,
in 1835, “ Journal of the Dublin Geological Society,” vol.i., p. 166.
267
Cuatk, oR Wuite LIMeEsToNeE.
In examining a country geologically, where there are varieties of
rock, it is a great advantage, as a help towards determining the rela-
tions of the different parts, to find one band or bed remarkable for
some physical difference from those which accompany it, and follow that
out through the whole district, so far as it can be done. For this pur-
pose, among the rocks of Antrim the Chalk affords an eligible index of
this kind. There are two circumstances connected with it favourable
for this purpose. The first is its general outcrop, about midway from
the bottom to the top of the steep escarpment which occurs along near
the east coast of the county, all the way from Lisburn to Cushendall, a
distance of 40 miles: the second is its very white colour, which makes
a strong contrast with the black overhanging precipices of trap, by
which it can be recognised for several miles by land or by sea within the
range of vision.
The chalk of Antrim, as a whole, is indurated, and much harder
than the chalk of England. It is called in the country white lime-
stone—a name even more familiar to me than chalk.
My observation leads me to the conclusion that the chalk was laid
down upon an uneven bed, because, although we find it in many places
of nearly equal thickness, and only a slight inclination from the hori-
zontal, yet in other places it is very thin, which argues a shallower sea
in those places, and of course a higher sea bottom, while in other loca-
lities there is no chalk at all, showing either that those parts were over
water at the time of the deposition of the mass, or that it was first de-
posited over the whole area, and afterwards those bare parts elevated
to the surface of the ocean, or near it, and then denuded.
Here I speak only of the thick and thin parts of the chalk and
where there is none. Those three cases occur at nearly the same level,
at stations No. 5, 22, and 23, on the map (see Pl. XXII.), and the fol-
lowing table. This table has been made for the purpose of explaining
the outcrop of the chalk more clearly. Other localities there are where
the chalk is 200 feet thick at sea level, as itis at station No. 37. Itis
only three feet thick at No. 28, which is 400 feet higher, and at No. 5,
where it is 130 feet, at 680 feet above the sea.
There appears to be no rule by which we can expect it to be thick
or thin, high or low in any locality. Subsequent dislocation has pro-
bably acted upon it in such a way as to baffle any attempt at specu-
lating in this way.
The surface of the carboniferous rocks in the bottom of the ocean,
previously to the deposition of the new red sandstone, appears to have
been uneven in the county of Antrim. Otherwise the accumulation of
this rock at Belfast, which exceeds 2000 feet, as already stated, and
at Duncrue and Red Hall, near Carrickfergus, where it has been
bored to nearly an equal depth below the overlying chalk, would be so
much greater than itis at Cushendall, where the very base of it is
visible, and where, a mile or two west of this place, it thins out to
nothing. The hollows having been filled up with the red sandy deposit,
the upper surface has been brought more nearly to an even plane than
ee >:
7
f
?
\
’
;
;
'
f
268
the lower, and thus was produced a more level bed for the chalk than
there had been for the new red sandstone. The chalk, indeed, in ge-
neral does affect a horizontal position, both in the main body, and in
localities where detached patches of it exist.
The greatest thickness we know of the chalk of Antrim is at White-
park, near Ballintoy, where it is visible about 210 feet thick over sea
level; but to show its thickness at many localities I have made the fol-
lowing tabular form. In it I shall follow the rock through its undula-
tions, as seen along near the coast, and compare it 1n its course with
the level of the sea. In this table the heights of the upper surface of
the chalk, above the Ordnance sea level, are recorded at stations, which are
marked upon the Map of Antrim, Pl. XXII., at every four or five miles
asunder, as a quarry or a natural opening presented itself. I consider
this form, and the numbers prefixed in each case, useful for reference,
The first column shows the number of the station; the second is its
name; the third is the height of the chalk at the upper surface over
sea level; the fourth is its thickness at each station so far as it can be
either measured or estimated with facility: the fifth column is the
height of the nearest hill or mountain, where the thickness of the over-
lying trap may be found at any station; the sixth is the height of
mountain above sea level; the seventh is the thickness of the trap
in that mountain. At many of the stations the thickness of the chalk
could not be made out with accuracy, on account of the base of the
rock being covered up with a talus, or its not being quarried to the
bottom :—
‘TaBie, showing the Heights of the upper Surface of the Chalk above Sea
Level, at certain Localities, together with its Thickness, where attain-
able ; also the Heights of the adjacent Mountains, and the Thickness
of the Basalt.
County of Antrim.
i es
Paes S¢ £5 |
{ | oO cS
Se io sit=an Reeo
| = 5 Name of adjacent Sen wee
| No. | Locality of Station. Sprite alte Oy Macnee 22 lea
_———— —— 7
| Feet. | Feet.) Feet Feet |
1 | Clare, $ mile S. E. of Moira, 150 | 62 | No hill near, none. | none.
2 | Balmer’s glen, 2 miles N. E. 230) — | Spence’s fort, 266| 72
of Moira, P |
oe Anghnahough 8 miles N. W. | 660| — | WhiteMountain, | 820 -270
| _ of Lisburn |
| 4 | ee ea seater 4 7 650 | — | Collin, 1081 | 785
of Belfas | reese
| =3a- White Rock:quarty, @miles | hig g00|190 en Mountain, N., |1272 | 813)
| W. of Belfast, . .
| 6 | Ballygomartin, 2 miles N.W. thd | 20 | | Divis Mountain, 11567 | 1538 |
| by W. of Belfast, . ies erst
19
| 21
29
23
24
25
No.
Locality of Station.
Ballysillan, 24 miles N. W. ‘|
of Belfast, :
Cavehill, 4 miles N. of Bel- Pi
PASE cosa
Kilroot, 2 miles N. of ox)
rickfergus,
Rory’s Glen, 3 2 ihiles W. of ‘|
Larne, .
Sallagh, 4 miles 'N. Ww. of ‘|
Larne, .
Ballygilbert, 4 miles s. E. |
of Glenarm, .
Glenarm, north bounds of the |
little deerpark, on ditore!
E. of eae s
Gortin, 4 mile N. W.. of}
Carnlough,
Slate House, between Nos.
14 and 16, F 4)
Garron Point, 6 miles N. E.
of Glenarm,. . 1)
Tamlaght, 2 “miles S. E. of
Cushendall, i
Baraghilly, 4 miles | S.
Cushendall, at east side of |
bridge,
Same place, high Tp 6 on west
side, |
ia 2 aie oe of
@ushendall, ‘ ‘
Lurrig, 1 male S. Ww. of
Cushendall, s i;
Northern outcrop of the Chalk
From Cushendall westward
to Bencroaghan.
Lurrig Mountain, as |
stated,
Altmore pidge. on fold road,
2 miles S. W. of Cushendall, a
Cloghglass Glen, 3 miles
S.W. of Cushendall, a
Gortnagross quarry, 3 miles
S.W. of Cushendall, ‘
Tievebulliagh, 3 miles W. of
Cushendall, . : ff
Eshery, 4 miles W. of Cush-
endall, ey
R.I. A. PROC.—VOL. X.
269
go |e 22 \2
Feet. | Feet. Feet. | Feet.
73 | ,, |Squire’s Hill, 1230 | 645
92 | Collinward, 1185 | 1085
490; ,, | No bill near,
580 ,, | Agnew’s hill, 1558| 978
550! ,, | Loughduff, PAC2ale ad LZ
520 | ,, | No bill near,
170 | 170 | Little Deerpark, 536 | 336
460| ,, |Scary hill, | 981 | 935
320| ,, | Nachore, 1179 | 1113
320 | 100 | Top of cliffs, 764 | 1004
300) ,, | Carneal, 1304 | 1004
80| ,, | Skirt Lough, 1108 | 1028
600| ,, | Lurgethan, S., 1304) 704
700) ,, | Lurgethan, S.end, /|1304) 604
940| 80|Lurgethan, N. end, |1154;, 214
940| 80/| Lurrig, 1154; 214
HOO GON 55 1220 | 470
730 | 20) Trostan Mountain, 1810 | 1070
900; 30] No hill near, 9 i
1150] 30 | Tievebulliagh, 1346 | 300
1050} 20 | Eshery, 1197 | 147
Caine ge”
Pe PFS pee
Se em
eae aii aa
OO IO OE IT On LO eee
a ne a ee ee
ee ee ee ee
grt nn O_O enna
Wr ef
DD ER ES PO ALDI TOD LION tl. ATT
So a te
OI NI et IE ON I GD Na aa
26
27
28
29
30
31
270
og
Locality of Station. Bo | ox
= & S
ms | SO
B h 8 miles W. of Feet. | Feet.
encroaghan, 8 miles W. o
Cushendall, . . . A 1254) 15
In the low country west of the
Mountains.
Ballyknock, 4 miles S. of ! rn
Armoy, in a trial pit, . 00 3
Corkey, near Checker Hall, 6
miles S. of Armoy, and 3
miles N. of Clough sail 400; 3
two pits, for trial,
Carrivecashel quarries,
miles S. of Armoy, | 350; 15
Lunchill quarries, $ mile S. 2
Armoy, . huiiee 5380| 20
Balleny, 1 mile N. of Armoy,
and 5 miles S. W. of Bal- 270| 30
lyeastle, .
The Knocklayd Table Land.
Knocklayd, W. side, 3 miles
S. of Ballycastle, iy 870) 70
Ballypatrick, 5 miles S. E.
of Ballycastle, on road HAO)
side to Cushendall,
Carnlea, 6 miles E. of Bal- e 880
lycastle, : ”
West Torr, 6 miles E. st 900
Ballycastle, é ”
Northern Shore.
Larry Bane Head, perpendi-
cular cliff, cae ; Uoe)| Moe
Ballintoy, at the village, 202| 202
The Priest’s hole, in the white
rocks, on the coast road 150| 150
side, 2 miles E. of Port-
rush, ey teas
4
28
23 5
Name of adjacent os& as
Mountain. $e | 6a
Be | gm
o
me | 2
Feet. | Feet.
Bencroaghan, 1868, 114
No hill near. <5 ?
Slievenahanagan, 1325| 985
Chalk at the sur- i eee
face, no trap,
{ Chalk at the sur-
face, no trap,
eae at the sur-
face, no trap,
Knocklayd,
Ballypatrick,
Carnlea,
Without trap,
At shore,
Ballintoy hill,
{ No remarkable hill ;
unequal surface,
' none.
1685| 815
1036| 286
1250| 370
” none.
rT) none.
672| 470
271
County of Londonderry.
~~
a Se 1
S) 5 fo} (3) Ge
a4 | 2 eal!) ae
MN - qy 8 Ww
2a | BS se | 84
No. Name of Locality. =) is ‘s 28 gs
a0 aS 8
iS S A Oo ae = eta
jan im
Feet. | Feet. Feet. | Feet.
39 | Slieve Gallion, 5 miles S. E. 1622 | 29 Slieve Gallion, | 1622! 100
a Hine ae i ie a { ee of a
raig na shoke, 5 miles raignashou an
of Draperstown, 5 pode aie { Mountain, eet his
41 Eden, 6 miles S.E. of Sais
given, .
| 42 Benbradagh, 3 miles N. E.
1000 | 38 Eden Mountain,| 1286) 286
of Dungiven, . 1120 | 12 Benbradagh, 1531) 411
43 | Kilhoyle, 6 miles N. E. of {| Ballyness Moun-| ¢ 1227) 327
D 900 | 15 =
ungiven, . (| tain,
of Newtownlimavady, ; 900 | 20 Donald’s Hill, 1315, 418
45 | Keady, 11 miles N. E. of
Newtownlimavady,
46 | Benyevenagh, 5 miles N. E.
of Newtownlimavady,
47 | Umbra, 10 miles N. E. of
Newtownlimavady, onnorth
SONG Wn O Ns a) yhe cy oy lle
550 | 33 KeadyMountain, 1110 551
Benyevenagh }
> ?
; ; Mountain, 1200 ae
gg a ty EI ERS AL IL CEG NPE ALIA IED
SF OT OO SE FD eae asa a te RE Np et ee
et
ae
44 | Donald’s Hill, 6 Piles S. E. a
i) Sea 50 ? ?
en reece
In the plateau of low land be-
tween Lough Neagh and the
base of Slieve Gallion the
Chalk is quarried in several
places ; the heights at which it
stands in some of them are :—
48 | Carmean, 3 miles N. of Mo-
neymore, . :
49 | Gortagilly, 13 miles N. of
Riguiceore., : . \
50 | Tamlaght, 8 miles Ss. E. of
Moneymore, . :
51 | Ballywholan, 14 miles N. al
=
7
Stewartstown, . 3 Z
52 | Mullantain, 1 mile Ss. E. of
Stewartstown, . eee,
—— =
The thickness of the basalt in the preceding table was determined in
this way :—Where the chalk lies level, take the height of the chalk
from the height of the summit of the mountain, the remainder is the
thickness of the basalt. Where the chalk dips inwards under the
mountain at a low angle, the angle of the dip, and the distance of the
nearest limestone quarry to the summit, were taken, and from those
two items a third item was made out, that is the amount perpendicu- i
242
larly under the summit of the mountain that the plane of the dip was
lower than a horizontal plane passing through the same place; this
third item was added to the difference of height, made out by sub-
tracting the height of the chalk from the height of the summit, and
the result was taken as the thickness of the basalt.
It is not pretended that the thickness of the basalt at every locality
is strictly accurate. Owing to the faults and downthrows we see to exist
in the chalk in every direction, as well as the occasional change where
the direction of the dip does not aim at the mountain summit, there
was necessarily some modification as to the quantity ofthe angle. This
latter case seldom happened, and it is hoped the thicknesses are pretty
~ correct.
It will be observed by inspection of this table, and comparing the
Antrim outcrop on the east side from the station No. 1 to No. 20, with
the Derry outcrop on the west from No. 39 to No. 47, that in the east-
ern outcrop the chalk is three or four times as thick as it is on the
west. The greatest thickness at station No. 5, the White rock, and No.
13, Glenarm in Antrim, is 130 and 170 feet respectively, while the
greatest in Derry, at Keady, No. 46, is 33 feet, and at Umbra, No. 48,
is 50 feet. In fact it grows thinner rapidly as it proceeds to the west—
a physical defect, I am sorry to say, that affects our coal-measures in
Ireland, as compared with England, as well as our chalk.
In the foregoing Table there is no room for some necessary details
regarding the localities selected. I deem it therefore necessary to
make a few observations on the outcrop of the chalk; and in doing so,
to avoid returning again and again to the same place, I shall note any
peculiarity worthy of remark, regarding the rocks in contact with the
chalk above and below—that is the basalt, and the greensand, as well
as the chalk itself. I shall follow the order of the numbers in the
Table.
1. At Clare, near Moira, the thickness of the chalk in the quarry is
52 feet, and the overseer says there are 10 feet more under them to
the mulatto or greensand, which they came to in another part of the
quarry, making the whole thickness 62 feet. There is no trap on the
chalk here, and it may be inferred from the dip, and the ground rising
to the north towards the town, that there may be a further accumu-
lation of the beds to the north, under the coat of drift which is 20 feet
thick. Ifthis be so, the thickness of the chalk here is greater than
what I have given in the Table.
Paramoudras, or supposed fossil sponges of large size—say from 20
inches to 2 feet high, and about 15 inches in diameter—occur here rather
plentifully. It has been said that they are found in vertical rows, one
over the other, in the quarry, but itis not so. I saw two specimens
together in this position, in the perpendicular face of the quarry, where
there was room for many; but, as a general rule, they are disseminated
without any regular order—often three or four yards assunder. There
are two or three trap dykes in the quarry, and as usual the chalk is
altered in immediate contact with them—sometimes made yellowish,
{
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
218
sometimes grey ; always hard. One runs in a south-east direction
across the entrance to the excavation. It is on the west side 18 feet
wide at the top, and 30 feet lower down it is only 3 feet. Another
appears by its direction to cut this at right angles. It is 6 yards thick,
and is a mixture of trap, flints, pieces of chalk, and red sandstone, all
cemented into a very hard solid mass, trap and flints predominating.
I have just stated that there is no trap overlying the chalk at
Moira, as it does in general; there are about 18 square miles of the
county in this condition in the vicinity of Moira, Lurgan, and Porta-
down, outside the south end of the trap district.
2. Ballynalargy, or Balmer’s Glen, is about two miles north-east of
No.1. At this quarry about 50 feet in thickness of the hmestone is
visible, but it has not been quarried to the bottom, and it may be 20 feet
or more lower than the bottom of the present excavation, or 70 feet in all.
The rock here dips west 5°. A whin dyke, about 5 feet wide, runs across
at the entrance of this quarry, and continues in the same way through
another, which lies a few perches to the south of this one. This dyke
has been noted of old for yielding fuller’s earth, part of which was
carried to Dublin for economic use. This fuller’s earth is decomposed
trap. Some of the whin dykes are of very hard trap—some so soft that
they could be shovelled away as easily as sand. Some of it is like
snuff in colour, and between the fingers the fuller’s earth at Balmer’s
Glen is of this brown impalpable dust. The dyke in which it occurs is
divided vertically into irregular lenticular masses, red, yellow, brown,
or black, soft or hard. This dyke is soft at the sides, but in the middle
it has ‘‘a heart as hard as any wheenstone.”’
In all places where the chalk is exposed, from the trap having been
removed, the top of it is worn into holes, as if by the action of
water. Those holes are from 3 to 12 inches in diameter, and about
half as deep ; they are often filled with rounded flints, from three to four
inches in diameter, mostly of ared colour, but a few are gray. There is
a bed of red impalpable clay immediately over the chalk, and between
it and the lower bed of trap, which buries or encloses most of the flint
pebbles. The red clay bed seldom exceeds two feet thick, but it is
variable. Near Belfast it is from one to two feet thick. Col. Portlock
says he found it 13 feet thick at Magilligan. ;
The chalk has not been made crystalline at the top, where it
underlies the trap, and is nearly in contact with it, as we see it where
it comes in contact with whin dykes. The reason of this appears to be,
that though the trap might have been emptied in a semifluid state, the
bed of red clay just mentioned, when wet, or even if nearly dry, would
_ protect the chalk from the effect of the overlying red hot trap, until it
became cool, which the first single layer would soon do in the bottom
of an ocean. In making castings of iron, the red hot metal does not
alter the moist sand of the mould into which it is poured.
The late Dr. Mac Donnell, of Belfast, was the first who noticed and
told to others that the top of the chalk was not altered where it came
into contact with the trap, as he had observed it to be, in junction with
a ae ae
on ee
he
we : a ts ae tine
erences Ieper mre ns
ee: ——
erae
9 or
_
Renae
er
ep ee Fe
ee
PS Rani penta oa
274
whin dykes. In his professional pursuits he travelled much in the
counties of Antrim, Down, and Armagh. In every journey through
the country he noted all he saw of minerals, fossils, rocks, or plants,
and an excellent observer he was. very scientific stranger visiting
Belfast was made freely welcome to the use of his notes and his
knowledge, which he seemed to have a delight in communicating. He
was intimate with Hamilton, and Richardson, Trail, Allan, and
Dubourdieu, each of whom added his mite to the geological knowledge
of that period. When Berger and Conybeare, and Buckland and
Griffith came the way, he was always ready and willing to direct their
steps to where there was any fact in his vicinity worthy of being seen,
and he knew all the localities of interest in the country. He thus, by
bringing many intellects to bear upon those facts, did more good to the
geology of the North of Ireland than any man of his day, though his
own name does not figure in the scientific literature of that time. He
was one of the most amiable, liberal, and benevolent of men. His
memory will be cherished during life by all who were acquainted with
him.
The chalk in Balmer’s Glen, like that at Moira, is not covered over
by trap, but about five chains to the west of it there must be a wide vent
to send out such a heap as there is, 60 or 80 feet in thickness, over the
chalk. The basalt here presents a perpendicular face, about five yards
high ; it is very hard, and is broken for the roads, and an excellent road
material it is, making a strong contrast to the basalt in other places,
which is not good for roads.
3. Aughnahough, four miles north-east of No. 2, or three miles
north-west of Lisburn. At this place the chalk has been worked ex-
tensively heretofore, but apparently at very great expense, and with very
little judgment. The openings were made near the top, close under the
basalt, and to the west of the road from Lisburn to Glenavy vast heaps
of quarried trap were wheeled away, to get a little limestone. In one
place 30 feet of basalt have been removed, and 10 or 12 feet of limestone
got out from underit. If the quarry had been opened at the base of
the chalk, which is there 70 or 80 feet thick, a vast deal of limestone
could have been got, without removing any basaltic cover, for scores of
years, and all the excavation would be profitable as limestone. No
limestone is raised at this place now. Here a layer of basalt lies over
the chalk, about 10 feet thick, and over this another layer of the same
thickness. The layers are irregular. This basalt is of the kind called
‘‘Wacké ;” it is very soft, and of a brownish-black colour; it decom-
poses on exposure to the weather, like some coal shales, which it very
much resembles in aspect, with the exception that it has no stratifi-
cation. Over this soft stuff, which ranges in the face of the hill, at
both sides of the road, over the chalk, as just stated, from 15 to 30 feet
in thickness, is a layer of hard basalt, which is tumbled down from the
top of the quarry, and broken for the roads—indeed it is carried down
to the neighbourhood of Lisburn, two or three miles, for that purpose,
and forms the finest road metal found anywhere. It is curious to
279
speculate why it is a good road metal lying on the chalk in one quarry,
and worthless as such lying on it in another, when we consider that the
rock at both places has the same component parts; but even here, as I
have stated, without comparing two quarries four miles asunder, a hard
layer lies over, and in contact with a soft one, in the same quarry.
In another quarry here, about a furlong north of the road, near a
small house at Aughnahough (Fig. 1), there are five whin dykes, cutting
through the chalk, which have left their mark in asingular way. At
one side of every dyke there is a wall-like mass of altered chalk, standing
upright in the quarry, from 5 to 10 feet in height, and 18 inches to
2 feet thick. The quarrymen did not remove these walls, as they
consist of dolomite, and are not fit for lime. Some of it is phos-
phorescent when heated. The ordinary chalk was excavated from
between the dykes, and carried away, and, as just stated, the wall-like
masses left standing. The black trap has been decomposed, and fell away
from about them. The limestone quarries here have nine or ten whin
dykes visible ; but those five, in the short space of a few yards, suggest
the idea that the trap of Antrim came up through fissures, and there
appears to be plenty of them for the purpose of eruption. They are
usually from 5 to 10-feet thick. There is no greensand visible in
any of these quarries. Its place is at the bottom of the limestone,
which has never been worked through. Between the two quarries on
the north side of the road there is a downthrow to the north of about
30 feet.
ta
ay i a 12 1X “
\ “eee eae aa elo eit im ‘ Lan i
oe ia Tom Tsim oat an i Ome: res a. wes Lon Hs Slay Maa eon xh
I yy i ie Pa Mh Oy PAA, )
biecedbecmaial We i ie Vines etn a haath en
Whin Dykes and Pillars of Dolomite in Chalk at Aughnahough.
4. Ballycollin. The quarry here is called Collin Well Quarry. It
affords a pretty large supply of limestone to the country over the
mountains westward, towards Glenavy and Crumlin. The limestone
here measures 50 feet in thickness, but the bottom is not satisfactorily
seen, and it has a dip west of 10°, so that it may be 60 or 70 feet. The
greensand i is visible in the stream adjacent, and it measures there about
35 feet thick. About nine-tenths of it here is calcareous matter. The
contact of the greensand with the underlying rock is not clear, but red
OS er mee ober ene
CR OL LEE IPO OPN ON LAO AO AOL SO IO OE NG A, PO 5 LO,
er et ee
—
A OE TOD eR RA
a ae a FE OE gt
276
sandstone appears a few yards below it, in the banks of the stream,
and also in a new road cutting close to the place. In Collin Glen, one
mile to the north of this, the chalk and the greensand are exposed in
the river, above the bridge, and there is also a band of a few feet thick
of has under the mulatto stone.
Examples of the conversion of chalk into granular marble, by the
contact of a whin dyke, may be seen at the southern boundary of Bally-
murphy, three-quarters of a mile south of the White Rock Quarry,
No. 5, in a ravine, to which the late Dr. Mac Donnell gave the name of
Allan’s Ravine, in honor of a friend of his, a mineralogist, Mr. Allan,
of Edinburgh. The chalk is often altered as much as 8 or 10 feet
from the whin dyke, and it is altered in different degrees. In this one,
at Allan’s Ravine, it is first coarsely crystalline next the trap, then
saccharine, then more loose and sandy-looking, then bluish gray, and
compact, and next common chalk. The altered chalk is phosphorescent
when heated. A mass of chalk inclosed in a whin dyke at Balmer’s
Glen, No. 2, is altered inasimilar way. So itis inaremarkable degree
in contact with the large columnar protrusion of trap, on the top of
Ballygalley Head, on the shore opposite to No. 12. At Glenarm there
is a singular compound dyke, consisting of three branches, which cuts
through the chalk, and includes masses of it, which are altered in a
similar way to that above described.
5. The White Rock quarry, opposite to Belfast, is three miles north-
east of No. 4. The chalk here is 130 feet thick, and both the top and the
bottom of it are well exposed. The dip is 6° west, and as the face of the
rock slopes backward, an allowance for both slope and dip is made in
measuring the thickness. There is in this quarry a slip, or fault, with
a downthrow of about 30 feet to the south. The greensand here is
visible; the upper part green sandy rock, with the usual fossils about
10 feet, then a buff-coloured, rather hard sandstone; 10 feet below, green
sandy rock again, about 10 feet; in all, 30 feet visible; butthere may be
more visible under this, as the rock at the base is covered with rubbish
fallen from above. The greensand again appears in an old excayation,
about 12 chains north of this quarry. It is but a small pit, dug up as
“ freestone,”’ for scouring furniture by the country people.
A mile to the south of the White Rock quarry, in Ballymoney, in
the face of a limestone quarry lately opened, there are four trap dykes in
about 30 yards of the length. One of them has a branch or fork (see
Fig. 2). To this fact, as well as to the five dykes mentioned at Augh-
nahough quarry (Fig. 1), I shall have occasion to refer in the sequel.
6. Ballygomartin. There is nothing remarkable at this place. I
have put it as a locality into the table, chiefly to determine the thick-
ness of the trap in Divis mountain.
The little table-land forming the summit of Divis mountain consists
of a beautiful clinkstone porphyry, of a reddish brown colour, containing
elongated lamellar crystals of glassy felspar, and concretions of bluish
white chalcedony. The rock is very sonorous.
277
7. Ballysillan is two miles north of No. 6. The chalk, in a range of
quarries along the southern face of this mountain, stands at about 730
feet high. This is the highest part of the outcrop in the line of country
between Moira and Glenarm.
OSS;
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Whin Dykes in Chalk at Ballymoney.
8. Cave Hillis three miles north-east of No. 7. Limestone is quarried
extensively here, for the use of the country westwards. It dips west 10°,
and measures 93 feet thick. The mulatto is under it here, but there is
no means of knowing how thick. All the face of the hill, for a mile to
the south of the quarry, is covered over with hillocks which have
slipped down from their natural position, owing to the stratum of lias
clay which lies beneath, and which grows quite soft, and yields, when
it gets wet, by water percolating through the ground after heavy rains.
The top of Squire’s Hill, and of Cave Hill, near Belfast, are both com-
posed of graystone.
Carntall is four miles north of No. 8. The chalk is 280 feet lower
than that at Ballysillan, No. 7. This is the low pass, over which the
railway from Belfast is laid to the western parts of the county. There is
no certainty as to the true position of the chalk hereabouts. The face
of the steep ground has many slips. The whole surface of the slope is
covered with debris, and the thickness of chalk or greensand cannot be
measured, and only a rough guess made at it, too rough to be recorded.
Here I may note that a patch of chalk occurs at Templepatrick,
towards the middle of the trap country, between Belfast and Antrim.
It is about a mile long in an east and west direction, and half a mile
wide from north to south. It is seen in the gardens of the village,
immediately west of the houses. At this place it is of a dark gray
colour, instead of the usual milk white; it is very heavy, and will not
burn into lime. It is altered, perhaps, into a dolomitic rock. Good
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 2P
ee ee ie Ne oe cow oe oye mera grrr c Sai ll oa atin pe ahh cha ae - .
ee eee eee eee ee ee ee
218
limestone is found below the road in Upton demesne ; it was quarried in
several openings, and burned extensively there about twenty-five years
ago, but no lime is burned there now. In the churchyard fragments of
it are quite usual in digging the graves, and the labourers say that it is
under the soil in all the fields about the church.
It is a question whether this chalk was ever covered with trap, ike
the surrounding country, and afterwards denuded. As it occurs near
the lowest part of the valley, itis not likely that denudation would have
acted to such an extent as to sweep away hundreds of feet in thickness
of the trap, and leave the chalk exposed here. The probability is, that
this spot escaped being covered by the overflow of trap which covered
the rest of the chalk.
No. 9. Kilroot, near St. Catherine’s, is two miles north of Carrick-
fergus, and six miles north-east by east from No. 8. At this place the
character of the chalk country changes. From Aughnahough, No. 3,
to this, the vicinity of the outcrop of the chalk along the mountain brow
is steep or precipitous, but from this northward, although the escarp-
ments of high land still continue from St. Catherine’s in a tolerably
straight general line, by Rory’s Glen and Sallagh Braes, yet the chalk
here, instead of appearing high up in the brow of the mountain, runs
out from the base of the high land, and extends over the country east-
ward, declining gradually to the sea shore. About Larne Lough are
eruptions of basalt, which rise into pretty high hills, showing the
outcrop of the chalk near their bases. There is no section of the rocks
at St. Catherine’s or Redbrow; White Head is the nearest place to it
that affords one. Here there is solid chalk visible at the top, 40 feet ;
a sloping talus covered with fragments which rolled down from above,
about 30 feet; steps at the bottom, not quarried, 30 feet; total, about
100 feet thick. There is a bench of greensand under it, stripped about
50 feet long, and 6 feet high, well exposed. It appears in four or five
places, yet no good place occurs to measure the whole. The beds of
chalk dip south-west 10°. Resting on the chalk here is a magnificent
fagade of columnar trap, the columns 50 feet high, and curving. To
this I shall allude again.
To the north of Carrickfergus, towards Larne, the chalk band is
much broken up. The western, or main outcrop, from Lough Mourne
northwards, by Kilwaughter and Sallagh Braes, maintains its high
level at about 550 feet. There are in the vicinity of Larne Lough four
other outcrops, two to the east and two to the west of that lough.
They all affect a southern direction, being nearly parallel to the shores
of the lough, and to one another.
The first of these outcrops shows itself on the east coast of
Island Magee, at Black Head, near the Gobbins, and at Portmuck.
The second is on the east shore of Larne Lough. The third on the
west shore of the lough. The fourth runs in rather a tortuous course
from Bellahill by Ballycarry, and joins the third at Ballylig. These
outcrops are all, of course, on the same band of chalk as just stated.
Between the first and second the whole of the chalk is covered by
219
trap in Island Magee, as it is for the most part in the rest of An-
trim. Between the second and third lies Larne Lough. What the
rock may be under the bottom of this lough there is no means of
knowing ; the lias appears on both sides along the shore, with the chalk
over it. Between the third and fourth lines trap appears, as in all the
rest of the country.
In the vicinity of Larne the whole of the chalk band declines north-
ward, from 480 feet at Bellahill to the shores of the lough. About the
town they seem to join; and halfa mile farther north, the band dips
into the sea, under the Blackcave tunnel, at an angle of about 20°. It
soon rises up again, in the townlands of Drains and Droagh, and occu-
pies the flat country towards Ballygalley Head, where a protrusion of
columnar trap throws up the beds on their edges. It soon again, how-
ever, resumes its level position, and spreads over the country inland to
Rory’s Glen, Sallagh Braes, and Ballygilbert.
10. Rory’s Glen is seven miles north-west from station No. 9. This lo-
cality is like Redbrow in some respects. The hmestone here dips west
20° south, at an angle of 5°. Kilwalter demesne is nearly all on lime-
stone; and it abounds so in this part of the country, that a man might
walk the whole way from this to the sea, near Ballygalley Head, on this
rock. It stands here at 680 feet above sea, and declines gradually in
four miles to the shore. There is no sign that this field of limestone
was ever wholly covered with trap, like the country west of this sta-
tion; yet there are some trap dykes, and some large prolrastons inter-
spersed through the low lands.
The thickness of the limestone at Rory’s Glen cannot be satoantattined,
as the bottom has not been reached. Waterloo House, four miles off,
and a mile north of Larne, on the shore, is the nearest place where it
could be measured, and there it turned out to be 101 feet ; but this is not
quite certain, as the bottom of it, joining the greensand, was concealed,.
and only guessed at. At the Ballylig quarry, on the west edge of
Larne Lough, it measures 105 feet.
In speaking of the limestone near Belfast, reference was constantly
made to its outcrop, but here it has nooutcrop. It dips westward under
the basaltic mountain called Agnew’s Hill; and from this place, as al-
ready stated, it-slopes or dips gradually to the sea shore, showing an
anticlinal line along the base of the mountains.
11. Sallagh is three miles north of Rory’sGlen. The townland con-
tains 723 acres, and has an extraordinary appearance, inasmuch as it is
bounded on the south and west by a semicircular range of basaltic pre-
cipices, 600 feet high above the low and flattish part of the land at its
_ base, the whole forming one of the finest amphitheatres of natural land-
scape. The diameter of the semicircle is about a mile and a half, from
Ballytober to Knockdhu. This range of precipices is called Sallagh
Braes. The limestone is not quarried here to any extent, but is known
in the land. It stands between 500 and 600 feet high above the sea,
and from this place occupies the country continuously to the shore, both
north and south of Ballygalley Head—a distance of two miles —declin-
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280
ing gradually eastward to sea level, in the same way as it does from
Rory’s Glen.
Here I pause a while, and return to examine a matter I have not yet
touched upon.
An evident difference takes place between the present condition of
the chalk to the south and to the north of Kilroot, No. 9. To the south
it has a steep and sudden outcrop, under a steep bank of trap, with the
surface of the inferior soft red marls sloping rapidly to the east; to the
north, although the steep bank of trap continues, the character of an
outcrop is lost; for the chalk spreads over the country for two or three
miles wide, and forms the surface rock in many places to the sea shore.
What is the cause of this outcrop of the chalk in a part of its course,
-and not in another? ‘The most natural solution of the outcrop, and
what is first suggested by viewing it from the vicinity of Belfast, where
it can be seen from a distance, would be to suppose a fault along the
line, crooked as it is, and a downthrow to the east, in which the surface
would occupy all the low ground between the base of the steep slope
and the shore. But this is not the case: if it were, the low ground
would be all trap, the same as the mountains; it is, on the contrary,
composed of red sandstone, and the other rocks that usually underlie
the chalk. We must look for the solution in some other way.
At Balmer’s Glen, No. 2 in the Table, the chalk stands at an eleva-
tion of 230 feet. At Kilroot, No. 9, itis 490 feet. Between these two
stations the outcrop rises into the form ofa flat arch, being from 600 to
700 feet high in the middle, opposite to Belfast. The elevation of this
part of the chalk may be in some way connected with the steep escarp-
ment and the present outcrop.
The thickness of the chalk at the White Rock quarry would show that
the original outcrop, which might be expected to be thin, was not on
this line. It most probably extended a mile or two farther eastward,
and had a zone of bare chalk along the eastern margin of this breadth,
such as there is at Moira and at Ballygalley.
T have shown that the outcrop near Belfast is not occasioned by a
downthrow to the east. There is no other alternative to account for it
but the action of denudation.
The whin dykes, which seem more numerous along the outcrop of
the chalk than elsewhere, appear to have an important influence in
keeping it up to the elevation it had attained at the time of the protru-
sion of the trap. I have shown that there are five of those whin dykes in
one quarry at Aughnahough (Fig. 1); they occur from three to six
yards asunder. ‘There are four or five more in a quarry at Ballymoney
(Fig. 2), between stations Nos. 4 and 5. If they are thus seen so nu-
merous in quarries, where they have been exposed, it may well be sup- |
posed that they exist along the edge of the trap, the whole way, in
equal or nearly equal numbers. In fact, those fissures appear quite
sufficient to afford space for the eruption of all the trap of the moun-
tains; but the vents by which the trap was erupted were not confined
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to those small fissures alone. I shall describe one of another kind, in
the observations at station No. 14.
When the basalt was erupted and cooled, and those fissures all left
full of solid trap, as whin dykes, the mountain parts were elevated, and
at the margin of the trap district continued steep and high, from those
numerous dykes, which, having hardened, became as so many wedges
along the line, increased the volume of the rock, and served to keep this
line more elevated than the other localities where those dykes are not.
They also served, very probably, as strengthening ribs, when cold,
along the outcrop of the chalk, to offer greater resistance to the denud-
ing power, or keep the outcrop to a higher level.
12. Ballygilbert is nearly three miles north of Sallagh Braes. The
limestone at this place is 530 feet high; and it covers the slope from
where it appears down to the shore, something more than half a mile.
Wherever the limestone spreads out, and occupies the country in this
way, its thickness cannot be measured.
18. Glenarm is three and a half miles from Ballygilbert, No. 12.
Where the limestone was measured here is at the northern boundary of
Little Deerpark, on the shore, 184 yards west of the little quay. This
is about half a mile east of the town. Here the limestone is 170 feet
thick, and its base appears to be at high water mark at this spot.
From this westward it dips into the water, so that at the large quarry,
near the town, about half the mass of the chalk is under sea level.
From Ballygilbert to Glenarm the limestone band begins again to as-
sume the character of an outcrop, and maintains this character by Gar-
ron Point and Cushendall, in all its windings to the north and west
from Glenarm.
Through the Little Deerpark, the steep face of the mountain, for a
mile or more in length, exhibits a multitude of masses of chalk rock,
that slipped down from the outcrop even to the very shore. ‘This steep
slope may be about half a mile wide. Lias clay shows itself in many
places, and it is owing to this that the slips take place; for this clay,
though a bed of solid rock, becomes quite soft when water gets access
to it through fissures in the overlying rock. When this soft founda-
tion gives way under the chalk, it is the cause of more fissures, more
water, and more slips afterwards.
At the quarry at Glenarm, and on the shore, the chalk is visible.
At the mouth of the river it sinks under the level of the water
altogether, and for miles up the river there is none in the face of the
east side of the valley, where it might naturally be expected, as this is
_ the case in most of the glens. At Parishagh, on the west side in the
_ slope of the hill, half a mile off, the chalk stands at about 350 feet high,
and continues on the north-west side of the valley for some miles up.
This difference of level shows that there is a fault in the line of the
| river, or rather in the bottom of the valley running to the south-west,
, and that to the east of this fault the land has sunk, and buried the
| limestone in the fault. The limestone at Ballygilbert on the south,
| where it stands at 520 feet high, has a fall from this place to Glenarm
SS
aac ga
ee Ee
RS 6h eee >
See pee es ren eee
282
river on the north, equal to this amount in three and a-half miles, a
further proof that the limestone has sunk at Glenarm. The amount of
the downthrow on the east side of Glenarm valley is at least 350 feet.
Proceeding northward, in the next valley, there appears to be a
similar fault to that last mentioned, and running in a parallel direction,
that is south-west, but the limestone in this valley is not buried in the
fault as at Glenarm. In the townland of Gortcarry, on the north-west
side, the limestone stands at about 450 feet; in the townland of Bay, on
the south-east, it is about 109 feet, so that there is at this fault a
downthrow to the south-east of 350 feet also, the same as at Glenarm.
Travelling from Glenarm to Carnlough, the limestone, which crops
out near the road, is cut through by a great mass of trap, which
emerges from the sea, and no doubt once came from the depths below.
The mass continues from this place to the south-west, and forms the
basaltic mountain of Munies, which separates the valley of Glenarm
from that of Carnlough. The place occupied by this basalt between
the two chalks is 235 yards in width along the road. It was the great
vent through which the mountain was erupted. Its west edge is at
the one milestone; a furlong out to sea opposite to it is the Black
Rock, a basaltic hummock 20 feet high and 60 diameter, apparently
part of a continuation of the same mass to the north-east into the sea.
I would call particular attention to this fact, because it shows that a
whole mountain mass has been protruded from one fissure. Many such
fissures there may be, no doubt, in the interior of the country. I have
not, however, seen any like this near Belfast, where the whin dykes
appear to prevail as vents.
14. Gortin, half a mile west of Carnlough village, is four miles
north-west of Glenarm, No. 13. The limestone from Ballygilbert, No.
12, up to this and forward, is a true outcrop, and the slips which I
have shown to exist at Glenarm and Carnlough valleys indicate that
there are others in this region. There is probably one or more parallel
to the coast here, a short distance out at sea, by which the chalk is
thrown down and buried in the sea, at a mile, or perhaps a furlong out.
The soundings along close to the shore, on charts, show a depth of 10
to 20 fathoms.
15. Slate House is introduced here merely for the purpose of
getting the thickness of the trap on Nachore Mountain.
16. Garron Point is four miles north of Gortin, No. 14. Here
there are several large masses of both limestone and basaltic rock which
have slipped down from the adjacent precipices to the shore. The
vicinity of this place abounds with the wildest forms of rocky scenery,
steep precipices, deep dells, and towering pointed crags. The outcrop
of the limestone continues declining regularly from No. 14 to No. 15,
as seen by the Table. The greensand here is about 10 feet thick.*
* This Point in the country appears to have got its name from the sea-going people,
who passed by; they thought that a mass of white limestone in the face of the cliff re-
presented a white horse. This picture would have been called Gear-ran—hence Garron
Point.
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17. Tamlaght is three miles west of Garron Point, No. 15, and
along those three miles the limestone continues lowering in the face of
the cliff from 320 to 200, or 120 feet. An observer at Cushendall, looking
southward, has a fine view of the mountain face, and the outcrop of
the white limestone midway up, the top of it declining gradually from
Garron Point to Glenariff, and in its course shows an irregular outline
above, occasioned by the numerous faults along the line, where some
blocks of the mountain face stand higher than adjacent blocks, and
some lower; this is known by the white chalk zone, which can be
traced by the eye along the north face of the mountain, from Garron
Point to Glenariff. It is occasioned by slips or faults, which are
numerous in a north and south direction, pervading the mountain
masses, as well as east and west, which are local, along the shore. The
road in parts has often sunk below its level on those slipping parts, and
requires attendance constantly, to keep the hollows filled and the road
passable. The greensand here may be about 8 feet thick, of which
the lower three are conglomeritic, but it gets thinner as it proceeds
westward, so that at Baraghilly, No. 18, it is about 6 feet, and the lias
about 3 feet.
18. Baraghilly Bridge, in Glenariff, is about two and a-half miles
south-west of Greenaghan, No. 16. The limestone on the east bank of
the river at this place disappears under the surface, which is 80 feet
above sea level. On the west bank opposite, a few yards from the
bridge, it stands at 150 feet. This shows a fault at the bridge, by
which the chalk is thrown down to the east.
Farther west, in the same little townland, the outcrop of the lime-
stone is high up in the steep face of the mountain. It stands at 600
feet, showing that there is either another fault between this and the
last mentioned hummoczk of limestone, or that the said hummock has
slipped down from this latter place. Whether there is one or two
parallel faults, the limestone has a downthrow from this place to the
bridge of more than 520 feet. The line of fault runs along the valley
south-west, probably near the line of the river.
It is remarkable that the three faults in the three glens, at Glenarm,
at Carnlough, and here at Glenariff, have the downthrow all to the
south-east. These facts may be connected with some subterranean
movement, by which the country to the north-west, the mica slate, was
elevated, or the basaltic country to the south-east depressed.
19. Kilmore is rather more than a mile north-west of Baraghilly.
The limestone here crops out in the mountain side high up, at about
700 feet. From this it continues rising with a very gradual slope to
No. 20, Lurrig.
20. Lurrig signifies the end. It is so called in the country, or
Lurgethan on the map. It is two and a-half miles north of Kilmore,
and one mile south-west of Cushendall. The limestone here is the
highest in the whole course of its eastern outcrop, from the south at
_ Moira, standing at 940 feet. Itis about 80 feet thick at this place.
The greensand under it is diminished to one foot.
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284
21. Altmore Upper is one mile south-west of Lurrig quarry, No. 20.
In the southern boundary of this little townland, at a bridge on the
old road, the limestone is seen. It may be estimated here at 60
feet thick, showing a rapid diminution of thickness from what it is at
Lurrig. A few perches south of this, in a small stream at a waterfall,
in which a section is exposed, showing the bottom layer of the chalk,
with the greensand and red sandstone underlying. This lower layer is
8 feet thick, and is composed of a mixture of chalk, fragments of flints,
and small pebbles of white quartz. The mulatto stone, or greensand,
is only 8 inches thick, and it lies on new red sandstone, for there is no
lias. That rock is absent hereabouts.
22. Cloghglass, or Ballyeemin Glen, is a mile south-west of
Altmore. Here the limestone in the river is but 20 feet thick. The
bottom bed consists of 6 feet of conglomerate, of flints, chalk, and small
white quartzy pebbles, resting on nine inches thick of greensand, which,
like Altmore, overlies red sandstone.
A little below the chalk here, in the river bed, there are two
patches of mica slate peeping up through the sandstone, which appears
to have been cut quite through by the water. The lower patch has
brown grit in contact with the mica slate. In the upper the mica
slate is surrounded by a very coarse conglomerate, composed of large
pieces of mica slate, in a matrix of red sand, which is the lowest part,
‘the very base of the new red sandstone here. About this place is to be
found the greatest variety of rocks in a small space to be met with any-
where in the county. There are mica slate, brown Silurian grit, new
red sandstone, greensand, chalk, and trap, all within the distance of a
few perches.
23. Gortnagross is a mile north of Cloughglass, No. 22.
24. Tievebulliagh is a mile north-west of Gortnagross, No. 23.
25. Eshery, about a mile north-west of Tievebulliagh, No. 24.
These three localities are very much alike : they are in a wild, de-
solate, heathy region. In each of them the chalk rests on mica slate,
there being no new red sandstone nor lias to the west of Ballyeemin
Glen, and the greensand quite inconsiderable—less than a foot. In
those places the limestone is from 20 to 30 feet thick. The quarries
are on high ridges or bluffs, emanating from Trostan Mountain on the
south, and separated by valleys. At the bluff points, between the
streams, the limestone crops out; and it is in those points the quarries
have been made, being most accessible to the low country, where the
lime is used. The outcrop is continuous, but it forms a zigzag line,
projecting round the bluffs, and retiring up the valleys, so that the line
of the outcrop in the three localities resembles the letter W. In the
valleys the limestone is but rarely seen, being covered over with bog
and heath. There is no tillage so high up. Corn would not ripen
here, the locality being more than 1000 feet above sea level. The
height and thickness of the limestone at each place are given in the
Table.
26. Ben Croaghan is more than four miles north-west of Isherry,
280
No. 25. This is the highest position in the county in which chalk
occurs, the quarry being 1254 feet above sea level.
27. Ballyknock is four miles south-south-west of Ben Croaghan,
No. 26. This is in the low ground at the western base of the moun-
tains. No limestone has been quarried here; but a trial was made for
it, at the bottom of the basalt, and about the excavation are found
pieces of flint dug out of it. -It was evidently not worth working,
being too thin. No rock being visible in the wide flat valley adjacent,
the nature of the underlying rock, whether red sandstone or mica
slate, cannot be determined.
28. Corkey is three miles south of Ballyknock, No. 27, and about
half a mile north-east of Checker Hall. Here are two pretty large ex-
cavations made in search of limestone. The basalt rises in the moun-
tain to the east of the locality. A remarkably green vegetation is seen
round the old pits, and scattered fragments of flints. Tradition says
the layer of lime and flints here may be about three feet thick. Like
Ballyknock, it was evidently not worth working. From the size of
the pits, the bed appears to have been followed inwards from the out-
crop 20 feet. This is the most southern place in this valley where any
trace of limestone has been found.
29. Carrivecashel is about five miles north of Corkey, and two miles
south of Armoy. It is on the west side of the valley of the River
Bush, and the limestone here lies nearly level, but is covered by trap
on the west side, which accumulates a little in that direction.. The
limestone of the quarries here is very impure: about half the mass
appears to be composed of flints, which are left in large heaps, as rub-
bish, in the quarry.
30. Limehill is less than a mile south from Armoy. Lime is quar-
ried extensively here, and is much purer than that at Carrivecashel,
No. 29.
31. Balleny is a mile north of Armoy, and about five miles south-
west of Ballycastle, and 270 feet above sea level. There is a depth of
25 feet of the limestone visible here: what is below the present bottom
of the quarry is unknown—perhaps 20 or 40 feet more. A large area of
about eight acres has been excavated. ‘To the west and north of this
place is all bog, and so flat at this same ievel, without any hill or hum-
mock of other rock, for a mile or more, that it affords a strong pre-
sumption that all the flat bog has limestone under it, the same as at
Balleny. If there be good grounds for this view, there may be 600 or
800 acres of limestone under that bog, covered over only with some
drift gravel, and the bog on top. The townlands adjacent, which oc-
_ cupy a part of the flat bog, and likely to contain limestone, are—Bal-
leny, north and east end; Ballykenver, north ena; Bunshanacloney,
east side; Monanclogh, west side; Magheramore, west side; Lower
| Moyarget, south end; Mazes, east border.
382. Knocklayd. This mountain hes from one to four miles south
_ of Ballycastle. The limestone zone in it appears to lie level; and its
R, I, A. PROC.—VOL. X. 2a
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29%
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286
outcrop is seen about half way up, and forms a circular ring or belt
round the mountain of about a mile and a-half in diameter. The
largest opening in the limestone now at work is on the west side, in
the townland of Cape Castle, and there it is about 70 feet thick, and
appears about the same in all the old quarries round the south face.
The limestone lies here on mica slate, and is covered by basalt. The
lower beds of any of the numerous excavations are not exposed; and it
is not, therefore, known whether there is greensand or new red sand-
stone under it, or not. No sign of either appears at the Cape Castle
quarry. They have not worked it yet to the bottom, as they appear
to prefer making two or more stages, there being less danger to the
quarrymen in that way than by throwing down large blocks of lime-
stone or basalt from the top of the quarry.
83. Ballypatrick Hill lies east of Knocklayd, and is distant from it
five miles. The limestone in this hill stands at 750 feet high. Its
outcrop is in the form of an ellipsis, one and a-half miles long, in a
north-west direction, by one mile wide. This district is about half
way between Cushendall and Ballycastle, and the road passes through
the eastern border of the limestone. It is quarried here, but the thick-
ness cannot be ascertained, as it has been worked here only 8 or 10 feet
deep from the surface.
34. Carnlea Mountain. The limestone quarries on the west side of
this mountain, in the townland of Ballyvennaght, are nearly two miles
east of Ballypatrick. The rock stands here at 880 feet high. The oval
cap of basalt which covers the limestone is about two miles long from
north to south, and a mile wide. The three districts, Nos. 32, 33, and
34, are very similar; each has an outcrop, forming a ring of chalk, round
its cap of basalt. The limestone at each of those stations rests on mica
slate, and in Knocklayd, Ballypatrick, and Carnanmore, it stands
respectively at 870, 750, and 880 feet above sea level. Those little
districts are, moreover, separated from each other by deep valleys,
running north and south in the mica slate.
35. West Torr. The chalk here stands at 900 feet high. It is
nearly two miles long in a north-west direction, and half a mile wide.
It joins, and is part of the same sheet as that under Carnlea, but it is
not covered by trap. The south end of it rests on mica slate, and in
that locality there is no new red sandstone under it. The north end
rests on the coal-measures of Murlogh Bay, and in that place there is
a band of new red sandstone over those coal measures, intervening
between them and the chalk.
Where the line of the chalk commences, on the east of the green-
stone of Fair Head, that is, at its north end, a layer of greensand about
three feet thick lies under it, containing quartzy pebbles. This ter-
minates to the south, where the coal-measures end. A bed of wacké
occurs near the top of the chalk, 5 or 6 feet thick, apparently con-
formable with its beds, but, no doubt, has been protruded in a
horizontal dike.
287
With West Torr may be put a detached piece of white limestone,
which lies to the east of Carnlea, presenting nearly the same character.
It runs nearly parallel to the shore, opposite Loughan Bay, between
Torr Head and Runabay Head. It is two miles long, half a mile wide
at the north end, and the southern half of the length is about a furlong
wide. Like West Torr, No. 35, itis not covered with basalt, but in
both the pasture is kind, green, and close, and the soil good for tillage,
thus presenting a remarkable contrast to the herbage and soil of the
great table land from Knocklayd eastward to the sea, which is covered
with bog and heath. This limestone district is from 500 to 600 feet
high, and this circumstance points to the probability that the whole is
a downthrow, from Carnlea, of the chalk and its supporting mica slate.
The line of this downthrow may be in the bed of a stream which runs
north-east towards Torr Head for a mile. From the upper end of this
mile it turns south-east by the valley of Ballinloughan, and continues
to the townland of Torcorr, near Runabay Head. On the east of this
district, new red sandstone appears under the chalk, as in Murlogh
Bay. There is none visible on the west, this fact further suggesting the
probability of the existence of a fault on the west side, along near the
edge of the chalk, in which fault the new red sandstone lies buried.
36. Larrybane Head (from Lair Ban, the white mare). I select
this locality as worthy of note, because the perpendicular sea cliff here
_ is white limestone from the top to the bottom. Some yards inland from
_ the shore there is an Ordnance Survey height of 168 feet, and as the
beds are quite level here, this may be taken as the least thickness of the
limestone, for there is some of it under water.
I should not pass this locality without making reference to Kenbane
Head, two miles east of this station, because at this place, more decidedly
than on any other point on the coast, the relations between the trap
and chalk ean be observed. A large piece of chalk, as it lay in its bed,
apparently in a plastic state, has been separated from the rest of the
_ mass below it, and doubled up into the form of a high arch, leaning to
_ one side (the west). The bedding in this mass is known at a distance
by the lines of flints in relief which appear on the face of it. It appears
pushed up at one abutment, if I may so call the end of the arch, and
much shattered at the other, many of the fragments being enclosed in
the surrounding basaltic matter, which appears to have insinuated
itself into every crevice that was open to receive it. These masses of
_ Imbedded chalk have all been altered more or less where they are in
| contact with the trap (see Fig. 3).
37. Ballintoy village is near this place, No. 86. The limestone is
under the street, which there measures 202 feet above sea level.
_ Although the fields are covered with soil, and therefore the rock not
_ visible, there is every reason to suppose that the beds are level under it,
_ from Larrybane Head to this, and if so, the chalk is above 200 feet thick
_ at the village of Bailintoy. .
| At the top of the cliff at Whitepark, a mile west of Ballintoy, two
estimates were made of the thickness of it, the one made at the east
288
bounds of Magheraboy gave 200 feet; that near the west bounds of
Clegnagh 210 feet. On the whole, the thickness of the limestone at
Ballintoy may be counted 210 feet, and this is the thickest part of it
that is known in Ulster.
Trap and Chalk at Kenbane Head.
38. The Priest’s Hole is immediately at the coast road side at the
white rocks, two miles east of Portrush. Looking over the road fence
at this place, the traveller sees the shore below, and the white cliffs,
through a narrow, deep hole, only a few feet in diameter. The road
appears to be 100 feet over the sea, and there is about 50 feet more
of limestone above the road, to the bottom of the basalt, in all 150 feet ;
but the base of the limestone is not seen on the shore. It may be 200
feet thick here, as it is at Ballintoy. Ihave thus followed the eastern
escarpment of the chalk all the way from Balmer’s Glen, near Moira,
to Cushendall, which runs nearly parallel to the shore for 40 miles, and
continued the observations on the north coast to Portrush, about 30
miles more. But there are two circumstances yet to be noticed that
bear upon the inward dip, or basin shape of the chalk formation. The
first of these is, that besides the immediate dip at the outcrop, in the
vicinity of Belfast, which is westward all the way from station No. 3,
at Aughnahough, to No. 8, Cave Hill, there exists a further corrobo-
ration of this view. An approximation to the amount of this dip may
be made from the following facts :—
At Templepatrick there isa pretty extensive field of the chalk bare,
without the usual covering of trap, and it stands at 180 feet above sea
level. The eastern outcrop of it at Cave Hillis 750 feet high; the
difference between these heights gives a fall westward from the outcrop
at Cave Hill to Templepatrick of 570 feet in 6 miles, which is 95 feet
in a mile, or nearly one degree.
It is a curious coincidence that the same rate of inclination may be
had by taking other data—that is from the top of Divis Mountain to the
deepest part of the bottom of Lough Neagh, gives 95 feet in a mile.
But, notwithstanding this, there is reason to believe that the chalk at
Templepatrick has been a little upheaved from the bed surrounding it.
3
289
For, taking the slope of the surface from Divis to Lough Neagh, Divis
is 1567 feet high; Lough Neagh is 48 feet above sea level; the distance
between them on the Divis and Slieve Gallion section is 11 miles, 7
furlongs; and these data turn out 128 feet fall in a mile; this is
supposing that the thickness of the trap at the shore of Lough Neagh is
the same as at the top of Divis, namely, 900 feet. This givesan angle
of about one degree and one-third. This most probably is about the
average dip on the east side of the great basin, of which Lough Neagh
and the Bann are in the bottom. From the Derry outcrop eastward
the average dip is about the same.
The second of the circumstances alluded to hes in the line of
country between the stations No. 20, at Lurrig, and No. 26, at Ben
Croaghan, in the Table, along the southern border of the mica slate.
These stations are upon some of the most elevated positions occupied by
the chalk in Antrim, as may be seen by reference to the Table; and from
the outcrop, or aline passing through those stations, it will be seen that
the chalk les upon a bed sloping to the south-west.
At Lurrig, on the east, No. 20, the chalk stands at 940 feet high ;
at Cloghglass Glen, No. 22, at 730; thus giving a fall of 210 feet in
a south-west direction, in two miles, or 105 feet in a mile.
At Ben Croaghan, No. 26, on the west, the position of the chalk is
1254 feet high. At Corkey, No. 28, itis 400 feet; hereisa fall of 854
feet, in a direction 15° west of south, in five and a half miles, or 155
feet in a mile. Both these cases show that the bottom plane of the
chalk has a south-west average dip of about one degree and a half, ad-
joining the mica slate, and corroborate the view that the chalk forma-
tion in the north-east of Antrim dips towards Lough Neagh in basin
shape, as it does in other places.
I have shown in the Table, No. 2, the height of the chalk at seve-
ral stations on its outcrop, both in Antrim and Derry. From this out-
crop it dips inwards towards the Bann in both counties; but, besides
this, there is a general dip of the outcrop in itself on both sides to the
north, putting the chalk zone into the form of a trough or scoop, high
on the south at Divis and Slieve Gallion, and low on the north coast.
Yet on the north coast it does not dive into the ocean. There are un-
dulations and faults in it along the shore, the anticlinals of which affect
a north and south direction; but, as a whole, upon that coast the ge-
neral dip is south, at a low angle, all the way from Magilligan, in
Derry, by Portrush, Ballintoy, and Ballycastle, to Murlogh Bay, and
showing that it dips inwards in an irregular basin shape towards Lough
Neagh, on at least three sides of the great basaltic area.
Though the chalk assumes a basin shape, as just shown, in the ba-
saltic area, as a whole, yet there are irregularities in it, especially
towards the margin, in which it deviates from this form. These irre-
gularities appear mostly to have been produced by faults. Those
faults on the north shore show change of level of the zone, by dis-
location, where parts are separated, and thrown up or down from ad.
joining parts. At Whitepark, near Ballintoy, the whole body of the
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290
limestone is over the level of the sea, at its upper surface, 300 feet; at
Bengore Head it is probably under it, at about 150 to 200 feet, making
here a difference of between 400 and 500 feet in the surface of the
chalk. At Port Braddon, where the two rocks join vertically, is pro-
bably the seat of this dislocation. I must defer the explanation of this
to a future opportunity.
The chalk in Knocklayd Mountain stands at 870 feet high; at Bal-
leny, one mile north of Armoy, it stands at 270 feet, making a dif-
ference of 600 feet in height: they are about a mile asunder. The
band is nearly level at both places, showing that there must be a fault
between them, which runs from Ballycastle by the western base of
Knocklayd, and so on southwards. I shall further describe this fault
hereafter.
Again, at Sheve Gallion, in Derry, the chalk stands at 1500 feet
above sea level, while between Magherafelt and Coagh it varies from
170 to 312, or it is 250 feet average, making a difference of 1250 feet
between the band near the top of Slieve Gallion and the equivalent of
the same band in the low plateau at the eastern base of that mountain,
between it and Lough Neagh. The fault in this case must be at the
eastern base of Slieve Gallion, which is about three miles east from the
patch of chalk near its summit.
In the cases of Knocklayd and Slieve Gallion there are some sugges-
tions of a speculative character connected with them, worthy of a few
observations.
When we find chalk in the middle of Knocklayd 870 feet high,
and similar chalk on the north shore at the level of the ocean, the beds
of both lying level, whether should we say the Knocklayd chalk has
been elevated from its original position, or the chalk of the shore de-
pressed? Hither case would produce a disruption of the chalk, a dif-
ference of level, and the same effect.
There are 1540 square miles of trap in Antrim and Derry, all in
connexion, with chalk under it. It stretches from Ballintoy to Stew-
artstown, in a straight line, at nearly the same level, a distance of fifty
miles. The Knocklayd platform of mica slate is 110 square miles.
Standing still, or being elevated, whatever movement affected it pro-
bably affected it as a unit, all at one time together. It appears more
rational to suppose that the small area—110 square miles—was ele-
vated, than that the large one—1540 square miles—was depressed.
We talk every day of the elevation of mountains, and say the Alps
were elevated, or the Mourne Mountains. I believe the trap, at the
usual general low level, was still; and that the Knocklayd platform of
mica slate was put in motion, and was elevated in one mass together,
parts of it undergoing slight modifications of level afterwards, from
cracking and settling down.
Again, on Slieve Gallion, in Derry, the patch of chalk, covered with
trap, similar to that at Knocklayd, stands at 1500 feet above sea level;
the low ground between Coagh and Magherafelt, composed of similar
formation, forming a plateau between Slieve Gallion and Lough Neagh,
a
*
291
varies from 170 to 312, or say it is 250 feet average. This makes a
difference of 1250 feet that the Sheve Gallion chalk was elevated above
that in the Magherafelt plateau.
From the east side, this patch, about half a square mile, appears
decidedly to have been elevated; yet the aspect from the north-west
side cannot be forgotten—that is, the very regular elevation of the
chalk in Derry from the sea at Magilligan along the western escarp-
ment by Keady, Donald’s Hill, Benbradagh, and Craig na shoke, to
Slieve Gallion, ascending regularly all the way from sea level to the
highest chalk in the two counties. From the western country this band
does not appear in an unnatural position, but looks like the southern
continuation of the ascending zone. ‘This seems still the more natural,
that the Sperrin Mountains of mica slate branch off westward at the
same high level, south of Dungiven.
That the Slieve Gallion mountain, however, on which this patch of
chalk rests, has been itself elevated from a lower level, most probably
that of the Magherafelt plateau, as just stated, is shown by the follow-
ing arguments :—It is situated between the valley of Ballinascreen,
which is low ground, on the north, and the low ground about Cooks-
town, on the south. It forms the eastern and highest part of a ridge,
composed of granite, greenstone, and metamorphic rocks, which ridge
trends away south-west from this point, by Beleevnamore, Creggancon-
roe, and Termonmaguirk, to near Omagh. This ridge, so formed, of
erystalline and metamorphic rocks, being quite distinct from the mica
slate of the Sperrin Mountains, appears to have undergone a movement
in itself, and to have been protruded, thus accounting for the elevation
of Slieve Gallion, with its patch of chalk upon its back, independently
of its proximity to the Sperrin or any other mountains. In each of
those cases described the chalk is covered by the trap of the country.
Those differences of level proclaim that the movements which produced
them took place subsequently to the deposition of the chalk and the
eruption of the trap.
PoRPHYRY.
The porphyry of Cushendall occupies a comparatively small district.
It appears to have been connected in some way with the elevation of
Lurgethan Mountain ; and, if so, it is newer than the new red sand-
stone, with which it is in contact at Bellisk, and the chalk, and perhaps
newer than the trap itself that caps that mountain; for it will be seen
in the Table that the chalk in the north end of the mountain stands at
about 940 feet high, while the same zone in Glenariff is under 100
_ feet at the east side of the river at Barnahilly bridge.
The little district surrounds the village of Cushendall. It is bounded
_ on the east by the sea, and occupies the shore for half a mile, between
_ the mouth of Cushendall River and the Coast Guard station at Bellisk.
_, On the north and west the boundary forms a curve, convex to the north-
_ west, beginning at the mouth of the River Dall, passes 100 yards north
_ of the schoolhouse, through the villages of Carnahagh and Tully, and
=
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292
ends near the cross-road of Knockans south, at the lime kilns. The
southern boundary passes a few yards south of the village of Knockans,
a little to the south of Mount Edwards House, and so on to the Coast
Guard station at Bellisk. It joins the Devonian brownstone at the
mouth of the river, and occupies the coast for half a mile southward, to
a little boat harbour, without rocks, a few yards wide, and 150 yards
north of the Coast Guard station at Bellisk, to which I have just
alluded.
The whole area is nearly in the shape of a triangle. It occupies
about three quarters of a square mile, and forms one continuous mass.
Geologically it is bounded by the brown Silurian grit onthe north and
west sides, and on the south by new red sandstone. It appears to
have been protruded between those two rocks. It has many changes in
its appearance. In colour it is composed of red, brown, and grey,
passing into one another. On the shore it contains pebbles, and puts
on the appearance of a coarse conglomerate—both pebbles and matrix
being, however, crystalline. In a quarry immediately south of the
town it assumes a dark bluish colour, and is crystalline: sometimes it
resembles greenstone. Pieces of jasper have been got in it near the
shore.
The conglomeritic appearance of the porphyry, with its pebbles of
-brown quartz, and the conglomerate of the new red sandstone, near
the Coast Guard station, have a striking resemblance to each other at
the first glauce, but there is no passage from one into the other. The
very lowest beds of the new red sandstone, though full of large frag-
ments of the porphyry, have fine red sandy layers between them. The
porphyry has no fine sand, nor any such layers. The new red sand-
stone contains rounded pieces of mica slate, up to six or nine inches in
diameter. The porphyry has none of this rock.
The porphyry, which disappears on the shore at Bellisk, rises gra-
dually, but with rather a hummocky surface, to about 400 feet above
the sea at Knockan’s fort, near the south-west angle, where it is quar-
ried for the roads.
Half a mile north-west of Cushendall is Tiveara, a small hill, but
steep and high for its breadth of base. It is a protrusion of crystalline
greenstone. It is detached from the porphyry district of Cushendall.
Sandy Brae Porphyry.—About five miles north-east of the town of
Antrim this porphyry occurs: it forms a roundish district, of about
three miles from north to south, and four miles from east to west, or
about ten square miles. It is composed of six moderately-sized hills,
with smaller ones between them. The heights of those hills on the
Ordnance Maps are—
Feet.
1. Tardree, three miles south-east of Kells village, . en Cis
2. Barnish, or Sandy Brae, four miles east of Kells, 2. Se
3. Ballygowan, four miles eastward from Kells, . 638
4. Brown Dod, four miles south-east of Kells, : 860
5. Carnearny, the highest, three miles south- east of Kells, 1043
Corby Knowe, two miles south-east of Kells, Oe
293
Those hills stand upon rather a high base, but are all themselves
comparatively low. They exhibit each a roundish outline—a character
derived from the ready decomposition of the porphyry of which they
are composed, and stand in strong contrast with the surface of the
country which surrounds them, in which frequently appears the rocky
character of a basaltic country.
In reviewing a country like this, where there are two igneous rocks
of different kinds of large extent—a very light-coloured porphyry, and
a very dark-coloured trap, which appear not to be contemporaneous—it
becomes a matter of interest to determine which of the two is the
older rock. That they are not contemporaneous appears from the
following comparisons:—1. The porphyry is of a very light colour,
nearly white; the trap is of a very dark colour, nearly black; 2. The
porphyry is highly crystalline and has a large portion of felspar crystals
with some smoke quartz, either as crystals or nodules ; the trap is usually
compact and has no quartz crystals ; .3. The porphyry occurs in solid
mountain masses. In the two great quarries at Tardree, where stones
were got for the long bridge over the Lagan at Belfast, there is a height
of face of 50 or 60 feet of it exposed. It has a great uniformity of
colour and composition, and has no layers; the trap in all the sections
_ near Belfastis entirely composed of layers usually differing in character—
_ some hard, some soft; these layers are often indeed irregular in their
thickness, and often thin out to lenticular forms, but still they are layers.
In the examination of the district, I had hoped somewhere on the
exterior boundary of the porphyry to see one or more junctions in which
I could see veins of the black trap thrown into the white porphyry, or
' veins of the porphyry penetrating the surrounding trap, and by this
means determine which is the older rock, but I did not see any clear
_ satisfactory junction of the two rocks in contact, nor is there a sign of
any such junction round the porphyry district so far as I could discover.
I crossed the boundary of the black and the white rocks several times,
and saw the surface rock or excavations made in it frequently, but the
_ junctions are obscured by drift or by aconsiderable depth of the decom-
| posed sand of one or other of them—sometimes in broad green valleys,
| sometimes in shoulders of hills or sides of ridges, but nowhere a direct
| Junction of the black rocks; and, therefore, I cannot say from junctions
which is the older and which the newer.
) The tops of the porphyry hills of Carneary and Browndod are much
higher points than any of the adjacent trap hills westward or southward,
/which decline away in elevation towards the River Main, at Randals-
town, or the shores of Lough Neagh. On the other hand, Collintop and
other basaltic hills on the east, are higher than Browndod or the adja-
cent porphyry about Loon Burn. This appears to me as if at that side
the trap of Collin were elevated by the porphyry. On the whole, my
views lean to the opinion that the porphyry is newer than thetrap, and
came up through it, the two being now greatly worn down by atmo-
spheric action and probable denudation.
i R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 2R
|
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yr |
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, 4
|
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IO EELS
294
The porphyry at the east side of Browndod in an old excavation on
the road side, has a reddish brown basis, containing embedded in it small
concretions of smoke quartz, with earthy and glassy crystals of reddish
felspar and olivine. At the Tardree quarries the felspar is white; to
the east of this the rock is much weathered at the surface, its decompo-
sition giving rise to a sandy soil, from which the district on the north-
east is called Sandy Braes.
At Barnish, half-a-mile to the east of the great Tardree quarry, the
porphyry in one of the pits is constituted of horizontal layers of diffe-
rent colours from three inches to three feet in thickness. There are
layers of red, layers of gray, and layers of white interstratified, if I
may so call it, in a crystalline rock with each other. The whole of the
decomposing rock in the pit is in a condition easily reducible to sand.
This sand is used by the country gentlemen for the walks in their pleasure
grounds. By a little care in the pit, the red sand can be put in a heap,
the white in a heap, and the gray in a heap, and thus a gentleman may
have red walks, gray walks, or white walks, according to his taste; and
this is not unusual for some miles from this place.
On seeing this pit the idea suggested itself that it is possible those
layers of different colours may once have been some of the red and gray
slates so usual in the old graywacke rocks, altered from the dull argilla-
ceous stony aspect of the clay slate to a highly crystalline state, now
easily decomposed into sand without altering much the colour. The level
layers and the varieties of colour would both lead to this conclusion.
Dubourdieu, in his Statistical Survey of the county of Antrim, says
that ‘‘ Pitchstone porphyry and pearlstone porphyry occur in parts of
this district. Two large masses of each variety may be seen a few yards
below the bridge across the Loon Burn on the road from Connor to
Doagh. In the pitchstone porphyry the sound part in the interior is
bluish black and has a shining and vitreous lustre ; the surface weathers
yellowish green of different shades, according to the advance of decay ;
common opal occurs in it, either in plates or small veins. In the pearl-
stone porphyry the colour is smoke gray, or bluish, with a pearly lustre;
it is formed of very thin concentric coats.”
I went to Loon Burn, but was much disappointed: I saw no such
large masses as Mr. Dubourdieu described—nothing that I would call a
dyke. There is ina sandpit 20 yards below the road, and 30 yards south
of the stream, a black string two inches thick, which might in depth
become thicker. It has, indeed, that appearance, but the rock on both
sides of it is in a decomposing state—in fact coarse brown sand passing |
into the harder black rock, that it is no easy matter to say what wasthe |
original thickness. I may, I think, safely say there is no such dyke ©
visible there now; either the dyke has been decomposed and grass or
furze grown over the place, or the original description was greatly
exaggerated.
All the porphyry about Loon Burn shows an unusually coarse condi-
tion of crystallization. In a decomposing state it can be raised in sand,
the particles of which are as large as peas.
295
At Ballycloghan, a mile and a-half north-west of Broughshane, there
is a protrusion of whitish fine-grained rock, which is quarried and cut
for window sills and other economic uses in the country. A quarry is
opened in it at the National Schoolhouse, and worked to the extent
of half an acre. The rock in this quarry is of a whitish colour and
very fine grain, and in this respect is totally unlike the rock of the
Carnearny district just spoken of, which is in a high state of crystalliza-
tion. It hasa vertical cleavage, by which it splits into flags from two
to four or six inches in thickness, and is easily worked with punch or
chisel. The mass in its course is generally decomposed into sand,
coarse or fine, and seldom in the condition of solid hard rock at the
surface. It appears to be a great dyke or protrusion running from the
quarry at Ballycloghan to Lismacrogher on the north-west, a distance
of about three miles. The low flattish land in which it is supposed to
occur, under the bog and drift, is from one-eighth to a quarter of a mile
wide. On both sides of this low space the black trap appears in higher
hummocks ofrock. In this space, as the solid rock is rarely seen at the
surface, the line of the protrusion is traced by means of the subsoil,
which appears in many places to be the rock decomposed into a whitish
sand or gravel.
Analysis cannot probably do much to determine what kind of rock
this may be. I have shown some specimens of it to an able chemical
friend, who, on examining it with a lens, said it is composed of the
debris of granite well ground down and deposited in water. It has a
large amount of quartz in the state of very fine sand, mixed with felspar
reduced to clay, and a little mica. The quartz is sometimes in fragments
one-eighth of an inch in diameter; one such fragment appearing in about
every two inches of the rock. There appears indeed to be alternating
stripes of different shades of light gray and yellowish white colour,
like sedimentary lines, so thin as to have about ten or fifteen to the
inch, and those lines coincide exactly with the vertical cleavage lines—
if cleavage lines they be—to which I have alluded.
This idea of its being a sedimentary rock presents a great difficulty
in the ease of a band of rock three miles long, and one-eighth to a
quarter of a mile wide, surrounded by trap on every side, and thereby
suggesting the idea that it came up through that trap from the depths
below. It might have been deposited in water in level beds in the old
times, then covered up with the other deposits up to the chalk and trap
of the country; but how were the layers of this mass changed from a
horizontal to a vertical position? Without working out this question
to my own satisfaction, I must leave it to more able geologists to crack
“| this nut. It is too hard for me.
TRAP.
All geologists now believe that trap is a rock of volcanic origin.
The mass of which it is composed was melted in the depths of the earth
by subterranean heat, and in that condition it broke or was forced up
through the overlaying formations, was poured out, and spread over what-
ever foundation of other rocks happened to be in the way, as the lava
ee a ae ae
eee ong et —
ee LI ood
wr iereey ~ —— errs ery =
ena Mine t OO ED A I LI ee
ed
296
of a volcano does at present. In this way it covered over the chalk of
Antrim, and the trap is itself now the surface rock in nine-tenths of
the county. :
In the county of Antrim, which is nearly all covered over with
trap at the surface, and which is sometimes arranged in layers, some-
times in lenticular masses, sometimes in large amorphous masses, the
layers assume a level position. They appear to be guided in the first
mee by the lie of chalk on which they rest, which may be said to
e level.
See =
Alternating Layers of Trap and Ochre, resting on Chalk, at Garron Point.
Fig. 4, is a diagram of the sectional view at Garron Point on the
coast, 35 miles north of Belfast. The dark coloured layers represent
solid hard trap; the lighter layers are of soft red ochre, alternating
with the hard beds. Studying the well-exposed section in that place,
leads to the conclusion that the whole trappean mass, which forms a
precipice of about 500 feet high, as it rests on the white limestone, or
indurated chalk there, has been produced trom a submarine volcano,
in which the ejected matter consisted of melted trap mixed with ashes.
The hard beds are formed from the melted rock, thrown up in a vol-
canic fissure or funnel, and spread out in the bottom of the sea; the
red soft beds, formed out of the ashes, disseminated in the water,
-making a red sea, and deposited in calm water, as a red, soft bed of
ochre, each bed of trap representing an eruption.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Za
There must thus have been a succession of such eruptions until the
fifteen or sixteen hard beds, with the alternating soft ones, were ac-
cumulated, which form the mural cliff above the road at Garron Point,
which is one of the many picturesque features on the Antrim coast.
Those layers appear to have been laid down in the bottom of the
sea or ocean; and the whole of that bottom afterwards raised up to-
gether, by subterranean power, to the position in which we now see
it, where the top of the mass is 760 feet above the level of the same
ocean in which it was deposited.
Pl. XXIV. represents Bengore Head, on the north coast of An-
trim, near the Giant’s Causeway. It shows layers of amorphous and
columnar trap, as well as a few of red ochre, alternating with them,
which are visible in that headland, and which dive into the water to
the east of it at Portmoon. The view at this place, with its alternat-
ing black and red layers, is analogous to that at Garron Point; but at
Bengore Head there are two great layers of columnar trap, of which
there is none at the former place.
The measurements of the layers at Bengore head are as follow, and
may be interesting. They are from a paper by Dr. Richardson, in
“* Phil. Trans.,’”’ 1808; the numbers correspond to those on Pl. XXIV. :—
Feet.
ss Three thick layers of black, tabular, ees sor ai
3. occasionally containing zeolite, :
=| Several layers of black tabular basalt, divided my thin i 80
is seams of ochre,
7. Bole or red ochre, . 22
' 8. Columnar basalt, the stratum which, at its west end,
forms the Causeway where it dips into the sea, .. 44
9. Irregularly prismatic basalt, with red ochre and brec-
clated trap; in this bed the wacké and wood coal,
or lignite of Port Noffer, occur, 54
10. Columnar basalt, the upper range of pillars at Ben-
gore, rather coarsely articulated, . : 54
From the top of Bengore head, going eastward,
other layers crop out, as follow :—
11. Coarsely columnar basalt, : F : : ! 10
12. Intermediate between bole and basalt, 5 5 8
13. Columnar basalt begins near Berryaduna Isles, east
of Bengore Head, : 2 7
14. Basalt irregularly prismatic, by Dunseverick, : 60
~ 15. Red ochre, or bole, 3 , 9
16. Basalt, irregularly prismatic, . . ; 60
Total, .> 488
I give these views to show that those hard layers of black rock,
alternating with soft layers of red rock here, are suggestive of the
298
formation of strata, such as we see in all the sedimentary rocks, and a
remarkable analogy may be observed between them. In the Old Red
Sandstone, in the carboniferous system for instance, the group 1s com-
posed of beds'of hard, red, gritty rock, two or four feet thick, alternat-
ing with beds of soft, red, clayey shale, showing that in this, a sedi-
mentary group, hard, quartzose beds, and soft, argillaceous beds succeed
each other, like the hard basalt and the soft ochre beds of Antrim.
The older rocks of the primary and transition systems present a
similar arrangement. Hard, gritty beds are found alternating with
soft, fine, slaty beds, each kind often varying in colour, as grey, green,
brown or red; and in thickness, from a few inches to 20, 50, or 100
feet, or more.
The fusibility of igneous rocks generally exceeds that of other
rocks, for the alkaline, earthy, and ferruginous bases which they con-
tain make easily fusible salts, with the large quantity of silica, which
would be otherwise so refractory an ingredient.
The layers of trap, as we see them at Garron Point, Fig. 4, and
many other good sections, are diversified: some are hard, some soft;
they are mostly gray or blackish, with a few red. In aspect they are
unlike individually; yet, on the whole, they have a general resem-
blance, and any single layer would be known to belong to the family.
They are persistent, and often one layer can be seen in the face
of the cliff for a hundred feet, or from that to a thousand feet or
more, without much variation of thickness. At this locality the layers
are from two to six feet thick, and resemble the beds in a regular
quarry; but this local regularity does not extend, by any means, over
large areas.
As I shall have occasion to make frequent reference to the geography
of the north coast of Antrim, in the following observations I think ‘it
desirable to give a statement in tabular form, showing the names of the
bays and headlands from the Bushfoot to Ballycastle, with the heights
of those headlands above sea level :—
Names and Heights of the Principal Headlands on the North Coast of
Antrim, and of the Bays or Ports between them.—See Pl. XXV.
HEADLANDS AND BAYS.
Feet high.
1. Runkerry Point, west of Portcoon, : j ; we LO
Portcoon Cave.
2. Point, east of same, . bana nt : : : Pel ag
Portnabaw.
3. Weir’s Snoot, opposite Great Stookaun, , ; =. 288
Port Ganniv.
4, Causeway, top of cliff, . ; ; : : 80
Port Noffer.
5. Roveran Valley Head, : : : : : EN INST
6. Chimney Tops, summit,
Port na Spania.
7. Ben an ouran, : : :
Port na Callian.
8. Headland, : A :
Port na Tober.
9. Plaiskin Head, A ,
Port Plaiskin.
10. Benbane,
11. Headland, Port na Truin,
12. Bengore Head,
Portfad.
13. Contham Head, :
Port Moon.
14. At Island, top of Cliff,
15. Dunseverick-on-the-Shore,
16. Templestragh, :
Whitepark Bay.
17. Ballintoy, Flagstaff, 5
Boheeshane Bay.
18. Larry Bane Head, : :
Larry Bane Bay.
19. Carrickarede,
Portmore.
20. Kenbane Head,
299
Port Reostan.
Ballycastle Bay.
21. Croaghateemore, two miles east of Ballycastle,
22. Fair Head, four miles east of Ballycastle,
Feet high.
380
392
373
095
332
d45
367
259
117
142
87
139
168
290
220
433
636
The word trap, in the sense in which I use it, includes a great num-
ber of rocks of analogous chemical composition, containing the same
bases and silica, and only slightly differing in their relative propor-
tions.
The same rock, too, may exhibit great diversity in aggregation,
being soft, hard, compact, crystalline, vesicular, without much variation
in composition.
ing names for all these varieties.
Geologists have been more or less successful in provid-
In the following observations, however, I deem it advisable to
avoid a voluminous, and perhaps embarrassing nomenclature, got from
300
books, from museums, or even from mountains, and to adopt one so
simple as will be barely sufficient to show such physical differences as
are easily perceptible to the eye, either in hardness, grain, or colour, in
traversing the country.
Fig. 5.
Seen,
ie We-woe =
Curved Balsaltic Columns, about 50 feet high, resting on
near Carrickfergus.
In taking a glance over the basaltic country of Derry and Antrim,
it might be thought that the trap, or basalt, is all composed of one
great eruption of melted matter, poured out at once over the white
limestone, or chalk, as it then existed; but this notion does not stand
the test of reasoning. In well-exposed sections, it is seen all in level
layers, and it is much more in accordance with what we see in nature,
to suppose that each layer was a distinct eruption, for it generally
makes a distinct variety of rock. Neither does it appear that any one
kind was poured out at one time over the whole area. At Aughna-
hough (Fig. 1, p. 275) soft blackish wacké (0, 0, 6,) rests on the white
limestone, and therefore appears to have been the first rock spread out
in that place. At Cave Hill, itis nearly similar. At Whitehead, near
Carrickfergus, the chalk is covered by hard, columnar trap (Fig. 5),
exhibiting some of the most magnificent curving columns in the
country, 50 feet in height, with soft, level layers covering them at
top. At Fair Head, it is greenstone, and rests both on chalk and on
coal-measures, at Murlogh Bay, Pl. XXVI. At Bengore Head, tabular
trap (Pl. XXIV.) is the lowest rock visible; but there may be other
varieties, for the underlying rock is below the sea level. In fact, there
is no regular succession of the basaltic layers, either high up in the
mass or low down immediately on the chalk.
301
Again, at Aughnahough (Fig. 1) the succession of the layers is not like
that at White Head (Fig. 5); nor like that at Garron Point, (Fig. 4) ;
nor like that at Fair Head, in Murlogh Bay (Pl. XXVI.); nor like that
at Bengore Head, near the Causeway(Pl. XXIV.). The section in all
those localities are widely different; and even the layers of trap in
the same section—say at Garron Point, or at Bengore Head—are not
alike. There are alternate hard and soft layers; sometimes a layer of
bole or ochre; sometimes hard, black trap; sometimes soft. <A layer
is often seen in form of a lenticular mass, and thins out to nothing;
then is succeeded horizontally by another; and this is the case,
especially where they are thick. The trap of Antrim, therefore, accord-
ing to the view I take of it, does not consist of one great flow, but of
many different flows, coming from different sources. Since, then, there
is no regular succession from the chalk upwards, the few kinds I
may select as descriptive rocks I will arrange and describe in alpha-
betical order. I shall divide the trap rocks into eight kinds, which
will include the most extensive, and the most easily recognized; and
I shall point out a few localities where each kind is well developed,
and any other matter I know in each locality that may be of interest
to the geologist.
The varieties are :—
1. Amorphous trap. 5. Greenstone.
2. Brecciated trap. 6. Ochre, or bole.
3. Columnar trap. 7. Tabular trap.
4, Concretionary trap. 8. Wacké.
1. Amorphous Trap.—This is the hard kind, which crowns many of
the highest hills. It appears to be the upper layer, being next the
surface of the land in most places; but it is also common in the middle
layers of a section. Its layers are of indefinite thickness, being some-
times 5 feet; sometimes 50 feet thick; and it occurs in irregular,
lenticular masses mostly. It is frequently quarried on the road sides,
for the use of the roads; and an excellent material it is. The features
of all those hard traps—the amorphous, the brecciated, the columnar,
the concretionary, and the tabular, are easily recognized on the great
scale, in the hills; but when broken into small fragments, such as are
used on roads, they cannot be well distinguished from each other in
hand specimens. In Pl. XXIV., the beds Nos. 1, 2, 3, are characteristic
of this kind.
2. Brecciated Trap.—This kind occurs in layers of from 10 to 50
feet in thickness on the north coast. It is not common in the interior
of the country. It is plentiful in the vicinity of the Giant’s Causeway.
The high precipice to the east of the little road that leads from the
hotel down to the Causeway is composed of it. There are many large,
roundish masses of it on the shore, at the water’s edge, about the
Causeway itself, which tumbled down from the adjacent cliff; and the
fragmentary appearance they present is very characteristic of this kind.
There is a layer mostly composed of this rock, between the two princi-
R.I, A. PROC.—VOL. X. 28
302
pal layers of columnar trap at Plaiskin, and along the north coast, two
miles long and 60 feet thick, extending from the Causeway to Port
Moon. This layer, however, is not brecciated throughout; there are
some small lenticular layers of red ochre in it, and also layers of black
tabular trap in parts of it, full of cavities and air-holes; but the brec-
ciated character is prevalent. The lignite bed, six feet thick, got close
to the Causeway, occurs in it.
3. Columnar Trap is that kind which occurs in columns. The
columns seem, in every case, to assume the position of being at right
angles, as near as may be, to the two surfaces between which the melted
mass was lnjected ; for it appears to me that layers of columnar trap,
whether in a vertical position, sloping or horizontal, have been always
injected into fissures made in larger solid masses.
At Bengore Head, Point Plaiskin, and the Causeway (see PI.
XXIV.), columnar trap shows itself in two grand layers; the upper
one, No. 10, standing in rather coarse pillars, 60 feet high, like a vast
colonnade ; next is the layer of brecciated trap, 60 feet thick, No. 9, just
described; and below this is the lower range of columns, No. 8, about
40 feet high. This latter is much more perfect in its articulation than
the upper layer. The Giant’s Causeway is at the west end of it, and
forms a part of it.
Concretionary Trap, or ‘‘ Onion” Basalt on the Roadside, near the Causeway.
4. Concretionary Trap is that kind which appears in round balls,
and decomposes in concentric layers, which shed off like the coats of an
onion. Those balls occur from three inches or less in diameter to three
feet ; they are sometimes ten feet or more. They are very hard when
quarried fresh, but in time, by exposure, shed off layers by degrees, till
the ball is reduced to nothing. The sketch (Fig. 6), taken at the road-
side leading from the hotel down to the Causeway, shows the appearance
of a mass of this kind, and gives an idea of how it decomposes. It is
common through the country. ‘The finest I know of this kind is on the
003
shore under high water mark, half-a-mile south-east of Culdaff House,
in Donegal. ‘This kind is sometimes called onion basalt.
5. Greenstone is a granular rock, composed principally of two sub-
stances—felspar and hornblende. The felspar is imperfectly crystallized
and is more abundant in this rock than in basalt. Greenstone is rather
a scarce rock in Antrim. It occurs at Fair Head in a great overflow,
which covers that promontory. This overflow appears in enormous
vertical prismatic masses, often quadrilateral, which are destitute of the
regular articulation and neatness of form which distinguish the basaltic
pillars of the Causeway. A single rude column is seen standing at
the Gray Man’s Path. It appears to be formed of a bundle of
smaller ones which decompose into similar masses of unequal sizes. The
greatest height of the precipice is 317 feet, and nearly perpendicular.
The concretions of this greenstone are distinct and large. It also con-
tains augite.
Shevemish, or Sleamish, is composed entirely of greenstone. It is
seven miles east of Ballymena; it is 1487 feet high ; the sides are steep,
and it forms a gigantic landmark in the country, and can be seen for
many miles to the north, west, andsouth of Lough Neagh. Itislonger
in a north and south direction than from east to west. The greenstone
of this mountain is fine-grained, and the crystallization more perfect than
usual. .The felspar is of a brownish red colour.
The hill of Tieveara, half a mile west of Cushendall, is an eruption
of greenstone. It is in form of a truncated cone, very steep at the sides,
and roundish on the top. The greenstone is highly crystalline, the
erystals large, and the rock rather porous, so that it admits water, and
easily falls away by decomposition.
Red Ochre or Boles.—This is a soft rock. It occurs on the north coast
of Antrim in layers from three inches to two or three feet in thickness,
between the tabular masses of trap about Bengore Head and the Cause-
way (Pls. XXIV. and XXV.). Some ofthe red layers are from 10 to 15
feet thick or more. On the north-east face of Trostan mountain,
three miles south west of Cushendall, a layer is 30 feet thick and
half a mile long or more. Many layers of it are interstratified with
the black layers of hard and soft trap at Garron Point (Fig. 4).
About 10 chains south of the Bull’s Eye Waterfall, near Glenarm,
there is a perpendicular cliff of it on the river side about 40 feet
high. Some of the layers in this cliff are hard, some red, and
some a lilac colour, so soft and soapy that they could be easily cut
with a knife like a piece of soft chalk; the layers are from two
to four feet thick, and in some are imbedded clear quartz crystals the
size of grains of partridge shot, with double pyramids complete.
7. Tabular Trap.—This rock is well developed at Bengore Head, on
the north coast (Pl. XXIV., beds Nos. 1, 2,3). It is there spread out
in black layers, nearly horizontal, from 5 to 15 feet in thickness, and
from a furlong to a mile in length. ‘he black layers (Nos. 4, 5,6) are
separated from each other by thinner layers of red ochre, from three
inches in thickness to three feet; sometimes much more. ‘This bole or
304
ochre is of a red colour, sometimes of a brilliant scarlet, which makes a
striking contrast with the black layers as they alternate in the face of
the precipice.
Wacké.—Lyall says ‘‘ this is asoft and earthy variety of trap, having
an argillaceous aspect ; it resembles indurated clay, and, when scratched,
exhibits a shining streak.” J haveseen specimens of rock called wacké,
named by a German mineralogist, not at all answering to this description.
Nevertheless, the description appears to me to be agood one, and appli-
cable to a great quantity of rock in Antrim. It has very much the
aspect of certain thick-bedded black shales, containing round balls, which
occur in coal-measures in Limerick and Kerry, but is of course, as com-
pared to those of Limerick shales, deficient in the accompanying stratified
beds. Like those shales, the wacké decomposes when exposed to the
weather. It appears to have been the first trap formed in Antrim, as it
lies in many places the first layer over the chalk. This is the case at
Aughnahough, at No. 3 in the Table, and a great part of the way from
that to Cave Hill; at Dundrossan, a mile north of Portmuck in Island
Magee. At Dunluce Castle it is mixed with harder layers, and’ the same
condition of it is visible in the cliffs at Garron Point (Fig. 4). In short
there is no kind of trap so general.
Fair Head (Pl. X XVI.) and Bengore Head (Pl. XXIV.) are the
two most prominent features on the northern part of the coast of An-
trim ; and, for reasons which I shall adduce, it appears to me that there
was a volcanic vent, or crater on the great scale, in’the vicinity of each
of those headlands. Probably there were more than two, but those
two localities exhibit features which cannot be ascribed to any other
origin.
At the east side of Fair Head, the greenstone is seen at Murlogh
Bay, resting on chalk, and on coal-measures at its southern boundary,
on the flank of Carnanmore Mountain. It is quite thin; but proceed-
ing northward it gets thicker, until at last it is terminated at the point
of Fair Head (Pl. X XVI.) by a perpendicular precipice, 317 feet high,
all one kind of greenstone, without horizontal joints. From the base of
this precipice there is a talus, sloping down to the sea, principally com-
posed of huge blocks of greenstone which fell from the face of the pre-
cipice. These blocks are of monstrous size, and are scattered wildly
about. Immediately about Fair Head this mass of greenstone rests on
coal-measures. From the northern end of the trap, which is the highest
(636 feet), the surface slopes inwards to the south. This slope indi-
cates that the source from which the flow came, in a fluid state, lay to
the north, and that the vent by which it was emptied lay in that direc-
tion; also that there was in fact a mountain of it to the north of Fair
Head, of which the present headland is but a small remnant. The pre-
cipitous character of the shore about Fair Head, and along the north
coast, through the colliery from this to Ballycastle, gives the idea of a
great broken-down volcanic crater—accompanied, perhaps, by a fault.
' The shore from Fair Head to Ballycastle is the south side of such fault ;
the north side is gone down, and sunk under the ocean.
300
The greatest depth of the channel between Rathlin and Antrim is
58 fathoms=318 feet; the height of Fair Head, 634 feet: these, added
together, make 952 feet—the probable downthrow to the north of the
above fault.
The greenstone of this place (Fair Head) is very coarse in the
grain, very heavy, and very hard, and is attracted by a magnet. Indeed,
so unusual is the effect of it on the magnetic needle, that a small com-
pass, placed on the rock at the top of the cliff, at several points within
a space of ten feet, showed the needle sometimes pointing to the north—
sometimes it settles at the south, or the east, or west.
There is one passage down from the top to the bottom of the cliff, in
the Grey Man’s Path, which is an incision in the face of the precipice,
occasioned by the disintegration of the trap ina whin dyke. There is a
slope in this fissure, which, though steep, is convenient enough to
descend by. But below what ascene! The slope from the bottom of
the precipice, as I have just stated, is covered by huge fragments of
squarish columns, of every size, which fell down from the cliff, and
form a wonderful talus, sloping down to the sea at an angle of 40° to
50°. A regiment of soldiers might go underground at the same time,
in the openings between those immense blocks, many of them twelve
yards long, by five or six in breadth and depth. I measured one,
which weighs nearly 2000 tons, and many others are equal, or
nearly so.
The greenstone of this headland appears to have flowed over the
coal-measures, the chalk, and any rock that lay in its way. Whether
this greenstone came up in a fissure, or whether it flowed from a crater
lying to the north, cannot be told. I believe in the crater, for reasons
I shall state presently.
At Bengore Head something similar seems to have taken place.
The height of this headland is 367 feet above the ocean level, but the
rocks are all on alower level here. The chalk, which about Murlogh
Bay stands at 700 to 800 feet above the sea, is at Bengore Head under
the ocean level—it is not known how much. The chalk, however,
both east of Bengore Head at Port Braddan, and west of it at the Bush-
foot, peeps up over the water. The whole volume of the layers of
trap about Bengore Head, looking southward, from the sea, form a
great flat arch (Pl. XXV.). Taking the lower columnar layer, which
is well marked, as an index to point out this arch, it emerges from the
sea at the Causeway, which forms a part of it, and rises gradually in the
face of the cliff eastward to 189 feet at Bengore Head. It falls east-
ward regularly again to Portmoon, where it sinks into the ocean. The
distance from the Causeway, where it emerges from the water, to Port-
moon, where it sinks under it again, is two miles, at sea level.
These figures give the dimensions of the arch, and the layers above
and below at this locality are parallel to this and to each other. I shall
enter more fully into the detail of those layers presently.
If the general appearance of Fair Head—with its steep precipices,
and broken, bold outline—suggests the idea that it lies in the vicinity
306
of an old crater, the appearances about Bengore Head convey the same
idea in a still more striking manner. Looking from the sea at the land,
it is like the ruins of the internal part of one side of a crater. The se-
veral successive layers erupted, and spread out, one over another, are
there, clear and visible, and leave no doubt of the existence of a former
voleano. Considering, then, that the crater of an ancient volcano exists
in the present ocean—say a quarter of a mile north of Fair Head, and a
similar crater a quarter of a mile north of Bengore Head—considering
also the abrupt, precipitous character of the northern coast, from Fair
Head, through the coal-measures at Ballycastle, by the headlands about
Bengore Head, and on to Magilligan, in Derry—the conclusion is ine-
vitable that a fault exists along, near the north coast, probably through
the centres of the two craters, from Fair Head by Bengore Head and
Magilligan, into Lough Foyle. All the rock to the north of this line
has gone down, or the dry land to the south of it has been heaved up.
At Bengore Head, the highest part of the land in the immediate vici-
nity is at the top of the cliffs on the coast. From that the surface,
which is the top of the upper columnar layer of trap, slopes back south-
wards for some furlongs, as it does at Fair Head. All the layers have
a southern dip, and the stratified rocks on this part of the coast, that is
the coal-measures, the lias, and the chalk, where they appear above the
level of the water, have all a southern dip also, at a low angle, gene-
rally from 5° to 10°. Those latter rocks do not appear to be much dis-
turbed since they were first deposited; the beds or the layers do not
appear anywhere upset on their edges, as they do in the older rocks.
The trap layers especially are near to the angle at which they were ori-
ginally spread out, and the rise to the north seaward along the coast
appears to confirm the idea that there was higher land to the north than
we now see at the time of the eruptions which compose the present
layers of the shore, and that the upper layers of liquid lava flowed from
their sources to the south in this locality.
This section at Bengore Head, however, is not typical of sections in
the county generally. The section (Fig. 4) at Garron Point, which 1s
also well exposed, consists of a much greater number of layers, and
those much thinner, the thickest of them seldom exceeding eight or ten
feet, and more generally from three to six feet. There are no columnar
layers, and no thick layers of tabular trap; there are a few of red or
brownish-red ochre, the rest are all hard and soft dark-coloured layers,
often alternating. Indeed it may be said of the trap sections of Antrim
that there are no two of them alike at five miles distance.
The basalt ends at Port Braddan, in a vertical fault, where it joins
the chalk of Whitepark and Ballintoy ; this part of the coast further
showing that the chalk at Whitepark has been heaved up, or the rocks
about Bengore Head relatively let down.
The section at Bengore Head suggests a few ideas for speculation
regarding the succession of the layers. It appears to me that the layers
of tabular trap that now he immediately upon the chalk were the first
that were erupted and deposited in each locality, and, in a general way,
307
the next above the first was the second that was formed, and so on;
but the layers of columnar trap appear to me to be an exception to this
rule: they appear to have been the last that were produced in the suc-
cession at Bengore Head.
We find that vertical trap dykes consist often of a series of columns
of four, five, six, or seven sides, exactly similar in form to those at
Bengore Head, but not similar in position. The Bengore Head co-
lumns all affect a vertical position; those in the dykes are hori-
zontal. In both cases the axis of the column is at right angles
to the sides or surfaces between which the melted matter of the
trap was injected; and this law appears to be general in all cases
of injected trap, whether the fissures which received it were ver-
tical, horizontal, or sloping. Cases are often met with of trap dykes
where part of the dyke is vertical and a part turns into a hori-
zontal position. In this case, as well as in the others, the columnar
structure is changed in position, according to the change in direc-
tion of the dyke, and the axes of the columns are still at right an-
gles to the cooling surfaces of hard rock that existed when the fissure
was formed, and the melted matter poured into it.
All the varieties of trap, the most dense heavy black basalt,
and the most porous white lava; the hard rough trachyte and the
soft red bole are composed for the most part of the same elementary sub-
stances. Since this is the case, they must have been produced under
different conditions. Some of the flows were erupted in deep water
in the bottom of an ocean, some poured out in the atmosphere, and some
into fissures in cold hard rocks, which were split up or dislocated by
subterraneous expansive power, those fissures affording a facility for
the melted lava to penetrate them, and there harden into rock as hard
as that which encloses it.
It appears to me that the trap rocks of Antrim have been produced
under the following conditions :—The black vesicular tabular trap which
it is believed lies next over the chalk on the north coast, about Bengore
Head, was erupted in a deep ocean, and spread out in liquid masses over
the rocky bottom of that ocean, generating steam which produced the
cells in the mass. The water cooled it quickly without giving time for
crystallization ; hence its dull rough fracture. In this manner I suppose
the black beds Nos. 1, 2, 3, on the section (Pl. XXIV.) were produced,
which amount to about 80 feet over the water.
i believe the ochre or red bole was volcanic ashes thrown up in the
eruption, and disseminated in the water, making literally a red sea.
When the energy of the first burst of volcanic action was partly spent,
there came a time of rest, and in a calm, part of the red sediment was
deposited, making a layer of ochre. Over this again was erupted and
spread out another layer of the fused matter of the black rock ; then in
a second calm, another deposit of red ashes as before. In this manner
was produced the alternations of black rock and red ochre layers, as we
see them about Bengore Head (Pl. XXIV.), numbered on the section 4,
5, 6. No. 7 isa bed of red ochre 22 feet thick, produced in the same
308
way, with probably a longer period of calm and a greater accumulation
of the red sediment. The next layer I suppose was No. 9, then Nos. 11,
12, 14, and 16, all thick layers of irregular trap, some of it mixed bole
and basalt, some brecciated, some coarsely columnar, and some irregu-
larly prismatic.
I have already said that in columnar masses, in all positions, the axes
of the columns are at right angles to the cooling surfaces. The layers
I have been just describing fall in as having been erupted one after
another very naturally tabular trap, bole or ochre, and mixed traps.
The columnar layers cannot be accounted for by being thrown up in cold
water; in that case they would be like the tabular trap Nos. 1, 2, 3.
Nor does it appear how they could be produced in air; they would be
porous or vesicular lavas ; they would not in either of those conditions
crystallize with the columnar structure. It appears to me that they
were produced as whin dykes are supposed to have been produced ; that
is, by red hot fluid trap being poured into crevices and fissures opened
in the rocks by the agency of gas or steam, generated by subterranean
heat.
At Fair Head, the great mass of greenstone is not articulated in
columns like the Causeway layer, and we therefore must attribute
the manner of its production to some other process. From its being 320
feet thick at the north edge (see Pl. XXVI.), and about 10 to 20 feet
at the south, this difference being in a mile of length, it appears to have
been most probably one great flow, and covered the ground round about in
circular form at the time. This thinning out to the south would indi-
cate that the vent from which it was erupted was situated to the north,
as already stated. This flow might have been in air; it might have
been in a deep sea; there is only a small part of the circle remaining
now. All the eastern half, and all the northern part, together with the
crater and its adjuncts, appear to have sunk into the ocean since. Ihave
already given a description of this mass of greenstone, of its nature and
articulation.
Under the greenstone at Fair Head, there is a columnar layerin the
coal-measures with columns 50 feet long and about 30 inches in diameter,
well articulated like those at Bengore Head, but thicker. This great
layer lies parallel to the bedding of the coal-measures. It is visible on
the east side of Fair Head, a little to the south of the Gray Man’s Path.
There is also a second columnar layer under the last-mentioned, and
parallel to it, three feet thick, with columns about six inches diameter,
but imperfectly articulated. I suppose these two layers to have been
produced in the same manner and at the same time as the columnar
layers at Bengore Head.
Columnar Trap at Wiute Head (see Fig. 5, p. 300).—The columns here
rest directly on the chalk, and the top of that rock in this locality assumes
a basin shape, into which the trap was injected. From the bottom of
this hollow the columns curve upward, their vertical joints being as
usual at right angles to the curved surface of the base on which they
stand; the curved columns are from three to four feet in diameter at
309
their bases, but grow gradually smaller upwards, to about half that
thickness at the top; two columns below often merge into one at about
six feet down from the top, and sometimes three at the base join into
one above, but that one is thicker than where it separates into two or
three lower down. The columns are about 50 feet in height, and form
one of the finest as well as the most singular of the columnar facades of
Antrim.
If the view I take of the formation of columnar ranges of trap be
correct, this 50 feet layer lying directly on the chalk must have been
the last mass of trap erupted at White Head, and injected from its source
into this position. Under other circumstances, I shouldsay that the
mass lying on the chalk would have been the first.
The Giant’s Causeway has got a name of wide-spread celebrity. It
is a low and rather irregular platform of basaltic rock running out north-
ward into the sea from the bottom of a high cliff. Itresembles a quay
or aroad, afew feet higher on the east side than on the west. At low
water it is about 210 yards long from the passage cut through it at
the south to the north end, where its dips into the sea. It is about 50
yards wide at the south end, and from 5 to 10 at the point. It is
composed of a single layer of basalt about 40 feet thick, reposing nearly
in a horizontal position ; this layer is composed of a number of upright
columns standing on end, and so closely packed together that the blade
of a knife could be scarcely put between any two of them. It forms a
polygonal pavement on the top, reminding one of the cells of a honey-
comb, or of the wood pavements now pretty well known in large towns ;
it is even enough on the surface to walk upon. The columns are from
14 to 18 inches in diameter ; every one is a prism, mostly of six sides
as it stands on end, but the sides are not equal. Some of the columns
have five sides, and a few four ; some also have seven sides or eight, and
the guides show one with nine, but there are ten times as many with
six sides as there are of all the other put together.
No two sides of acolumn are equal; the six sides of any one column
are respectively equal to the adjacent sides of the surrounding columns.
Whether those sides be long or short, they all meet exactly at the
angles, where there are no interstices or opens of any kind. A
single column is usually bounded by six planes, each a regular pa-
rallelogram, from bottom to top, the whole like one long stone, with
six angles. Besides the vertical joints which separate the columns,
there are cross joints also in every column. Those cross joints are
seldom visible when the column is in situ; but when it is quarried, the
stone breaks across at every joint. These joints are not regular planes.
There is a convex and a concave surface in each, which fit with great
exactness, ‘The convex surface is usually uppermost on every piece,
but not always. On account of the convex and concave surfaces in a
joint, there is always a space where the stone on the concave side is
prolonged, and reaches two or three inches over the convex joint at the
angle, making there a sharp point. These points are called spurs. They
mostly break off in the quarrying.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 7a Tk
310
Fig. 7, called the Lady’s Chair, is from a photographic sketch,
looking eastward up the slope from the west side of the Causeway. It
shows the articulations of the joints, both vertical and horizontal;
some of the latter convex and some concave. The points called spurs
referred to in the last paragraph, are seen broken off in several of the
blocks. Half an inch from the base, near the left hand corner, some
water is seen in a black spot of oval form, resting in the hollow of one
of the columns. Visitors can walk over this slope with facility.
Fig. 7.
‘hull |
} ]
Balsaltic eae at the Giant’s sinus called “‘ The Lady’s Chair.”
At the south end of the Causeway is a whin dyke, about 10 feet wide,
which cuts through the Causeway itself. This dyke has had the effect of
elevating the columns which come in contact with it on the west side,
so that the present position of the columns shows the sloping outwards,
at an angle of about 110°. The guides call this group the Giant’s Artil-
lery, or the Giant’s Cannon. It is worthy of remark, that the columns
are as complete as any others about the Causeway, and that they must
have been hardened and crystallized before the intrusion of the melted
matter of the dyke.
The eastern facade of the Causeway is called the Giant’s Loom, and
the longest column in the loom is 34 feet. Some of them have 38
joints visible. The base of the layer at the loom is not visible at low
water. Asit rises, however, in the cliff to the east, it is seen in its
continuation to rest on red ochre.
In the Giant’s Organ, a noble facade, which is situated at the east
side of Port Noffer, the bay next east of the Causeway, the longest
column is 42 feet; but the red ochre on which it lies is not visible
dll
at this spot, so that the layer may be a few feet thicker, and the
columns a few feet longer. Where the layer is well developed, in the
face of the cliff at Plaiskin, and at Bengore Head, it is not accessible
for measurement by line and rule to ordinary visitors, nor even in
favourable circumstances for trigonometrical measurement, from the
perpetual agitation of the ocean on this coast.
Basaltic columns occur in many other places in Antrim besides the
Causeway; but they are chiefly confined to a zone, a mile or two
wide along the north coast, between Ballycastle and Portrush. They
are to be found fartherinland, but the surface is, for the most part, co-
vered with tillage or bog, and they are not visible. The ranges of
pillars are found at various heights in the hills, above the level of the
sea. The following Table shows the localities of the chief groups of
them, and the heights at which they occur in each place above sea
level :—
Basaltic Pillars in various Localities. Height
above Level.
1. Islandmore Upper and Crossreagh; two ranges, one
over the other, nearly half a mile long, running north
and south, 34 miles north-east of Coleraine, . 350
2. Craigahulliar, 42 miles north-east of Coleraine, : 3 250
3. Cloyfin, 3 miles 1 north-east of Coleraine, . —
4, Toberdornan, or Dunmull, 5 miles north east sf Cole-
raine, . 434
4, Ballyhome and ‘Urbalreagh, 6 miles nort-east of Cole-
raine, . 436
6. Ballytober, 7 miles north-east of Coleraine, : 245
7. Boneyelassagh, $ mile east of Dunluce,_ : : 319
8. Bushmills, in the river banks at the town, ; A 50
9. Carnkirk, 2 miles north-east of Bushmills, ; 270
10. Tonduff, one mile south of Bengore Head, and 3 miles
north-east of Bushmills, . 300
11. Croaghmore, 5 miles east of Bushmills, and 1 mile
south of Whitepark, . : 582
12. Knocksoghey, half a mile east of Ballintoy, ‘ : 578
13. Glenstaghey, 1 mile east of Ballintoy, : : : 450
14. Craiganee, 1 mile south-east of Ballintoy, : 550
15. Ballycastle, near the harbour, rudely columnar trap,
columns three to six feet diameter, . : sea.
16. Ballygally Head, 4 miles north of Larne, ; 4 sea.
17. Black Head, 6 miles north-east of Carrickfergus, : 210
18. White Head, 4 miles north-east of Carrickfergus, ; 80
19. Shane’s Castle, on the north shore of Lough Neagh, . 60
20. Mouth of Glenavy River, 13 miles west of Belfast,
near the shore of Lough Neagh,_ 60
I shall give a few more illustrations of basaltic Pintart in different
conditions. Fig. 8 is a view of a dyke of columnar trap, in brecciated
d12
trap, at Boneyclassagh, half a mile east of Dunluce Castle, on the south
side of the road. The columns are quarried, to be broken for the roads,
being more easily got. The brecciated trap is softer and tougher, and
is not so good as a road material, and is more difficult to quarry. The
columns are about 6 feet long and 6 to 8 inches diameter. The whole
columnar mass is like the upper arms ofa fork; and though a junction
was not exposed when I was there (August, 1858), I believe they join a
few feet down. The right branch of the fork is composed of two
separate dykes; the left only one. The columnar trap here appears to
have been projected into the breccia, and to terminate in a rough,
lenticular form. There is no ochre adjoining it, which would afford a
facility for opening a crevice, when the rock was agitated. There
must have been a violent rupture in the tough breccia. I suppose the
two arms of this dyke to join below in the form of the letter Y.
WWss a= Ss = =
SS 2 Gas SS SSS
Ey Lee
PINS fe Bee SAS ZS
lz 56
SEAN Ee SON
is RS RY?
Whin Dyke in brecciated Trap, at Boneyclassagh, near Dunluce.
There is a peculiarly-shaped mass of trap at Ardihannon, on the
east side of the little road that leads from the hotel down to the Giant’s
Causeway. ‘The whole mass is intruded into the great layer of brec-
cia near the top of the cliff at the Causeway. The mass affects the
columnar form ; but it is not columnar; it is more in the form of solid
flag-like sheets, from six to twelve inches thick. The joints are smooth
but uneven and irregular. At the right-hand side, looking up, it ap-
pears to be columnar. ‘Towards the middle, the masses are bent, so
that the two ends form an angle at the bend. This is the rudest of the
masses, with any pretensions to articulation, which I have seen on the
north coast. This trap, like all the other columnar trap, is very fine-
grained, so as to give a conchoidal fracture, similarly to that in the
columns at the Causeway. ‘The place has the appearance of an attempt
having been made by adventurous labourers to quarry some of the
313
stones; but this could not go far. here are 40 feet of brecciated trap,
forming a very steep precipice over it, so that, if quarried to any extent,
it should be excavated in the manner of a mine. The height of this
mass is from eight to ten feet.
There is another example of rudely columnar trap at Ardihannon
also, on the east side of the by-road leading from the hotel down to the
Giant’s Causeway. The columns are about two feet diameter, and 14
to 16 feet long. It is in the same layer of brecciated trap as the last
described, but lower down in the face of the cliffs. This dyke appears
also to have been quarried for building to some extent. The face of the
mass may be 40 or 50 feet long; and it thins out at the ends, so that
the whole is of a rudely lenticular form. No side of a column is a
plane, and no solid angle is on a straight line through. The columns
are therefore irregular, and indicate perhaps a want of time in cooling
to produce the regular articulation of the Causeway columns. In all
the varieties of trap, it appears that the thin masses, which are sup-
posed to have cooled the most rapidly, are the finestin the grain. The
greenstone dykes of Donegal show this fact well. A very thin dyke is
almost as fine-grained as coarse black glass. Dykes of pitchstone are
often of this kind. Dykes 30 or 50 feet thick are very coarse-grained,
and often show the white crystals (a component of the rock) like grains
of oats in the black mass of the hornblende.
Fig. 9.
Columnar Basalt underlying the tabular Basalt at Craigahulliar.
Fig. 9 is a sketch of a basaltic range of columns at Craigahulliar,
half a mile east of Ballywillin church. This is one of the most beauti-
ful colonnades that can be seen. It is under a mass of tabular basalt.
The extent is 190 feet, presenting its facade towards the north-north-
west. ‘I'he pillars are from 15 to 18 feet high; and the joints of
which they are composed about a foot and a half. Most of them are
314
five-sided. Others have four or six sides. They are remarkably so-
norous, giving out a metallic sound when struck with a hammer.
In the Island of Rathlin, the rocks are chalk and trap, similar to
what those rocks are on the northern shore of Antrim, west of Bally-
castle. There are groups of columns in that island, too, but as they re-
semble those on the main land, I shall merely enumerate the localities.
1. At Kenrammer (the fat Head), there are seven rows of pillars, one
over the other in succession, all nearly vertical, but none very regular;
some were interlaced and mixed with others.
2. At Thi-vigh (the side point), there is a sort of headland sloping
down to the sea; it is covered with grass, but the section sideways
exhibits two assemblages of square pillars not unlike those of Fair
Head. The lower part of this group is formed of pillars the largest in
dimensions ; the upper ones those that are the best defined.
3. Rue na Scarce, in the townland of Craigmacagan, presents another
projecting joint of land, with areal causeway, in neatness hardly inferior
to the Giant’s Causeway itself; the pillars being almost vertical; the
pavement is nearly horizontal.
4. At Doon Point the rock is said to be tabular basalt, but I have
seen a painting made of curved columns at that place, which was of a
unique character. It was painted by Mr. George Davis, for Mr. Grif-
fith’s lectures, and was many years in the Royal Dublin Society.
5. Near Ushet Haven, on the south-east side of a hill, named Broagh
mor na hoosid, there is a very elegant causeway. It is 460 yards long
in a north-east direction, mounting over the top of the hill. The pillars
are five and six-sided; the largest are from three feet to two feet eight
inches in diameter.
Dislocations on the North Coast.
The northern coast of Antrim is much dislocated, but there is a
peculiar facility of tracing the extent of the blocks into which it is
divided by means of the white chalk abutting against, or covered by the
black basalt at the junctions, which can be seen for miles distant; also
the trap, which is columnar, is easily separated by the eye from that
which is not, and in this way every block on the coast can be dis-
tinguished. These blocks are mostly separated from each other by
vertical joints or cracks: whether these great cracks were produced at
the time of the upheaval of the land or not, wedo notknow. The chalk
on the shore for the most part affects a level position ; some of the blocks
are pushed up higher than others. To show this more satisfactorily, I
give approximate measurements of the alternate divisions of chalk and
trap as they appear on-the shore, and the length of each block in miles
and furlongs.
Miles. Furlgs.
From Portrush to the white rocks, is a sandy beach,
probably resting on chalk, 1 6%
1. Chalk cliffs to the barrack wall, west of Dunluce
Castle, . : 70 Be a0k
blo
Miles. Furlgs.
2. Trap from Dunluce Castle to the Bushfoot, . Heed: ()
8. Chalk, east of the Bushfoot, t : ; te e195
This chalk rises like a flat segment, and dips
under the trap east and west.
4, Trap from Blackrock to Port Bradan, . : GG MANS ites
This trap includes the Giant’s Causeway, and
gives a view of all the columnar layers about Ben-
gore Head, which form a great arch, as already
described.
5. Chalk from Port Bradan to Port Campley, ip ihaee es
The western junction of this chalk with the
trap is a vertical fault. On the east the chalk
dips under the trap. In this division the chalk
of Whitepark is all elevated in the form of a great
arch; its base line in the middle is about 100
feet over sea level, but the lias and inferior
rocks under it are mostly covered with sand.
6. Trap from Port Campley to Boheeshane Bay, Of 3
This trap is a protruded mass. It has chalk
on the west, south, and east of it, and reaches
only a short way inland.
Bh
bole
7. Chalk from Boheeshane Bay to near Carrickarede, . 1) 20
The junctions with this chalk are complicated.
8. Trap from near Carrickarede to the Giant’s Glen, 0 dt
9. Chalk from the Giant’s Glen to Portmore, . ; 0 4
This chalk has trap on top, and it dips both
east and west under it.
10. Trap from Portmore to Doney Gregor, : , 1 4
A triangle of chalk is included in this division.
About the middle of it, at Kenbane Head, there
are one or two large masses of chalk caught
- up in the trap and separated from the parent
rock ; one of these is described at page 287.
11. Trap from Doney Gregor to Ballycastle, on the
top of the cliff, 5 j : : : 3
Rather more than half way in this division the
chalk rises from the water, forming a white flat
segment, which ascends in the middle to half the
height of the cliff. The base line of this arch
is about three furlongs.
At Ballycastle is the line of separation between the great field of
trap rocks, at the surface on the west, and the coal-measures along the
shore to the east. This change appears to have been produced by one
of those faults on the great scales which I have been just describing.
The line of this fault is nearly north and south. It is in the stream
at Ballycastle, which comes down from Cape Castle, along the west side
of Knocklayd mountain. This stream seems to be the seat of it. In
the fault there is a downthrow to the west of the coal-measures, chalk,
316
trap, and all, of about 800 feet, there being that difference of elevation
between the bed of chalk on the west brow of Knocklayd and at the
quarries at Ballycastle. Southwards from Cape Castle stream, this line
passes a little to the east of Armoy Church, and on towards Clogh mills.
The east side of the line of the valley seems here for some miles to indi-
cate its position, as chalk and trap occur on the west side at Balleny,
Limehill, Corkey, &c., &c.
Of the Ages of Igneous Rocks.—Sir Richard Griffith says in the
‘¢ Dublin Geological Journal,” vol. i, p. 155: ‘‘It has been long known
that granite, sienite, and traps are of different ages.’’ On close exa-
mination of the great trap district of Antrim, he thinks that that district
has been the theatre of eight distinct epochs, and he gives the result of
his observations in an ascending order, as follows :—
1. Granite. | 6. Cushendall porphyry.
2. Sienite. | 7, Intruded mountain masses
3. Lower tabular trap. of trap.
4. Sandy Brae porphyry. 8. Trap dykes.
5. Upper tabular trap.
The succession of some of these is very clear, and cannot be mistaken.
On such of them as are obscure he appears to me to have come in some
cases to very doubtful conclusions, and in some to positively erroneous
ones.
To begin with the granite, the rock which Sir Richard calls by that
name, occurs on the shore at Castlepark, half a mile north-east of
Cushendun. He says,* ‘It is of a brownish red colour, containing
large crystals of glassy felspar.”” Again, ‘‘ Its general structure is por-
phyritic, and occasionally the crystals of brownish red felspar are large
and beautiful. At Ardsillach, a mile north-west of the same place, there
is a mass of it about 50 feet thick, intruded between, and parallel with,
the beds of mica slate, as a subordinate rock. If this reddish rock oc-
casionally assumes the character of a porphyry, it cannot be called a true
granite. In fact it very closely resembles the felspar trap of the veins on
the coast between Cushendun and Murlogh Bay, in colour, and every-
thing except the mica. I believe them to be all the same rock which has
been protruded through the mica slate on this coast, and which, when it
occurs in larger masses than usual, has mica developed as well as large
crystals of glassy felspar. If these views be correct, it is newer than
the chalk, for the red felspar trap veins penetrate that rock at Tor
Escort, near Murlogh Bay. ‘The pebbles of red granite got in the new
red sandstone conglomerate at Red Bay, and brought forward as proof
of its age, may have had another source. True granite of a very red
colour occurs for several square miles about Rathfriland, in the county
of Down.
He places the Sandy Brae porphyry between the lower and upper
tabular traps, and the equivalent of the red ochre, on the coast at Ben-
* “Dublin Geological Journal,” vol. i., p. 156.
317
gore Head. Now, the red ochre beds at Bengore Head have many
hundred feet in thickness of various kinds of traps over them—amor-
phous, columnar, brecciated. The Sandy Brae porphyry has no rock
over it at all, nor does it appear that it was ever wholly covered over
with the trap of the country since its protrusion; on the contrary, on
examining the country round its margin, it appears much more likely
that it was protruded immediately after the basalt, and is probably of
the same or the next age to Sleamish mountain, six miles northward
from it, which is newer than all the traps except the dykes.
Making the Cushendall porphyry more recent than the tabular trap
seems erroneous, because the new red sandstone on the shore, at the
coast-guard station, at Ballisk, near Cushendall, contains in the con-
glomerate of its base abundance of pebbles and stones of the adjacent
Cushendall porphyry—a proof that the porphyry is older. As the new
red sandstone of Red Bay is older than the lias, the chalk, the tabular
trap and all, it follows that the Cushendall porphyry must be older than
the tabular trap, which is itself newer than the chalk, and rests on it.
‘The sienite of Antrim appears to be put into too old a class in the
antiquity of the igneous rocks. ‘Three veins of reddish-brown sienite
are seen in the Goodland cliff, near Murlogh Bay, and ascend to the top
of that rock, and penetrate the overlaying chalk at West Tor. This, I
consider the same rock, as the so-called granite. It is probably contem-
poraneous with all the dykes of sienite which penetrate the mica slate
along the shore from Cushendun to Murlogh Bay. There does not appear
to be any good reason for putting this sienite, which is newer than the
chalk, into an older class than the Cushendall porphyry, which was cer-
tainly anterior to it.
This Antrim sienite appears to me to be in colour, grain, and com-
position, identical with numerous dykes of red felspar trap, which occur
in the country between Loch Kathrine and Loch Lomond, in Scot-
land. °
Whin Dykes.
The subject of whin dykes demands a few observations. Lyell, in
his ‘‘ Principles of Geology,” vol. 1., p. 864, describes a fissure on the
flank of Ktna, between the plains of St. Leo and a mile from the summit,
at the commencement of the great eruption of 1669. The cleft was twelve
miles long, and six feet broad, and was open to the surface. The fissure
gave out a vivid light, from which he, with great probability, concludes
that it was filled to acertain height with incandescent lava. After the
formation of this, five other fissures were produced, and emitted sounds
heard at a distance of forty miles.
Our whin dykes appear to be generally like the fissures above de-
seribed—they are mostly vertical, but they are sometimes found sloping,
and sometimes horizontal—having been injected between the level beds
of sedimentary rocks. Instances of this kind occur at the Scrabo sand-
R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. X. 20
318
stone quarries, near Belfast, and at the Carlingford limestone quarries ;
they are sometimes composed of a mass of trap of one kind. The trap in
every dyke is modified in grain, according to the time occupied in cooling.
Narrow dykes are the finest grained ; they are often composed of pitch-
stone, or ofrock closely allied to-it. The cooling itself was also probably
modified by the temperature of the rock into which the melted trap was
injected. Dykes sometimes show a material difference between their
middle parts and their sides, both in composition and colour. The
change, too, is not gradual, but in steps, each step being like a separate
wall, and remarkably persistent in its width. Some dykes are composed
of three, or four, or five such divisions. Those walls appear each to
have been a separate projection, and one to have been cooled and
hardened before a second was injected, the whole forming a compound
dyke. After the first fissure was made, filled, and hardened, new sub-
terranean force was generated below, and new fluid matter made ready
to be protruded. The side of an old fissure was again more easily pene-
trated than a new one opened, perhaps through some miles in thickness
of rock.
Dr. Richardson has drawn up a careful account of fourteen whin
dykes on the north coast of Antrim, between Portrush and Port Coon,
which is printed in Dubourdieu’s Statistical Survey of the county Antrim,
p. 68, Appendix. Whoever follows Dr. Richardson can add but little to
his clear and accurate descriptions. He found one dyke at the Giant’s
Causeway twenty feet thick; one at Port na Spania, twelve feet. At
the west end of the white rocks, near Portrush, he saw one an inch and
a-half wide; another only half an inch. All the dykes on the coast are
between these extremes of thickness, and the usual range is from three
to twelve feet. Vertical whin dykes, which are the usual kind here
are mostly composed of horizontal prisms or columns. These prisms
are sometimes three or four feet in diameter; and the thick prisms
are again subdivided into smaller ones of three or four inches in diameter,
or one inch, or half an inch.
In the “Transactions of the Geological Society of London,” vol.
ii., Dr. Berger gives some features of the whin dykes in the Ballycastle
collieries, which I have partly described in the account of the coal-
measures, p. 246. Those are chiefly—1, the Saltpans dyke is 8 yards wide;
2, the north star dyke is 8 yards wide; it has often been cut through
in working the collieries; it does not shift the coal, but has reduced it
to cinders for 9 feet on each side; 3, Carrickmore dyke rises 30 feet
over water; it is about 12 feet wide, but irregular. The rocks in con-
tact with it are black shale on one side, and white sandstone on the
other, showing a downthrow of the strata. These rocks are altered at
the contact—the black shale into flinty slate, and the sandstone changed
from red to white. At 15 yards from the dyke the alteration ceases.
Within the colliery the coal is altered to cinders, and was only used for
burning lime. There are other unimportant thinner whin dykes here,
and some slips, which throw the strata up or down. These shifts are
described in the account of the coal-measures.
y)
319
On the shore, a little to the west of the pier at Ballycastle, a sin-
gular vein occurs in the chalk, which there forms the lower portion
of a cliff, capped with basalt. The basalt immediately over the chalk
approaches to the character of wacké. The vein in question is cal-
careous, but includes imbedded balls of wacké, to the presence of which
the difference of its characters from those of the chalk that it traverses
may, perhaps, be attributed. The limestone forming the vein is com-
pact, breaking spontaneously into parallelopipeds, the greater side of
which is perpendicular to the direction of the vein. The width of this
vein or dyke is 17 feet. It contains about nine-tenths of calcareous
matter, with some clay, and specks of bright mica.
There are a few whin dykes in the coal-measures at Murlogh Bay ;
two at the upper end of Cloughlass glen, Station No. 22. A large pro-
trusion of columnar trap at Ballgalley Head, three miles north of
Larne, which tilts up the beds of chalk on the south side of it to a ver-
tical position. Another large dyke, or perhaps a continuation of the
Ballygalley protrusion, occurs at Ballygawn, two miles further N.W.
This dyke is 60 yards wide, cuts through the chalk, and alters it for 60
feet on each side, so that when struck with a hammer it falls into
sand.
Carrickfergus castle stands on a large trap dyke. There are about
seventeen dykes between Carrickfergus and Belfast, on the western
shore of the Lough; eight at Cultra on the south shore; four or six at
Cave-hill, and Ballysillan; five or six more at Allan’s ravine and
Ballymoney (Fig. 2); eight at Aughnahough (Station No. 3, Fig. 1) ;
and half a dozen at Balmer’s glen and Moira, already noticed at those
stations. I consider that describing these several dykes more in detail
would be tedious, and would lead to no useful result.
Whin dykes, and the rocks they traverse, have not undergone any
modern disturbance beyond superficial abrasion, but they remain in the
same situation as at the remote period at which they were formed.
Fig. 10 is a sectional sketch, to represent the position of the
rocks at Portrush, and at the Skerries Islands near it. These rocks,
about the year 1790, were the theme of much controversy between the
geological parties of that time. Fossils were found in a hard, black,
fine-grained rock here, which very much resembled some varieties of
trap ; and from this it was said the trap contained fossils by one party ;
this was as stoutly denied by the other.
The masses dd, are greenstone dykes, which are parallel to the
bedding of the lias, and most probably are emanations from the Port-
rush mass, which by force from below were projected into the beds of
the las, and came to the.surface at d d, immediately under a a,
beds of soft lias clay, which are usually full of the fossils of that rock.
The lias clay at a a, where it is in contact with the green-
stone, instead of being a soft bluish-gray clayey rock, as it occurs
in ordinary cases, is converted into a very hard, black, close-grained
silicious rock, wholly different in lithological character from the ordi-
nary aspect it assumes. This change is supposed to have been effected
320
by the great heat of the invandescent greenstone in contact with it.
The fossils, however, retain their forms, and can be recognised in the
altered hard rock.
Fig. 10.
Section showing the protrusion of Greenstone into beds of Lias at
Skerries, near Portrush.
ae
op
+4
+
ual
+b
+4+Bm SEA: LEVEE ;
\
off
+
+
+
+
Ky
++ ryt
a +
MM.
a
sishs
a, the crystalline greenstone which underlies it.
6, represents the lias with its clays, shales, and limestones, which occur in
the bay east of Portrush.
By this explanation it can be understood how the fossils found in
the altered lias were considered to be found in trap. Thousands of am-
monites may be seen in this black flinty rock immediately east of the
greenstone protrusion of Portrush, where a thin layer of altered lias
clay reposes on it at high-water mark. Besides the fossils, those
Skerries protrusions show how a horizontal dyke, or one nearly so,
may be thrown out from a melted mass of greenstone into other strata.
Ligmte, or Wood Coal.
In Dobourdieu’s Statistical Survey of the County of Antrim he
gives, at page 87, a letter from Rev. Robert Trail, on wood coal. This
subject is one that should not be passed over in the geology of Antrim ;
and as my own experience in matters of detail of this kind is not ex-
tensive, I shall quote Mr. Trail’s letter, which appears to me to be all
an inquiring mind could desire. He lived upon the spot, he quarried
the coal, and burned it, and he was able to describe the details regard-
ing it. He says—‘‘In most places where I have observed this sub-
stance, columns of basalt are placed over it. In my own quarry on
the glebe it is to be found underneath twenty feet of solid rock in a
compressed state, or flattened appearance; the outward edges, however,
have preserved, in many instances, a degree of roundness, and I have
ee
o21
heard of some pieces being got perfectly round, as in their original
shape. The bark and knots are quite distinct, and you may reckon
the rings of its annual growth. I have even seen the roots of the trees,
and distinctly traced the ramifications, where they were not covered
with basalt, and could readily perceive that they had been laid down
by some force pressing against them, precisely like trees blown down
by astorm. Those roots were visible on the west side, and the trees
must have fallen with their heads towards the east. I can also relate,
with tolerable certainty, that all this substance has been fir trees;
there may be some of a different species; because, where the weight has
been greater, the substance becomes harder, and more nearly resem-
bling coal, and of course not to be so accurately distinguished. It
will not answer for the forge, as it will neither bear the bellows nor
stirring. In this country it is known by the name of wooden coal, and
when other fuel cannot be had, it proves a useful substitute. For
an entire winter I used it; the smell is unpleasant, nearly resembling
that which arises from the burning of a rotten stick. It is also used in
burning lime, but from the quantity of ashes which mix with the lime,
it makes bad mortar, though good manure. It was first brought into
notice by Mr. Alexander Stewart, about sixty years ago (1750), who
had been informed that the appearance of it indicated good coal be-
neath. Some search having been made at a place called Kiltymorris,
near the centre of the county, in consequence of the appearance of this
wooden coal, was so far unsuccessful that no other kind was found.
I have to add that it was first discovered in the face of the hill above
Ballintoy, and from its having been found useful, attempts were suc-
cessfully made to find it elsewhere; but I have not heard of any being
found to the east of Ballintoy town. On the west side, however, par-
ticularly in the townland of Limincogh, it is got in great abundance.
Unfortunately, both there and in Ballintoy the pits happened to take
fire, and the latter place continued burning for several years. Various
attempts were made to extinguish it, but all proved fruitless; and
finally it was smothered by the falling in of the superincumbent mass.
This fossil wood is generally found in veins; where these are of the
least thickness, the appearance of the wood is most distinct. These
veins are from two inches to four or five feet thick, and universally
run from east to west.’’
Mr. Dubordieu continues :—‘‘ On the eastern shore of Lough Neagh
it has also been met with, near Portmore, in large masses. It is there
known by the name of black wood.’? Two beds, each five feet thick,
and a third stratum, nine feet thick, at the depth of eighty yards, and
eighteen inches more, were penetrated in the fourth stratum; but, not
having sufficient length of rods, it was given up. Also between Bal-
linderry and Crumlin, on the same shore, Mr. French was at a great
expense on the first stratum, which was thirty inches thick at the end
of the level or drive.
A very curious circumstance has lately been observed at Bengore
Head respecting this fossil wood. A considerable stratum is found
022
between two rows of pillars. It is in a place very difficult of access,
but the fact, I believe, isso. What an exhaustless source of specula-
tion and conjecture does this furnish to geologists.
Lignite is got in the cliff over the Giant’s Causeway, in the mixed
or brecciated layer, between the two columnar layers at that place.
The guides show its position. It is from six to eight feet thick. It is
accompanied by wacké in thin beds, which alternate with it.
Doctor Scouler has done good service on this part of my subject in
the south-west part of the county, in the vicinity of Lough Neagh. He
first quotes from a work by Barton,* entitled ‘‘ Lectures on the Natural
History of Lough Neagh, 17577’ :—
““ At a place called Ahaness, which is nearly opposite Ram’s Island,
and not far from Glenavy Waterfoot, the silicified wood is found in a
bed of lignite, which is covered by a stratum of clay. At this locality
there is a bank on the shores of the lake twelve feet high, and ninety
feet distant from the water. Under the following section was obtained
by digging :—‘ The upper stratum isa bed of red clay, three feet deep ;
the second, a bed of blue clay, four feet deep; the third was a stratum
of black wood, four feet in thickness, which reposes on another stratum
of clay. This stratum of wood is of one uniform mass, and capable of
being cut with a spade. Sometimes the wood will not easily break.
In that case it requires the aid of some other tool to separate it from
the mass, and may, if properly done, afford a block of two, three, or
four hundred pounds, which, being carefully examined, is found to
consist more or less of stone.’”’ To Barton, therefore, the merit is due
of being the first to ascertain the relation of the silicified wood to the
lignite.
At Ahaness, Dr. Scouler himself employed a man in digging till he
obtained specimens of both kinds of wood. The lignite, he says
(p. 236), ‘‘consists of portions of stems and branches of trees, but no
roots were observed; but, from the circumstance that many of the
specimens still retain their bark, it is probable that they have suffered
no lengthened transportation. The wood splits readily in the direction
of its fibres; while in the transverse direction it is broken, so as to
display a smooth surface, as if it had been cut by some instrument.
This is probably the result of some concretionary arrangement, which
has taken place subsequently to the deposition of the wood, and which
appears more perfectly in the older and more altered coals of the car-
boniferous epoch. This lignite is also sometimes studded over with
little crusts of calcareous matter, which have also penetrated the sub-
stance of the wood, forming small veins. This change is probably
posterior to the silicifying process, and is perhaps at present in pro-
gress. r
‘‘Like the analogous deposit at Verner’s Bridge, the depth and
extent of the ligniferous bed has not been ascertained, but must be
* Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin,” vol. i., p. 235.
- |
}
}
:
323
very great. Donald Stuart, who examined this part of the country,
under the direction of the Royal Dublin Society, states that a fruitless
search for coal was made in this quarter, at Portmore. They bored
through two beds of coal, or what is called black wood, twenty-five feet
thick each, and a third stratum, nine feet thick, and eighty yards
deep. They bored eighteen inches deep, into a fourth stratum, having
no more rods to go deeper.”
If we travel along the shores of Lough Neagh, from Cranfield, on
the north, to the parish of Seago, in Armagh, on the south, we observe
the silicified wood at the mouth of the Glenavy river; thence, three
miles inland, at the village of Glenavy. We also find it in the Crumlin
River, at an equal distance from the lake; also, at Langford Lodge;
and again, in rolled pieces at the mouth of the Main river, near
Shane’s Castle.
It may be necessary to give some account of those fossil woods,
and to ascertain the class of vegetables to which they belong. It has
been already stated that they are found in two varieties of position; in
the first they are associated with the lignites, under beds of clay; in
the second they appear nearer the surface, in accumulation of trans-
ported matter. In the first position they are of a dark colour, and
scarcely distinguishable by the eye from the ordinary lignite. When
more minutely examined, they are found in some cases to consist of a
uniform mixture of carbonaceous and silicious matter; and when in
this state are very apt to be neglected, as it is difficult to detect their
woody texture ; in other cases, even the layers of growth can be easily
observed. Very frequently layers of woody matter still exist amid the
silicious substance, and, in that case, the two can be easily separated.
All the specimens split readily, in the direction of the fibres of the
wood. ‘They are frequently covered on the surface with minute but
distinct crystals of quartz, which also penetrate their fissures. More
rarely, a thin coating of chalcedony has been observed. From these
circumstances it appears improbable that they could ever have been
transported ; for exposure to the weather whitens them, by removing
the carbonaceous matter; and, as they are usually angular, and have
portions cf wood adhering to them, or are studded over with crystals,
they cannot have been exposed to attrition.
When found in the superficial alluvium, if long exposed, they are
usually of a looser texture, from the loss of woody matters. Their
colour, from the same circumstance, is white, and hence the notion
that they were specimens of petrified holly. Nothing is more common
_ than to find specimens which are black internally and white at the
surface; and any black specimen may be whitened by burning. It is
in this state that most of the specimens are found, either when casually
turning up the soil, or in the courses of streams.
The specimens vary in size; sometimes weighing nearly a ton, as
in the splendid specimen preserved at Langford Lodge. They are also
very abundant in some places. I have seen a great number of fine
specimens in a garden in the village of Glenavy.
O24
Localities oF MINERALS IN ANTRIM.
Albite is found in distinct crystals, imbedded in greenstone por-
phyry at Ballycastle.
Analcime is common in the cavities of the trap and basaltic rocks, .
as at the Giant’s Causeway ; in small transparent crystals; at Dunluce
Castle; O’Hara’s Rocks, near Port Stewart, where it is plentiful, lining
fissures, and forming nodules in amygdaloid. It is studded with pyra-
midal crystals of yellow Calcite at Glenarm ; at Doon Point, in Rathlin
Isle, in fine white translucent crystals with Uesotype (see also, under
Furéelite and Gmelinite). Plentiful at Layd, at Tickmacrevan, and at
Deer Park, Glenarm.
Antrimolite is found at Ballintoy, snowy white, investing pyrami-
dal crystals of yellow, Calctte or disposed on Chabasite, in the cavities of
amygdaloid; sometimes studded with rhombs of brown Calcite. It is
found at Bengore Head, and also at the Causeway, in a simliar rock
(see also Arragonite.)
Apatite occurs, yellowish white, in doubly-terminated six-sided
prisms, in a basaltic dyke near Kilroot.
Apophyllite occurs at Ballintoy in soft wacké, in four-sided pyramids,
sometimes truncated, of a yellowish white or greenish colour, disposed
on Stilbite ; at Portrush, in small, perfectly transparent crystals of the
primary form, with Wesole, in cavities of the augitic rock ; also in large
crystals, white or slightly translucent, near Portrush; at Agnew’s
Hill, five miles west of Larne, in forms similar to those met with at
Portrush; also at Island Magee.
Arragonite occurs at Ballintoy, associated with Antrimolite, of a fine
oil green colour, radiated ; occasionally at Portrush, and at the Giant’s
Causeway.
Augite occurs in large distinct crystals of black and greenish-black
colour, in the cavities of the black augitic rock at Portrush, coated by
and associated with Mesole, also at Fair Head; at Agnew’s-hill, near
Larne; at Tor Head, Cushendun (see also Olivine).
Brewsterite is found coating cavities in amygdaloidal rocks at the
Giant’s Causeway.
Calcite is found at Ballintoy, with Antrimolite, and at the Giant’s
Causeway, of a rich honey-yellow, or orange colour, highly translucent,
sometimes locally called sugar-candy; at Tickmacrevan, in large crys-
talline masses, in chalk, often replacing and taking the form of the
flints; at Portstewart, in aggregated rhombohedral crystals, with a pe-
culiar oily lustre(see also under Analeime, Chabasite, Natrolite). Through-
out the trap districts of Ireland, veins of Calcite, generally of a yellow
colour, are common.
Chabasite.—This mineral occurs at the Causeway, along with Stéz/-
bite, in fine white translucent crystals, and in amygdaloid at Ballintoy,
(see also Antrimolite, Rhodalite). The best specimens from Portrush are
of considerable size and transparent; near the Ball, in Rathlin Island,
with crystals of Calce-spar ; at Island Magee, near Larne, of a light-red
}
320
colour; also in bluish-white transparent crystals, in the cavities of a
ferruginous amygdaloid, at Sallagh Braes, near Larne ; in amygdaloid,
at Portstewart. £65 .
Chalcedony is found on the coast near Ballycastle; at Knocklayd ;
and on the shores of Lough Neagh (see also under Chloropheite).
Chloropherte is found in thin crusts in Chalcedony in Antrim; and
in small botryoidal groups in vesicular trap at Downhill. :
Chrysolite occurs in small crystals in the crystalline traps of the
Causeway; they are occasionally observed all along the basaltic range.
Cordierite is found in the Island of Rathlin. |
Dolomite.—At Ballygawn, three miles north-west of Ballygally
Head, below Larne, in Antrim. Here it appears to be altered chalk.
It is in contact with a large whin dyke.
Doranite is found in basalt two miles west of Carrickfergus.
Eipidote is got in veins at Fair Head, with quartz, fluor, and pink
felspar. It is granular, and forms veins in the hornblendic rock at
Tieveragh-hill, near Cushendall.
Faréelite occurs in greenstone at Portrush; at Agnew’s Hill, west
of Larne; at the north-west of Rathlin Island, in distinct globules,
and in mamillary coatings, associated with transparent Analcime, and
Mesolite, at Black Cave, near Larne (see Mesole).
Felspar.—Varolite, a greenish to a darkish-green rock, containing
disseminated spherules, white or greenish-white, having the nature of
felspar, is found in this county. hyacolte, common in trachytic por-
phyry in distinct crystals, is also found.
Gmelinite occurs at Portrush in large and nearly opaque crystals, of a
greenish-white colour; but is not common there. At the Little Deerpark,
Glenarm, in greenstone, in very distinct and perfect crystals, white
and transparent. At Island Magee, where it is very common, in the
cavities of the trap rocks, the crystals are commonly small, but measure
occasionally half an inch across. In colour, they range from straw-
yellow to deep fiesh-red, and vary from opaque to transparent. They
are often associated with small pinkish crystals of Phillipsite, and
with Mesotype and Analcime. At Larne Glen and Black Head, near
Larne, in large crystals, of a pale flesh-colour, and nearly transparent.
Green carth is found in the trap and amygdaloidal rocks of Antrim.
It is common, lining the cavities in amygdaloid.
Gypsum is found at Kilroot, near Carrickfergus, in large transparent
and aggregated crystals, over the salt bed at that place. Jibrous.
Gypsum, or Satin Spar, occurs in the valley of the Forth, near Belfast,
Harmatome is found in basalt at the Giant’s Causeway.
Harringtonite, or amorphous Mesolite, is found in veins half an inch
thick, in fine-grained greenstone, at Portrush and at the Skerries;
at Island Magee; at Agnew’s Hill, five miles west of Larne.
Hematite, red, compact, fibrous and botryoidal, occurs in Bole, at
Ballintoy ; similarly at Rathlin Island.
_ Heulandate occurs at Portrush, in cavities in greenstone, and in trap ;
at the Giant’s Causeway, well crystallized ; at Ballintoy, with Stclbite ;
R.I A. PROC.—YVOL. X. 2x
326
in small crystals of an olive brown, remarkable for their lustre, in por-
phyry, at Sandy Braes.
Hydrophane, of a brownish-white colour, occurs in amygdaloid, near
the Giant’s Causeway ; and at Crossreagh, parish of Ballywillin.
Jasper, in the porphyry, on the shore near Cushendall.
Laumonite is found at Larne; at Portrush rarely; at Ballintoy,
with Stlbite.
Levyne occurs at Little Deerpark, Glenarm, in small distinct
translucent crystals; in trap, with Jesotype; at Island Magee, of a
yellowish-white, or pale flesh-colour.
Lignite (see p. 320 et seg.). Also in Rathlin Island.
Lithomarge, of greenish-white colour, highly mdurated, is found in
masses in the trap rocks at Dunluce; also at Port Bradden; at Ballin-
toy ; and at Sallagh Braes, near Larne.
Magnetite, or Magnetic iron ore, is found in amygdaloid at Island
Magee, and the Isle of Muck, near it.
Mesole—Faréelite (see also Apophyllite, Augite).
Mesolite is found im fine acicular crystals at the Giant’s Causeway
(see also under Furéelite).
Mesotype (see under Analcime, Gmelinite, Levyne.)
Micaceous Iron Ore is got at Island Magee in crystals and tables, dis-
seminated through, and forming irregular strings or veins in claystone.
Natrolite occurs at Carncastle; at the Little Deerpark, with Cal-
cite in trap, and in delicate silky crystals in amygdaloidal claystone;
occasionally at the Causeway ; at Ardihannon Cove; at Portrush; at
Little Deerpark, snow-white, sometimes brownish-white; at Island
Magee, near Larne, in fine crystals, and radiating masses; at the Cave
Hill, Belfast, fibrous and compact, of a pale-red colour in trap.
Octahedral Iron Ore is got at Isle of Muck, of a fine black colour;
on exposure becoming coated with peroxide of iron, frequently with a
tempered steel tarnish. It is got in small, but perfect octahedrons;
also in rhombic dodecahedrons.
Obsidian is found at Sandy Braes. It occurs of velvet-black colour,
in the vesicular cavities of fine-grained greenstone at the Causeway,
but is rare; also occasionally at Craigahulliar, near Portrush.
Olwwine.—Got in basalt and trap near the Giant’s Causeway, of an
olive-green colour and brownish, disseminated, and in small crystalline
masses; with Augite, at Fairhead, in small grains; in trap, at Ballintoy ;
at Agnew’s Hill, partially decomposed, and possessing a semi-metallic
lustre; at White House, near Belfast, of a fine cherry-red colour, and
translucent, and in large crystalline concretions in the trap of Island
Magee.
Onyx occurs at the Causeway, in amydgdaloid; on Rathlin Island,
striped white and yellowish-brown.
Opal is found at the Causeway; in Rathlin Island ; at Crossreagh,
near Coleraine; at Sandy Braes it is abundant in the pitchstone por-
phyry, generally opaque and white; also, yellow, or ie
and highly translucent.
”
327
Piichstone occurs at Sandy Braes, accompanied by Pearlstone.
Phillipsite occurs in greyish white translucent crystals at the
Causeway in small flesh-red crystals, with Gmelinite, coating the
eavities of reddish-coloured earthy amygdaloid at Island Magee (see
Gmelinite). The Phillipsite here always forms the coating next the
matrix.
Rhodalite is found associated with Chabdasite and calcic carbonate, in
the cavities of amygdaloid, at Ballintoy, and at the Causeway.
Quartz is got in Knocklayd Mountain, near Ballycastle; at Divis,
near Belfast, in colourless crystals. At Dungiven was found a large
erystal, now in the possession of Mr. Ogilby, weighing nearly ninety
pounds.
Rock Salt is found at Duncrue, near Carrickfergus (see p. 262).
Soporite, or Soapstone.—A soft variety which hardens on exposure,
occurs in the amygdaleid rocks of Antrim, generally in nodules of a
grey, yellow, or brown colour. |
Specular Iron is got in the Isle of Magee, near Larne.
Stulhite occurs with Chabasite in geodes at the Causeway ; at Ballin-
toy, cream-coloured in sheaf-like aggregations, occasionally finely crys-
tallized with Heulandite ; at Portrush, aggregated white and globular;
at Bengore Head, in small white crystals, with Apophylhite ; at Bruce’s
Castle, Rathlin Island, in drusy cavities in greenstone; at Dunluce
Castle. (See also under Apophyllite, Chabasite, Heulandite, and Lau-
monite.
Sulphate of Alumina occurs as an efflorescence in the lias shales at
Ballintoy.
Talc is found near the Causeway ; near Dunluce Castle it is dendritic,
opal white, and pale green.
Thomsonite, got occasionally near the Giant’s Causeway ; at Island
Magee; at the Ball, in Rathlin Island, on transparent Analeime.
Websterite occurs near Portrush, in thin seams and earthy in the
fissures of the greenstone on Calcite.
Wollastonite of Thomson. Small tufts of this mineral have been
found at Portrush, accompanying Sévibcte in greenstone.
XX X1.—On tue Inscripep Cavern at Loven Nactoypurr, ParisH oF
Bonoz, County or Fermanacu. By W.F. Wakeman, Esq.
[Read May 25, 1868. ]
Tue lonely and picturesque ‘‘tarn” marked upon the Ordnance maps
as Lough Nacloyduff—the “Lake of the Dark Cavern or Digging’ —
lies in the midst of a desolate, heath-clad highland, which extends
over a considerable portion of northern Fermanagh. In its immediate
neighbourhood, and for some miles around, there is no trace of cultiva-
tion, ancient or modern. All that meets the eye is heather, rock, and
bog, interspersed with irregular patches of rank grass, moss, or rushes.
028
If we measure by the scale of the Ordnance maps, the lake will be
found to stand (‘‘as the crow flies’) four miles and a quarter to the
west and north of the police station of Bohoe, and three and a half
miles in a south-westerly direction from the ‘‘ Lettered Cave’ of
Knockmore. There is no road or path by which it can be approached
nearer than four miles. The lake, which is about one acre in extent,
is bounded upon its northern side by a rugged cliff of yellowish sand-
stone, rising to a height of perhaps thirty feet above the level of the
water.
Within the face of this rock are several caverns, two of them, in
part at least, the work of human hands. The largest measures six feet
in height, by about the same in breadth at the opening, and its depth
is ten feet. The sides and roof are extremely rough, except in certain
places, where some little care appears to have been used for the pur-
pose of preparing the surface of the rock for the reception of a series of
““scorings”’ and other devices, any notice of which, as far as I am aware,
has not hitherto been presented to the learned in antiquities. .
It may be here remarked that the chief cavern is connected with a
second and smaller one, lying upon its western side, by an aperture in
the partition of the rock, by which, but for this opening, the two cham-
bers would be completely divided. Of the lesser cavern I have now
little to say. It is small, rude, and uninscribed, but large enough, and
sufficiently dry, to have been used as a sleeping apartment by the pri-
mitive occupiers of the rock. The larger cavern, from which the neigh-
bouring lake appears to have derived its name, owes its chief interest
to the occurrence upon its sides of a number of ‘‘scorings,”’ figures, or
designs in characters perfectly similar or strictly analogous to the mys-
terlous scribings upon rocks which have been noticed in localities
widely apart, and to which the attention of antiquaries has of late been
particularly directed. Many men of ancient or modern times, confined
by necessity to a listless existence in an inhospitable region, might very
naturally have beguiled their hours by carving with a stone or metallic
instrument such figures as their fancy prompted upon the nearest object
which happened to present a surface more or less smooth. Scorings or
designs, made under such circumstances, would be in character as
various as the skill or humours of their authors. Now, when in many
districts of the country, and some of them widely apart, we find upon
the sides of caves and rocks, and within the inclosure of pagan sepul-
chral tumuli, a certain well-defined class of engravings, often arranged
in groups, and, with few exceptions, presenting what may be styled a
family type, we can hardly imagine them to be the result of caprice.
The period wherein it was usual amongst antiquaries to collect and
consider the nature of our rock carvings is so recent, that probably a
very small portion of existing remains of that class has been examined.
When a thorough search shall have been made, and the result recorded,
when at least the mass of our rock “‘scribings’’ shall have been pub-
lished and compared one with another, group with group, and with
similar work found upon monuments of Britain and of primitive Conti-
329
nental Europe; then, and only then, can we hope that a light may be
cast upon their significance.
The striking similarity of many of the carvings at Lough Nacloyduff
to not a few of the already published tomb or rock engravings will be ap-
parent even to a casual observer (see Pl. XXVII.). We have here fifteen
of the primitive crosses as found in the undoubtedly pagan monuments of
Sheve-na-Caillighe and Dowth, upon the rock at Ryefield, in the county
of Cavan, and in the cave of Knockmore. Surely no investigator who
compares these carvings one with another will fail to recognize their
wonderful similarity of style! Some may be more rudely designed than
others, and less well executed; but there is, after all, little variety,
except in the elaboration of a few examples, and in difference of size.
It is difficult to believe that mere fancy could have originated and dif-
fused this peculiar style of rock engraving.
Together with the crosses at Lough Nacloyduff, we find some figur-
ings which are, I believe, new to archeologists and others, and two star-
like scorings which, as far as I recollect, are not elsewhere represented,
except in one instance, viz., in the great sepulchral monument at Dowth.
The original figures to which I refer are two in number, and occur
beneath and to the right of the largest cross or kite-shaped design,
shown in the accompanying rubbings (Pl. XXVII.). The upper one,
which has every appearance of having been executed with great care
and deliberation, might naturally represent a chair or throne; the lower
one aplough. A small primitive cross, which occurs upon the left-hand
side of the cave, would appear to be accompanied by oghamic writing,
of which I may observe that the fifth stroke from the left, and the upper
portion of the third from the right, are doubtful. The white line in the
rubbing of this inscription (appears black in the engraving) is caused By
a natural crack in the rock.
Of the exact form of the arrangement (in groups) and of the size of
the various designs in Lough Nacloyduff cave, the rubbings will give a
better idea than can any written description. In every case of rubbing
the paper was laid as far as the surface would admit horizontally upon
the face of the rock.
Probably owing to the remoteness of its situation from the track of
“‘excursionists,’ the cave presents little evidence of outrage—one only
modern “‘ seribing,’”’ ‘‘ 1777,” disfiguring the walls.
Kt may perhaps not be out of place here to state that the “‘ Dark
Cave,” once perhaps the home of a family whose ‘‘ young barbarians”
clomb the adjacent rocks, and snared trout in the neighbouring loch, is
now literally a den of wild animals, foxes, and badgers. The bones and
hides of hares and the tattered plumage of grouse attest the successful
aa of the red dog of the Irish.
* £
>
—
330
XXXII.—On some Recent Excavations at Howru. By the Rev. J. F.
SHEARMAN.
[Read June 8, 1868. ]
No. I.
In the month of April, 1865, the foundations for the new Protestant
church of Howth were excavated. An immense quantity of human
bones, some also of the horse, &c., were turned up. So numerous were
the human remains, that in every barrowful of earth was at least one
skull. During the progress of these works, being on the look-out for
objects of Antiquarian interest, I selected two skulls now presented to
the Royal Irish Academy. On the 15th of April, a curious ring was
turned up. Itis made ofa substance resembling jet; its diameter is
22 inches. It seems to have been hand-made, and is not perfectly cir-
cular. What its use was is doubtful, unless it belonged to some very
rude and ancient horse furniture. This church replaces one built in
1816: before that time a dog kennel was kept here. When the
foundations were then opened, from 2 feet to 18 inches of the upper
soil was removed ; bones, old coins, sword blades, &c., were turned up.
The excavation of 1865 reached about two feet deeper still, from which
the remains described were turned up. The constant tradition of the
oldest inhabitants points to this place, and the field between it and the
town, as the site of the various battles of which Howth was the theatre
in ages long passed away. Ivora Bridge, called also the Ivy Bridge, was
nearer to the town of Howth; it spanned a brook called ‘‘ the Bloody
Stream,’’ which takes its name perhaps from some long-lost legend of the
Battle of Howth. It is now diverted from its original course, which was
at the end of the chancel of the church, and forms a cascade nearer to the
town. Medieval chroniclers say that here Sir John De Courci, with his
brother-in-law, Sir Almeric Tristram, vanquished, in 1177, the Danish
and Irish inhabitants of Howth. This place, marked by these indications
of ancient strife, was in a situation most favourable for the evolutions
of armed men. It lies above the strand still called ‘‘ Baltray,”’ 1. e.
the town or place of the strand, now cut off from the sea by the rail-
way embankment. Here most likely landed the various raiders who
fleshed their maiden swords on the natives of Ben Edair. An old road,
formerly called ‘‘the paved lane,” now the Castle Avenue, led from
here up to the hill, going through a field called ‘‘ Cross Garvy”’ till it
reached to where tradition says the ‘‘ Old Town of Howth” stood in
that part of the demesne called ‘‘ Balkill,’’ under the Ben of Howth;
between which and the old earth works is a marsh, from which flows
the ‘‘ Bloody Stream,”’ passing by the site of the old Celtictown. Here
are to be seen the remains of very ancient earth works; a circular
mound in the direction of Dunhill and Carricmore encloses a very con-
siderable space, fifty paces in diameter. It is now divided by the fence |
of the plantation which runs through it. There are also some indica-
dol
tions of square and oblong buildings, with other less defined remains.
‘‘ Kitchen Middens” were opened some years ago, in which were found
bones, shells of the oyster, mussel, periwincle, &c., disclosing some
faint ideas of the habits and modes of life of the old Celtic inhabitants
of Ben Edair.
No. II.
Tn the month of May, 1867, excavations were made on the East side of
the hill of Dunboe in the town of Howth, for cellars, &c., for a house
intended for the residence of the District Inspector of the Coastguards.
Some curious remains were turned up by the workmen. At a depth
of six feet below the surface, a kist-vaen was discovered; its sides and
ends were formed of blocks of limestone, perforated by the action of
sea mussels. It measured seven feet in length by two feet wide; the
covering stones were of a coarse clayey conglomerate. No traces of
human bones were discovered; there was however some black unctuous
clay, apparently the only relics of its primeval tenant. The sides of
the cuttings showed traces of ancient interments, as in horizontal lines
could be seen the same kind of clay which had the appearance of
ancient burials. Some time before these discoveries came to hght, my
friend Mr. William M. Hennessy lent me a copy of the ‘‘ Talland Etar’’
which he had transcribed from the ‘‘ Book of Leinster.” I got it with a
view to annotate it, and identify localities there named, in which I had
some success. This very ancient tract, treating of events in the time
of Conchobar Mac Nassa, brings his intriguing poet and ambassador,
<¢ Aitherna the Importunate,’’ across the Liffey to the Tolka, when the
Leinster men attacked him, endeavouring to regain possession of the
150 women, the 700 cows, and other spoil-he had wrung from them
while in their territory. Worsted by his opponents, he flies to Ben Edair;
entrenches himselfand his spoils on its Dun, and there awaits succour from
the heroes of the ‘‘ Red Branch,” under the guidance of their champion
Cuchullaind. On studying this interesting tale, it struck me that the
hill of Dunboe, 1. e. the Cow-fort, was the scene ofthe siege recorded
there. To test the accuracy of this opinion, I watched the excavations
made in its neighbourhood. ‘The archaic remains brought to light in
the digging of May, 1867—a hollow place between the castle lawn
and Dunboe, called the ‘‘Boulia,” i.e. a cow park, referring perhaps
to this old tale, gives some appearance of probability to this opinion.
This tale speaks of a hollow, or ‘‘gap’’ beside the Dun, called ‘‘ Cu-
cullin’s Gap,” from the feats of bravery there performed by that
hero.
To find out this precise place was for some time a difficult endea-
.
{
| vour, as there were many places about the harbour called by that name.
_ An old man at last turned up whose grandfather lived under Dunboe
. before modern innovations changed its appearance. He remembered a
. | hollow, through which in wet seasons some water flowed, leading up from
|
. | the sea where Mr. Crosbey’s new store is erected. The depression of
}
. | the land behind Evora-house on Dunboe grew deeper as it reached the sea
|
|
|
a ca ee a NN BE ee RO
Od2
in this place. The old Dublin road crossed it where now the new road
leads from Abbey-street to the railway station; the hollow was then filled
to level it up to its present height. This, my informant told me, was
called ‘‘the Gap,” and that he often heard his grandfather speak of a
battle that was fought there “‘ about cows.’ These traditions must have
great value in settling the precise locality of the scene of the ‘‘ Siege of
Howth.” The top of Dunboe was crowned with a moat—portions of it
can be still seen. It was a favourite spot in the olden time as a look-
out station for the seamen of Howth. On it, too, were lighted the mid-
summer fires, which were visible through the whole of Fingal. To the
west of the moat at the mearing of the demesne was a terminal cross,
to which the funeral processions of the lower part of the town were
marched before interment in the old cemetery. Dunboe has suffered
much by recent innovations : to make ‘‘ The new Road,” more than forty
feet of its flank were cut away some years ago. Still earlier, another slice
was cut away to give room for the road at the top of the harbour.
Some rocks in this place under the Court-house (now being built), called
‘* Molly Piles Rocks,”’ anciently defended its base from the fury of
the sea in the north-east gales. Then also the place now occupied
by the St. Lawrence Hotel was a deep pool of water, so that the
hill was surrounded on the east, north, and west sides with the
sea. Dunboe seems destined for still further ruin: an immense hole
is made on its side. A house is to be built canto 2t, which, apart
from the questionable taste of removing an ancient land-mark of
history, will be anything but ornamental to the only approach to
the town.
ING SADT.
In the spring of this year (1868), the arable portion of Ireland’s Eye
was ploughed for the purpose of setting crops. A coin of the Km-
peror Constantine was the only object of interest which then turned up.
It was found on the bank over the deep cut or gap in the eastern part
of the island, brought into notoriety by a tragical occurrence some
years ago. The edge of this coin is eaten away, as the place where
it was found is exposed to the spray of the waves in stormy wea-
ther. The monogram XP of our Redeemer on the reverse, with the
profile of the Emperor on the obverse, place its assignment beyond
question. On the 5th of this month (May, 1868), a flat stone, which was
in a potato trench, was removed, as it was in the way of the labourer.
It was found to be the covering flag of a kist-vaen, containing human
remains. This grave was not further disturbed till the 16th of May;
want of opportunity, rough weather, and a heavy sea in the sound,
prevented its being inspected and examined sooner. On the 15th,
the grave was opened; it was not more than twelve inches under the
surface, which was all removed, and the covering flags laid bare;
these were then carefully taken up. The sides and ends of the grave |
were built in rubble without any cement; at its head or western end
303
a small square nook, about ten inches by nine at the crown, and twelve
at the shoulders, was formed to receive the head of its tenant; so that
in shape the grave was not unlike some medizeval stone coffins, found
at the Black Abbey in Kilkenny. A small square flag was laid in it
to serve asa pillow. This grave measured six feet four inches long by
eighteen inches wide, and about twelve inches deep. 'The covering flags
were of green stone. Some of the same kind may be seen in the debris
of the chancel arch in the now ruined church, from which the grave is
about thirty paces distant to the north-west. Its axis is more to the
north-west than that of the old church. Inside the grave was found a
perfect human skeleton. The skull was not in the nook intended for
it, as it lay somewhat below it, lying on its right side. A more careful
examination proved that the body, which was undisturbed to this mo-
ment, was buried on its right side. The ribs of that side started up-
wards ; those of the left, or uppermost side, fell in their natural position.
The bone of the left arm lay across them; the right was beside them,
at the side of the grave. The articulations of the spine lay in such a
way as to show unmistakeably the position now described. All the teeth
(26) were perfect, with the exception of one, the canine, of the right
side of the upper jaw; they were much worn down on the top surface,
by triturition, an indication of a very ancient interment. The sutures
of the cranium could be traced, though they were well knitted;
the bone of the thigh measured eighteen and one-half inches; all
the bones were of a deep copper colour. The orientation of the
grave is suggestive of a Christian interment. The head being at the
western end may prove that its owner was not a cleric (if then
the same custom prevailed as now, of burying a cleric with his
feet to the west).* No carving or inscriptions were discovered on
any of the stones connected with the grave, which, after being thus ex-
amined, was carefully secured to prevent further disturbance.} There is
reason to fear that Sunday excursionists and other idle persons have
been tampering with it, to gratify a vulgar and morbid curiosity. It is
probable that other graves, such as the one discovered, exist on the
island: human remains were turned up near the church, proving the
existence of an ancient cemetery. In the hollows between the hill and
* In the ancient Basilicas the priest stood facing the people, the altar being between
him and them. He looked to the West, the congregation faced the East. This may
account for the distinction made in burying clerks with the head to the East; laics are
always buried in the opposite direction, with the head to the West.
+ On Sunday, May 31st, Dr. William K. Sullivan, M.R.1.A., Mr. R. D. Kane, and
the writer, went over to Ireland’s Eye. The grave was again opened; its contents were
found in a state of disorder and confusion. As this discovery was much spoken of, num-
bers went across to see it, rummaging the grave, and disarranging the position of the
skeleton, &c. Dr. Sullivan fortunately secured the cranium uninjured, excepting the loss
of some teeth. This, with two other crania, a bit of iron, probably the back of a sword,
a jet ring, with other bones, &c., were presented to the Museum, when this paper, an-
nouncing their discovery, was read before the members of the Royal Irish Academy.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL, X. 2¥
334
the sand dunes on the western shore, bones, oyster shells, &c., were
turned up by the plough.
It may be perhaps vain to speculate who the tenant of the name-
less grave may have been. The sons of Nessan, who gave their name to
this island, previously called ‘‘Inis Faithlen,” i.e. the Elder-tree Is-
land, doubtless rest here. In the year 701, Irgalach, regulus of the
Cianactha of Bregia, according to the Annals of Ulster and Tigernach,
was slain ‘“‘on Inis Mac Nessan, east of Ben Edair,”’ by the Britons,
who invaded his territory, and followed him to his retreat on this
island, where he was slain. Was he the tenant of this hastily-
made grave? Did he lack a friendly hand to close his eyes im
death? His burial may have been premature, and his struggles to
escape from his living tomb, when suspended animation returned, may
account for the unusual position in which these remains have been
found. The Irish Annals record various battles and sieges of which
Inis Mac Nessan was the theatre during the ninth and tenth centuries,
ae ee mementos of which were discovered during the past two
months.
XXXIII.—On rue Puysicat Conpitions oF CLIMATE DURING DIFFERENT
GrotocicaL Epocus. By Prorzssor H. Hennessy, F.R.S.
[ Abstract ].
[Read on 8th and 22nd June, 1868].
Tue author had briefly placed on record at different times since 1856
his conclusions as to the question which occupies his attention in the
present inquiry. His object in this paper is to submit to the Academy
a series of proofs of the correctness of his fundamental propositions
more elaborate and complete than he has hitherto attempted. The pro-
positions referred to may be thus summarised: The phenomena of Geo-
logical climate may be explaincd by the existence of two recognised
sources of heat. 1. Outer, that of the sun; 2. Inner, that of the
earth’s cooling mass.
By studying the facts revealed by Geological observations as to the
variations in the heat receiving and heat distributiug materials of the
earth’s outer coating—namely, the solid crust, its watery envelope, and
_ the atmosphere—the author endeavours to show that the differences of
Geological climate necessarily result from such variations, and do not
require for their explanation any hypotheses of great cosmical revolu-
tions. Primary importance is attached to the action of water as a
receiver and carrier of heat derived from inner and outer heat sources ;
and the author called attention to the fact, that, since he had first ven- -
tured in 1856 and 1857, to maintain the climatal influence of hydro-
thermal action, similar views have been reproduced by several eminent ||
Inquirers.
i
q
|
330
XX XIV.—Nore on Two STREAMS FLOWING FROM A COMMON SOURCE IN
opposite Directions. By Prorrssor H. Hennessy, F. B.S.
[Read June 22, 1868. ]
Tae peculiarities of river watersheds appear to possess much interest
for geographers, and have frequently excited discussion in recent
times.* JI may, therefore, be excused for attempting to make a trifling
contribution to the facts already collected. Amidst the group of
mountains to the south of Dublin, two small streams arise, one of
which is traceable from the Dodder, through Rockbrook, up to Glendoo;
the other is traceable from its junction with the Dargle River at St.
Valerie, up through Glencullen. Both streams flow from the same
point, which is precisely at the highest part of the axis of the ravine,
one end of which is denominated Glencullen and the other Glendoo.
At the point in question, there is a hollow or pot constantly full of
water, which is received laterally from a brooklet that rises much
higher amidst the boggy slopes on the sides of Cruagh and Glendoo
Mountains. The parting of the streams is not shown on the Ordnance
Maps, but there seems to be a rude indication of its existence in
Roecque’s Map of the County Dublin, published during the last cen-
tury. No topographical writer appears to have hitherto noticed the
phenomenon, and it has thus seemed to me desirable that it should be
systematically placed on record. The partings of small temporary
streams frequently arise after heavy rains, but, as in this case, the ob-
servations were all made during the prevalence of dry weather, the
phenomenon may be considered as comparatively permanent. I visited
the spot three times, and on the last occasion (June 17) I found almost
all the watercourses which I crossed on the sides of Tibradden Moun-
tain perfectly dry, while the turf was everywhere hard. No rain had
been recorded in Dublin since the 8rd, and then it had fallen in a small
quantity ; while a shepherd whom I met near the bifurcating streams
assured me, that for the preceding three months the dryness which pre-
vailed in the locality was quite unusual. In company with Mr. J.
O’ Kelly, of the Geological Survey of Ireland, I minutely examined the
circumstances of the water parting. We verified the precise point of
bifurcation which I had previously detected in the pot already alluded
to, by scattering in the water some fragments of moss which had
nearly the same specific gravity as the water itself; after a short inter-
val some fragments were carried N. W., towards the Dodder, while
others were carried 8. E., towards Glencullen and St. Vallerie. The
appearance of the ground exhibited no trace of artificial cutting or
embanking that might give rise to the bifurcation, while the rushes and
moss which surround the diverging streamlets seem to have been long
* See the ‘* Athenzum,” volume for July to December, 1863, pp. 19, 59, 83, 113,
248, 578, 652, and 657; also the volume for January to June, 1866, pp. 367, 398,
499, 564, 636,
336
erowing without disturbance. Although the complete verification of
this phenomenon in dry weather requires patience and attention, it
cannot be attended with difficulty after heavy rains. The so-called bi-
furcations of large rivers, often referred to in the writings of geographers,
are entirely different in character ; being, in fact, rather Siamese twin
junctions by intermediate channels; while this, though on a very small
scale, is an instance of a true bifurcation, and appears to be of com-
paratively rare occurrence in a permanent form.*
XXXV.—On tHE DIScovVERY OF THREE EARTHEN VASES AT PALMERS-
Town, County or DusLin, ONE OF WHICH CONTAINED Human RE-
MAINS, FRAGMENTS OF SHELL, AND Doe Bonrs. By Dr. W. Frazer,
M. R. I. A., Hon. Member Montreal Medico-Chirurgical Society, &e.
[Read June 22, 1868.]
Portions of three earthen vases were recently obtained at Palmerstown,
county of Dublin, all of them unfortunately broken into pieces by the
rude treatment they got when found by the labourers. One of these
urns, of small size, presents little of interest. The second, in which
human bones were discovered, was of unusual bulk, its mouth measur-
ing eleven inches in diameter; its peculiar style of ornamentation 1s
also deserving of remark. Around the third vase, the mouth of
which was about seven inches in diameter, was built a carefully
constructed kist of flags; it contained portions of the bones of a human
being, two fragments of shell, and also some dog bones; a strange as-
semblage that remind us of the ‘‘ Kitchen Middens” of Denmark, and of
our own shores, in which human remains are found mixed with shells,
and occasionally also the bones of man’s faithful companion in the chase,
his dog. Unlike, however, to these ‘‘ Kitchen Middens,”’ no weapons were
discovered in or near the locality where these vases were procured.
A pit or quarry, marked on the Ordnance Maps, has been long
worked for raising boulder stones for paving and macadamizing pur-
poses immediately beyond the village of Palmerstown, and within a
short distance of the River Liffey; it is excavated in the alluvial drift,
and its open banks present good views of that deposit, which through-
out the district covers over the stratified rocks, the mass of rolled stones
imbedded in tenacious clay rising within a foot or eighteen inches of the
soil. This pit is situated in a rich grass field that slopes down to the
river. Early in June, 1868, when the workmen were excavating the
western side of the quarry, which is about ten feet deep, a fall of the
* Some of the discussicns in the ‘‘ Athenzeum,” referred to in note, p. 335, relate to the
phenomena of lakes with two outlets. It now seems that Lough Derg (Donegal) may
be included among such lakes, for in addition to its principal outlet, which flows towards q
the north into the Atlantic, there is a second smaller outlet, which discharges itself south-
wards into Lough Erne.
O37
bank took place and exposed one of the vases, enclosed in a stone cyst:
the other large vase was discovered in a similar manner a few days
afterwards, but imbedded in earth, there being no stones under or around
it. When the labourers found these vessels contained only bones, they
amused themselves by throwing stones at them and breaking them into
fragments; a few of the larger pieces, and of the bones, were preserved
and brought to Richard A. Gray, Esq., County Surveyor, who kindly
placed them at my disposal; I visited the locality, and got the particu-
lars of their discovery from the workmen, who likewise gathered for
me all the pieces they could collect of the broken vessels: in arranging
them I detected the third or smaller vase, upwards of half this vase
remaining in fragments, mixed with the pieces of the larger vessels: it
had not. been noticed by the workmen, but probably fell down from the
side of the quarry when the other vessels became uncovered,
The vase, Fig. 1, was found about five
feet nearer the river than the large one;
sufficient of its fragments remain to enable
us to judge of its size and form by cement-
ing them together (for this purpose I em-
ployed a cement consisting of bees’ wax,
Venice turpentine, and starch, which is
easily applied when warm, and adheres
with great firmness. I can recommend it
to those who wish to restore similar ob- Hii WAG
jects). It lay deposited in a rude quadri- wl Be
lateral excavation, placed mouth down- ma
wards upon a broad slab of stone, and sur-
rounded on three sides by flat flags, but
there was no stone discovered on its east
side: this primitive grave or cyst was covered in by two slabs of stone
lying in apposition, the chink where they joined being closed by a
third slab, thus constituting a rude roof over the chamber, The ex-
cavation in which it lay was hollowed out of the upper part of the
drift bed, the top of that formation being about level with the cover-
ing flags, and upon these rested eighteen inches of undisturbed vege-
table soil. :
The vessel is hand-made, of coarse baked earthenware, ornamented
by rude markings of parallel and vertical lines, with others impressed
obliquely, producing rough chevron or herring-bone pattern, of which
the engraving gives a good though greatly diminished representation ;
it measures ten inches in height, the mouth of the jar being, as already
stated, seven inches in diameter, and has the usual graceful form of
many similar articles of early pottery; the interior of the jar is coated
on its bottom and along the sides with black carbonaceous matter,
forming a thin adhering crust. The fragments of bone that it con-
tained were dry, friable, and evidently of considerable age; they were
of pure white colour; but it would be impossible to assert with cer-
tainty they had been charred or burned, for boiled, or even buried
NN een Ss
WAS
Nh
AA 53 \
Co
1} ny) 4 PY)
ks = K
(SAGACETNNTONN |
\ 4 \ Taro aynely
a ; A Y
UNE s M64 Y
A
A
PN AE ON CC A IES DELON IT i, I, ee
Te on
338
bones would in the course of time present a similar appearance. As I
got all the bones which were contained in this jar when discovered, it
is certain there were not one-fourth—perhaps far less—of the bones of
a human being in the vessel, though amongst them were portions of
several different parts of the skeleton, and these all broken into pieces,
few of which exceeded an inch or two in size. Amongst them, aided
by my friends, Professor Traquair and Dr. Macalister, I recognised three
portions of human skull, through one of which ran a line of suture
(probably the lambdoidal), the ungual phalanx of a toe, and a fragment
of a second similar bone; also the ungual phalanx of a finger, the fang
of a human tooth, a bicuspis which we believe belonged to a lower jaw,
a portion of the head and neck of a thigh bone, a piece probably of the
ischium, a fragment of the orbit, half the lower articular end of the
fibula, and some scaly laminz of ribs, with detached portions of bone
that seem to belong to a tibia. There were, further, fifteen small frag-
ments of bone, not human, and which we consider referrible to a dog ; of
these we can identify a portion of a vertebra, parts of a rib, part of the
articular end of a tibia, and pieces of a long bone which was probably the
tibia; the rest of the osseous fragments were human, though too much
broken up to permit of identification. Mixed with the bones were two
pieces of shell—one, a portion of the common oyster; the other the
articulating valve of Zutrarva oblonga, a shell that still abounds in the
mud banks of Dublin Bay.
The second earthen vase was described by the workmen as being con-
siderably larger sized and thicker ; itis made of coarse materials, imper-
fectly burned; its outer part is reddish, and at least three-fourths of its
thickness still black coloured: the fragments that were obtained proved
too imperfect to admit of its restoration, with the exception of the neck,
of which three-fourths remained, though broken into many pieces; these
form portion of a circle measuring eleven inches in diameter, whilst the
neck of the vessel, figured No. 1, was not fully seven and a half inches
across ; it would appear that both vessels were formed alike in shape, still
Fig. 2 represents a piece of the neck of this jar, measuring about two and a half inches.
Fig. 3 is another fragment, about four and and a half inches in length.
the style of ornamentation was altogether different. Figs. 2 and 3 are
wood-cuts taken from photographs of two portions of the neck of this
jar; they afford fair representations of the appearance of the outside
markings: along the upper edge was a row of v-formed striz 1m-
309
pressed with some indenting tool, which produced such impressions as
would result from a piece of fine twisted cord wrapped round the end
of a stick; under this was disposed a row of rude imitations of roses
or raised flowers, and beneath those an irregular line of oblique in-
dented markings not continuous round the vessel; farther down, where
the neck swelled out into the body of the vessel, appear to have been
alternating roses, and rather well designed wreaths made by continuous
impressions of the indenting tool; the entire presenting an elaborate
pattern that appears, so far as I can ascertain, unique amongst Irish
sepulchral urns; the inside of the neck was likewise ornamented by
three oblique lines of striations running in opposite directions; many
of them well formed by the indenting tool, and others rude impressions,
such as the sharp edge of a stone or brick would produce; the entire
conveying an impression that the fabricator had commenced his task
with skill and taste, and tiring over it, had endeavoured to complete it
in aruder style with rapidity. Some pieces of the body of this vase
which were recovered were decorated in keeping with the pattern on
the neck; in others rough ovals are marked out by angular impressions
of some sharp-edged instrument that surround
a raised rose or central boss, as in Fig. 4;
a much diminished representation of the
largest fragment that was got, it measuring
about four inches in both diameters.
When the falling cliff disclosed the vase,
it was found lying mouth downwards in an
excavation prepared in the upper surface of
the drift, and covered with undisturbed soil ;
there were no flags placed under or around
it ; all the surrounding space being filled in
with fine clay, from which the larger stones
and pebbles had been separated; it was then
entire, and one of the workmen, breaking it to seek for treasure,
found in it only bones; these were black, softened, and in fragments.
I saw them where they were thrown in the quarry; they were evidently
human remains, but crumbled to pieces when exposed to the air.
The third vase that was discovered was small, its height being six and
a half or seven inches, and its neck little more than four inches in diame-
ter; it was made from a bluish clay that burns pale yellowish brown ;
the upper part of the body was marked by a rude cross-bar pattern of
decussing lines, whilst round its lip, and at the junction of its body and
neck, are parallel lines dividing horizontal patterns made by oblique
indentations. The recognition of this jar was accidental; its fragments
were brought to me mixed with portions of the large-sized vessel, but
the workmen were ignorant of its existence, and stated positively they
had noticed only two jars ; they were assured this small one could not
have been inside the larger one, for they broke it open 7m stu before
the cliff fell, to seek for treasure, and finding only bones, destroyed it.
a
mS ) NET
340
T am disposed to believe it lay buried very close to the large } jar, ad
fell down in the chff with it.
The fragments of all these jars were thrown into a heap of stones
broken for repairing roads, and much of it carted off before I reached
the quarry ; what I got were recovered by having the residue of several
tons of broken stones sifted and examined by workmen. [I have de-
posited the specimens in the Museum of the Academy.
Note.—A few days ago I had the opportunity of seeing the late
Dr. Petrie’s collection of sepulchral vases, through the kindness of
Mr. Clibborn. He directed my attention to the fragments of one in
particular, which was of unusual size, probably as large as the great
vase I have described : of this about one-third remains in broken pieces.
It is entered by Dr. Petrie in his Catalogue, but I know not on what
authority, as ‘‘ portions of a regal urn found in Co. Shlgo.”’ It has rude
elevations or ridges running obliquely over the exterior, and decussat-
ing, which produces a large chequered ornamentation ; within those are
rough bosses, that appear intended for imitating. flowers, very similar
to the roses on my large vase; they are, however, executed in coarser
and more primitive style.
XXXVI.— On 4 cuntous InscriBED Stone Found aT TuLttacH CuuRcH-
YARD, NEAR CaBINTEELY, Co. Dusiin. By Hewry Parkinson, Esq.
[Read June 22, 1868. ]
Durine a recent visit to the ancient
burying-place of Tullagh, which con-
tains within its precincts many ob-
jects of interest to the antiquarian,
my attention was attracted to a very
curious inscribed stone which lay
close to the ruins of the old church
of Tullagh, almost completely hid
with earth and weeds. On clearing
away the latter, I discovered certain ©
circular carvings on its upper surface.
As I can find no reference to it
either in the writings of that ob-
servant antiquarian, Dr. Petrie, or in
any of the works I have consulted
on the subject, I am inclined to think
that no one has hitherto noticed it ;
and, therefore, annex the following
particulars, with a view of drawing
the attention of antiquarians to a fz
very interesting specimen of a class
of ancient monuments which the pre-
sent Bishop of Limerick designates as ‘‘ previously undescribed’ ina |
paper read before the Academy on the 18th of February, 1860.
o41
The stone which, for the sake of convenience, I have represented in an
upright position in the preceding Figure, is about 5 feet long, by from 17
inches, tapering to 11 inches broad, and, as far as I could ascertain, from
6 to 8 inches thick. It presents no appearance of ever having been
dressed with the chisel ; but, on what I suppose is the smoother side, is
inscribed three sets of well-defined rings. The sets or groups differ in
size, as the one at the base, or broadest part of the stone, is 15 inches in
diameter ; the centre one 13, and the third only 11 inches. They all ap-
pear to have had the same number (four) of rings, with the exception of
the third, or top one, which seems to have had only three. The three sets
are connected with each other and both ends of the stone by almost
straight lines, which are now barely discernible. The larger set has in
addition two lines or grooves connecting the outward circle with each
side of the stone. The centres of the three sets are of a peculiar con-
struction, not consisting of the usual cup-shaped hollows, or rock basins,
found in connexion with inscriptions of a similar kind in other parts
of the country, but of bosses, having their apexes slightly under the
general surface of the stone.
Without venturing to express an opinion on a subject which has
occupied the attention of such a distinguished antiquary as the Bishop
of Limerick, I will only remark, that it is admitted by all I have con-
sulted on the subject that these kinds of carvings are of very great anti-
quity, and are, perhaps (as I have read somewhere), the remains of the
one primitive race which overspread the northern hemisphere of Kurcpe
prior to the formation of the present tribes. I will also add, that the
following conjecture is worthy of consideration, namely, that the in-
scribed stone at Tullagh was the monument of some former chief, and
the carvings representing three shields were the symbols of his name,
rank, and tribe, similar to the distinctive marks, called ‘‘ Totems,”’ used
by the North American Indians of the present day. I subsequently
visited the old graveyard of Rathmichael, which is about half a mile from
Tullagh, for the purpose of seeing the two inscribed monuments the late
Dr. Petrie gives an account of in the ‘‘ Dublin Examiner’’ for October,
1816, and referred to by the Bishop of Limerick. I found in the grave-
yard no less than six of these stones, all of them but two so defaced that
little is to be seen but the centre cups and parts of the rings. The two
I first mentioned are now used as modern head-stones, and probably, as
Dr. Petrie states, formed once the one monument. The rings compos-
ing the groups on these stones are pretty well defined, but not at all so
perfect or regular as those on the stone at Tullagh, nor have they the
bosses in their centre.
1 am strongly inclined to think, from the number of these stones at
Rathmichael, that at a remote period of this island’s history there
existed, either there or in the immediate vicinity, a burial place of note;
and, further, from the fact that the stones vary so much in size, some
haying only the remains of one group of rings, and no room for any
R, I. A. PROC.—YOL. x. 22%
Bef ak eee teat ar CN ig CNet ae eee RN Ne URN Cee ek
342
more, others having two, and only one with three groups, as the one
at Tullagh, it is not unreasonable to suppose that the rank and station
of those buried were denoted by the numbers of the groups or rings on
each monumental stone, as also by the number of the rings in each indivi-
dual group. But these are only conjectures, and it is to be hoped that
before long some light will be thrown on this interesting subject.
043
XXX VIT.—On tHe Iuacinary Roots or Numentcat Equations, wItH
AN Investigation AND ProoF or Newton’s Rutz. By J. R. Youna,
Hsq., formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College.
[Read November 9, 1868.]
(1) Ler the general equation of the nth degree, with numerical coef-
ficients, be represented by
eae ee Ae ee OS At iA ae + ASO... [Z],
and let it be transformed into another by substituting xv +7, for x.
Then if r be determined by the condition that the second coefficient in
the transformed equation shall be zero, the third coefficient will be
found to be
A Nav) Arey
A,, 2 nA, }’
consequently, if the sign of this third coefficient be the same as that of
the first, the first three terms of the transformed equation,—the middle
term being zero, will satisfy the condition of De Gua,* and will there-
fore imply the existence of at least one pair of imaginary roots in the
_ transformed, and therefore of one pair also in the original equation.
Hence, multiplying this third coefficient by the positive quantity
2nA,?, a pair of imaginary roots will be indicated, provided the first
three coefficients of the proposed equation satisfy the condition
2A Adal Ara. eo [le
(2) If the order of the coefticients in [Z] be reversed, we shall
have an equation the roots of which will be the reciprocals of the
roots of [2]: the existence of a pair of imaginary roots in either equa-
tion implies therefore the existence of a pair, the reciprocals of those
roots, in the other. Consequently the criterion | 1] may be applied, as
a test, as well to the last three coefficients of | Z| as to the first three ;
so that a pair of imaginary roots in [J] will equally be indicated, pro-
vided that the condition
9nAydy>(n-1)A? . meeurs POP
be satisfied.
£(3) Now, it is well known that if a limiting or derived equation
_ have imaginary roots, the primitive equation must also have imaginary
roots,—as many at least: taking, therefore, the several limiting equa-
tions, derived one after another, each from the immediately preceding,
in the usual way, [Z| being the primitive, and applying the criterion
* Conformably to usage, I have called this ‘‘the condition of De Gua;” but it is
implied in the Rule of Newton, published many years before the researches of De Gua
appeared.
R.I, A. PROC.—YVOL. X. 3A
SEER FSF RR es atl
ip
Se 2s es
ee a ee te a aig en ge Be ee
044
[2] to the last three coefficients of each, we shall arrive at the series of
conditions which here follow; and the existence of any one of these
conditions will imply the existence of at least one pair of imaginary
roots in the primitive equation.
Conditions of imaginary roots i [ I).
2nA,A,> (n-1)A;?
3(n—1)A,A3>2(n - 2)A?
4(n-2)A,Ay>3(n-38)A,? ... [3]
5(n-3)A;,A,>4(n-4)AZ.
2nAn An > (nm nee 1 VAZeS.
(4) From a mere inspection of this group of conditions, it is obvious
that all are comprehended in the general formula
(m+1)(a- m —1) A mAs >t — Mm), Apo 3s
where m is the exponent of x in the middle one of any three conse-
cutive terms of the equation [/]. And from this general formula we
at once see that the difference of the numerical multipliers
(m +1) (n-m—1), and m(n — m)
is always the same for the same value of m, namely, ~+1. We may
therefore express the above conditions somewhat differently, thus :—
[(~-1)+(4+1)]4.42.> (-1) 4?
[2(~ - 2) + (n+1)] AA, > 2(n - 2) A?
[8(n - 8) + (w+ 1)] 4,4¢> 38(m - 3) AZ... [5]
[4(2 — 4) + (7+ 1)] 4,4; > 4(n- 4) AZ
[(m -— 1) + (n+ 1) AAs > (a —1) Aes
so that the multiplier for the square of the middle term of any triad of
terms, increased by the constant number 7 + 1, will always be the mul-
tiplier for the product of the extreme terms; and therefore, in applying
the tests, it will usually be the more convenient to deal with the
squares first.
(5) It is evident that the foregoing inequalities, for an equation of
the mth degree, are » — 1 in number; and from the general expression
[4] we see that the multiplier which enters the middle term of each of
the two completed series of terms, when is even, or the number of
terms in each completed series odd, is always a square number : thus,
345
putting 2m for n, the middle term will be the mth, and therefore, by
the general form referred to, the proper multipliers will be
(m+ 1) (2m -m—1) = (m +1), and m(2m — m) = m’.
Of course, since the multipliers in each completed series taken. in
order from first to last are the same as when taken in order from last
to first, the product of the extremes, as also of any two multipliers
equidistant from the extremes, will be a square number.
(6) If in any one of the foregoing conditions, the first member
should be equal to, instead of greater than, the second, a pair of ima-
ginary roots will still be implied. For in that case, not only does the
second coefficient vanish in the equation in which the condition
of equality has place, but the third coefficient also—the general ex-
pression above, for the third coefficient, being then zero; and we know
that consecutive zeros always imply Imaginary roots.
(7) Any one of the group of conditions [3], involving three conse-
cutive coefficients of the primitive equation [J], being taken, if that
condition hold or fail, it will, in like manner, hold or fail for the terms
involving the same three coefficients in every limiting equation derived
from the primitive. This is proved as follows:—
The general expression for any triad of consecutive terms in [J] is
Ae Age AL gmat
The triad derived from this is
(+1) Awe" +m A, amt (mn — 1) Ao,
and the property affirmed is—that according as the condition in [4]
‘holds or fails for the above primitive triad, so will the following condi-
tion, in which the derived triad replaces the former, hold or fail,
namely, the condition
m(n —m —2)(m—-1)(m+1) Ana Ana > (m—-1) (n - m - 1) (mA,,)?,
or, expunging the factors common to both sides, the condition
(n—-m—2) (M41) Ania Ana > m(n-m—-1)A?,.
For, it being remembered that, for the triad with which we are now
dealing, the degree of the equation is »— 1, and not n (as in the case of
the primitive triad), we must put 2-1 for min this expression: its
form will then be
(n—-1-—m-—2)(m+1) Ay Ana > m(n -1-m—-1) A?
which is the same as
(m+1)(m-m—-1) AnjgAma> m(n — m) A?
that is, 2 7s adentical with the form [4]. And, as a corollary to this
theorem, it follows that when the two expressions [3] are equal instead
of unequal for any triad in a derived equation, they must be equal for
Sop Mw IOEAG SHOE x Sie Depress Cat ’
Sas ge ROL ES, SU AD Ate AA OA A oe
ise,
eta ee
ee ty FI IS Fev
ee ge
eo ate a IO OG TCL BS OO
wet eet” Cag eer
346
the corrseponding triad in the preceding equation, and conversely; and
from this it further follows that in the development of (a + a)", all the
triads must satisfy the conditions of equality. For they are all satisfied
in the case
(a+ a) =a? + 8ax* + 80a + a,
and consequently, from the above inference, all (except the last triad,
which has no correspondent here) must satisfy the conditions of equa-
lity in
(2 + a)* = a + 4ax? + Gara? + 4a%x + a,
of which the former multiplied by 4 is the derived equation; and thence
the conditions of equality are satisfied in (w+ a), («+ a)*, &., by
whatever factors these be multiplied. And since in each case the last
triad always satisfies the same condition as the first, it follows that al/
the triads in the development of A,(x + a)” satisfy the conditions of
equality ; and this development being fixed in form, these tests of equa-
lity may be employed to ascertain whether a polynomial is really the
development of a binomial, or of a binomial multiplied by a factor, or
not.
(8) From the theorem just established, we see that whatever ima-
ginary roots the conditions [3] may enable us to detect the existence of
in the equation [| J |, these roots always have a peculiar character ; they
are distinguished from other imaginary roots in this,—namely, that
on account of their entrance into the primitive equation, imaginarity* is
necessarily transmitted to the first derived equation, thence to the se-
cond derived equation, and so on, till one of the three coefficients of the
primitive, which supply the condition [3], disappears, as it at length
must do in the process of successive derivation. As long as the three
coeflicients fulfilling one of the conditions [3] are all preserved in the
subsequent equations, so long will each of those equations have a pair
of imaginary roots. With regard, therefore, to this particular class of
imaginary roots, it is true not only that a pair in any derived equation
implies, of necessity, the entrance of a pair in the primitive, but, con-
versely, that a pair in the primitive necessitates a pair in every derived
equation down to that one from which the third coefficient in the primi-
tive triad has disappeared.
With other imaginary pairs, that is, with those pairs the existence
of which is not indicated by any of the conditions [3], the case is dif-
ferent: we know that the equation may have imaginary roots, and
yet not transmit imaginarity to any of the equations derived from
it—the roots of these may all be real; if a pair of them be ima-
ginary, then, indeed, a pair also imaginary must necessarily enter
* This term, ‘‘imaginarity,” is not employed by English algebraists : its equivalent,
imaginaritéd, is, however, of frequent occurrence in French works, and deserves to be im-
ported into our language.
347
the primitive equation; but the converse of this is not true, except
under the peculiar circumstances noticed above; that is, except when
the original coefficients satisfy one or more of the conditions [3]. It
is exclusively with this class of imaginary roots that we propose at pre-
sent to deal: we shall have nothing to do—at least till notice is given—
with any of the imaginary roots of an equation, the existence of which
roots is not discoverable from the mere coefficients of that equation
when submitted to the tests of imaginarity marked [3] or [5] at
page 344.
It may be well to give a specific name to pairs of imaginary roots
of this class: we shall call them primary pairs; and the conditions
[3] or [5], by which their entrance into an equation is discovered,
are merely the embodiment in formule of these verbal statements,
namely :
For a primary pair to exist, either, 1st, the second term of the pro-
posed equation must vanish (for the proper transformation) between
like signs; or, 2nd, the second term in the reciprocal of the pro-
posed, or of some one or more of the derived equations, must vanish
between like signs.
Of course, as already proved at (7), when the second term in the
direct primitive vanishes between like signs, that is, when the condition
[1] has place, the second term will also vanish from every derived
equation, down to the quadratic, inclusive. But the condition [2],
supplied by the final triad of terms in the primitive, will not be trans-
mitted to the first derived equation, since the last term A, will not
enter that equation ; but whatever intermediate triads in the primitive
satisfy the conditions | 3], these triads, one after another, must become
final triads eventually, in some of the derived equations; and the con-
ditions | 3] being satisfied for the corresponding triads in the primitive,
they, must be satisfied for these also, as proved at (7). The second
term, therefore, in the reciprocal of every such derived equation must
vanish between like signs.
(10) Such are the peculiar circumstances exclusively and invariably
attendant upon the entrance of primary pairs of imaginary roots into an
equation. As to the number of such pairs, when two or more of the
conditions | 3 | are satisfied, or as to whether more than one pair can
ever be safely inferred, however many of these conditions are satisfied —
these are points in reference to which nothing can be determined at
this stage of the inquiry, except the fact that in a cubic equation,
though both the triads furnished by its four terms should equally satisfy
the condition of primary pairs, yet only one pair of imaginary roots can
enter the equation. A single illustration of the fact, in an equation of
higher degree than the third, will suffice to show that the fulfilment of
consecutive conditions [3], how many soever, does not imply, of neces-
sity, more than one pair of imaginary roots. Thus, take the equation
4oat — 9x? + 82? —- 44 +8 = 0,
Repo
Were Ret
oS Se
eat Rac ah EAT oe
ae
Ba ar tah poe A oR 5
Oe LP ST IS,
348
all the triads of which satisfy the conditions [3],* namely,
Ist. 2nx4x 8 > (n—1)9?, that is, 256 > 243
Ond. 3(n—1)9 x 4 > 2(n—-2)8*, ,, 824>256
8rd. 4(n—2)8 x 8 > 8(n-8)42, ,, 512> 48
and yet, only two of the four roots are imaginary; a real root lies be-
tween 0 and 4. For diminishing each root by ‘5, we have
laa 2 et + 2(°5
5 — 3875. S625 — 31875
a oe ee =
—1:°75 +1:125 -— °4875 — ‘01875
the change of sign showing that a root lies between 0 and ‘5. We shall
find, upon trial, that the first tigure of this root is ‘4.
This example clearly enough shows that the fulfilment of the condi-
tions [3], one after another, without interruption, by the successive
triads of an equation, is no proof.that more than a single pair of imagi-
nary roots enter; one pair there necessarily must be; other pairs there
may be, but there are not other pairs necessarily. If the absolute
number in the foregoing equation had been 1:4, or any greater number,
instead of the number °8, all the roots would have been imaginary,
although only two imaginary roots could have been indicated by the
preceding tests; for the coefficients would then have satisfied the con-
dition
(44,A,- A,”) Ay > A,A?,
which has place only when all the roots of the equation are Imaginary,
as may be proved as follows :—
(11) Let the general equation of the fourth degree, with the last
term positive, be put in the form
a(Ay’?+A,r+A,—p)+(p2?+ Ax +A,)= 0.
Then, if p be taken equal to 4,2 + 4A,, the second of these qua-
dratic expressions, being a square, will be positive (or zero) for every
real value of x; and the first will be always positive also, that is, all
the roots of the equation will be imaginary, if
2
a PAs,
1A A, = 4A,
* If the fourth term were + 4, instead of — 4z, the first and last triads would each
still satisfy the conditions ; but the middle triad would fail. Yet, asthe imaginary roots =|
indicated by the first triad are indieated in the positive region of the roots, and theima- |
ginary roots indicated in the last triad would then be indicated in the negative region,
we should know that the two pairs of roots are distinct. Asit is, however, allthe roots |
are indicated in the positive region.
a a i a
* “
i a
Ae —
enn
ee ne
.__ oe ee
SE
349
A,A;?
A,
or, (44,A, - A®,)Ay> A,A,’.
or, 44,A, —- >A},
And all the roots will still be imaginary if the sign = replace the sign
>, since each of the two component parts of the equation, in the above
form, will then be a positive square.
(12) As implied in the title of it, one object of the present com-
munication is to prove the truth of the rule proposed by Newton,
in the Arithmetica Universalis, for determining the number of imaginary
roots in an equation, whenever the coefficients of that equation have cer-
tain specified relations among themselves—the relations, in fact, which
are among those exhibited in the conditions [3], at page 344. In those
equations, in which no one of these conditions is satisfied by the co-
efficients, Newton’s rule is of no avail; although, notwithstanding the
non-fulfilment of any of the conditions adverted to, the equation may
have even all its roots imaginary. Yet, restricted as it thus is to the
class of roots which we have called primary pairs, when two or more
of such pairs enter an equation, the rule will frequently enable us to
detect their presence; while the criteria [3] alone, how many soever
of them might be satisfied by the coefficients, could never assure us of
the existence of more than a single pair. By the aid of the general
theorem at (7), Newton’s Rule may be demonstrated as follows :—
(13) Returning to the primitive equation [J], suppose we were to
deduce from it the several limiting equations in order: we know that
the coefficients 4), A,, A,, &c., would disappear one after another, the
leading coefficient, 4,, being the only one that would be retained at
the end of the operation. Suppose, now, the order of the coefficients
to be reversed, as well in the primitive as in each of these derived equa-
tions, and that then the series of limiting equations be deduced from
each of these, till we arrive at a limiting equation of the third degree;
then, leaving blanks for whatever numerical factors may have been in-
troduced into the coefficients by this process of derivation, the derived
cubic equations will be
eos i Awe +) Aw A = 0
ean [Ale [Pp Ae ef PAO
ele ee PaaS le] Agee ff: FA, a= 0. . [27]
eee WA | Aces, PALS.
Now, for the purpose in hand, we are not interested in knowing what
the numerical quantities are which would correctly fill up these blanks ;
it is sufficient for this purpose that we know, from the property estab-
lished at (7), that, if we were to apply to each of these cubics the cri-
SO re iy Te WT iter rid
Rigen
Mh lie it oe page
Be eagehty eae
i, ee
BF ge Ee, ae
ba
Bre ab ae
sues
oF eee SA
Sees
i gh ies avs
ea ee ae
a
1 *
50
os)
terion of imaginary roots, 2 being equal to 3, be the wanting numbers
whatever they may, we should obtain the very same conditions [3 |
which the original coefficients A,, A,, Az, &c., supply; each condition
here being the same as that condition there, into which the same triad
of original coefficients enters. Here, however, we see that the last triad
of terms in any cubic always involves the same coefficients of [/] as
the first triad in the cubic next following; so that, if the criterion of
imaginary roots be satisfied by the last three terms of one cubic, it must
be satisfied by the first three of the next, and vice versd. As a cubic
equation cannot have more than one pair of imaginary roots, it follows
that the fulfilment of the condition by any two consecutive sets of
three terms of the primitive equation implies, of necessity, but one pair
of imaginary roots in that equation.
When, however, each of the two triads of a cubic equation indicates
imaginary roots, the concurring indications imply a distinct peculiarity
in the pair of roots thus indicated. The peculiarity is this, namely,
that not only does their entrance cause the second term of the cubic
equation to vanish between lke signs, but the entrance of their reci-
procals, in the reciprocal equation, causes also the second term of that
equation to vanish between lke signs; that is to say, the second term
vanishes between like signs, whether the coefficients be taken in the
order proposed or in the reverse order.
When the first triad of terms satisfies the condition of imaginary
roots, and the second triad fails, the reciprocal pair is not thus indicated ;
when the second triad satisfies the condition, and the first fails, it is in
the reciprocal equation alone that the second term vanishes between
like signs. And it is, moreover, only when such evanescence takes
place in the reciprocal equation that imaginarity is necessarily conveyed
from the one cubic to the other; and not only in the contrary case, that
is, when the final triad fails to satisfy the condition, is imaginarity not
necessarily conveyed to the next cubic, but it cannot possibly be con-
veyed under any circumstances whatever. In no single instance is a
pair of roots in a cubic imaginary, either primary or non-primary,
merely in consequence of the final triad in the preceding cubic being
what it is, unless that preceding triad itself satisfies the condition of
imaginarity. This may be proved as follows :—
(14) Let the cubic equation be
Ain + Ane? + A\at+ A = 0.
in which the leading triad of terms, supplied by the final triad of the
immediately antecedent cubic in [ //], fails to satisfy the condition at
[3]; and let it be transformed into
v+pet+g=0.
by the removal of the first coefficient, and the second term ; » will then
be necessarily negative, by the hypothesis. Now it is known that
me :
ibis =| Ae the roots will all be real and unequal.
/
351
beget hac Nes : eae
2. if (- p < (S) , two of the roots will be imaginary.
DN cee ga
3. LE (- 2 Ye (f) , the roots will all be real, and two of
them equal.
The second of these conditions shows that, in the proposed hypo-
thesis, the three coefficients, A’,, A’,, A’;, can never alone suffice to
introduce imaginary roots into the complete cubic, since that condition
implies that a suitable value of g, and consequently of A’), is indispen-
sably necessary to such introduction. Hence the final triad of one of the
eubies | JZ ]’can never introduce imaginarity into the cubic next follow-
ing, unless that triad itself satisfies the condition ofimaginarity. On the
other hand, whenever the triad does satisfy that condition, no value of
the absolute term (or q) can ever prevent imaginary roots from enter-
ing the cubic to which that triad is transferred ; that is, under this con-
dition imaginarity is of necessity introduced by the former cubic into
the latter, let g, or A’, in this latter cubic, be whatever it may: it may
indeed be anything or nothing, p being necessarily positive ; and on ac-
count of this sign of y it is, and on this account solely, that two of the
roots are of necessity imaginary; the value or sign of qg (and therefore
of A’,) having nothing at all to do with the matter.
(15) It thus follows that when in any cubic equation
A’, 2° + A’, DeAnd ot Alo = )
the condition
SAC As AG Ps crs a | |
has place, it is impossible that imaginary roots can enter independently
of the value of A’,; so that imaginarity can never be introduced
into the cubie (if the absolute term 4’) be arbitrary), whatever values
we may give to the three leading coefficients, provided only the condi-
tion [a] is preserved. But when, on the contrary, the condition is
then it is impossible that imaginary roots can be excluded, let A’,
take whatever value it may ; that is, under the condition [ 0], imaginary
roots must enter the equation independently of the value of A’). The
first of these two conclusions is that to which attention is here more
especially invited. It isindispensably necessary to the inference which
it is our main object here to deduce, that it should be clearly seen that
the transference of the final triad of any one of the cubies [ZZ | to the
position of leading triad of the cubic next following can never be a
* The general condition 2” An-2<(m— 1) A%-1, obviously becomes, in the case of
the cubic, the particular condition in the text; and it is further obvious, from the group
of conditions [5], that whenever the exponent 1 is odd, the multipliers are each of them
even, and therefore divisible by 2. ;
R. I. A. PROC.—YOE. X. : 3B
See
ane
Fee
ae
seed
ae ata ae 2 aN
Roa ee eae
ae
pa gee Road
i A EA
pe a AR 5 and
eS nag orn
I eS
002
transmission of imaginarity, from the one to the other, if the triad
satisfy the condition [a]; a truth which is indeed sufficiently obvious
from the first of the formule: at (14); for removing the middle term of the
transferred triad, the resulting p is necessarily negative; and therefore,
by merely altering the value of ¢ (that is of 4’), if it be found to need
altering for the purpose, without meddling with the transferred triad, all
the roots may always be made real; which could not be done if the trans-
ference of the triad ever involved conveyance of imaginarity. The
conclusion, therefore, is irresistible, that if each of these two cubics has
imaginary roots—the second, in virtue of its final triad alone, satisfying
the condition of a primary pair—the two pairs must be entirely inde-
pendent of one another: the entrance of the second pair cannot possibly
be a consequence of the entrance of the first pair.
(16) Let now the first of these two cubics, taken from [JT], be re-
presented by C'=0, and the second by C,=0; the imaginary pair in the
former by J, and the imaginary pair in the latter by Z,; then, as just
seen, the entrance of J, into the cubic C,=0 is not a consequence of the
entrance of Jinto C'=0, but is entirely independent of the entrance of
I. Calling the two reciprocal equations from which these cubics have
been respectively deduced A=0, and #,=0, we may, by reversing the
process by which Chas been derived from #, derive this latter from the
former, adding in at each reverse step that particular constant (or final
term) which in the direct step was made to disappear. In the equa-
tion of the fourth degree, the result of the first step from C, there enters
an imaginary pair—a primary pair, necessarily and exclusively depen-
dent for its character as such upon the pair in C=0.
But the pair in C, = 0 is xot dependent for its imaginarity on this pair
in the biquadratic ; for if it were, it would be dependent on the pair in
C'=0, which it is not. In like manner, the equation of the fifth
degree, in the next reverse step, has an imaginary pair dependent on
the before-mentioned pair in the preceding result, and therefore on the
pair in C=0: the pair in C, =0 is therefore equally independent of
this pair; and so on throughout all the reverse steps up to & = 0, that
is, there is a pair of imaginary roots in & =0, of which the imaginary
pair in C, =0, derived from #, = 0, is independent.
But imaginary roots can enter #, = 0 only as a consequence of ima-
ginary roots entering & =0; and imaginary roots can enter C, = 0 only
as a consequence of imaginary roots entering A, = 0; and therefore only
as a consequence of imaginary roots entering & = 0.
But it was shown that the pair in C, = 0 does not enter as a conse-
quence of that particular pair in & =0, of which the pairin C =0 oe
the reverse process of derivation) is the source: hence the pair in C, =
must be the consequence of some other pair in R=0; which ee
has therefore at least two pairs of i imaginary roots. Consequently the
primitive equation has at least two pairs of imaginary roots.
The particular imaginary pair in the equation R =0, here adverted
to, is that pair the entrance of which is indicated by the evanescence of
the second term of the equation &=0 between like signs: in other
009
words, if r be the transforming factor by which the second term is re-
moved, the imaginary pair, traceable to the pair in the cubic C =0, is
indicated between r—6 and 7+ 6; since it is the leading triad of R that
fulfils the condition—the same condition, by (7), as that fulfilled by
the leading triad of C. No doubt, in certain cases, other coefficients,
besides the second coefficient, may also vanish between like signs for
the same transformation (r), and other pairs of imaginary roots be in-
dicated between r—6 andr + 6. But, by taking account of only a
single pair, in all circumstances—the pair, namely, that would neces-
sarily be an imaginary pair, though any or all of the coefficients in R,
after the leading triad, were changed—we restrict ourselves, as we
ought, to that pair alone, the imaginarity of which is conveyed, in the
reverse process, through all the intermediate equations, from C'=0, up
to R=0, regardless of whatever other imaginary pairs may be, as it
were, picked up and absorbed into the equation in its progress towards
completion from C to &. Whatever modifications this pair may under-
go from changes in the coefficients after the third term, its character as
an imaginary pair in &=0 is still preserved, and it continues through-
out to be indicated between r— 6 and r + 6.
It will have been observed, that in the foregoing reasoning A, is re-
garded as derived from C (after restoring at each step the factor pre-
viously expunged) by the process of integration, as we may for the
moment call it: and it is to be noticed that it is the general integral, at
each step that owes a pair of imaginary roots to the entrance of
the pair in C=0; in other words, that although the constant
completing any integral be taken of any arbitrary value, even zero, a
pair of imaginary roots—primary roots, resulting from the pair in
C=0, must still enter. The constants actually introduced are each of
assigned value, because a specific equation, #=0, with assigned coeffi-
cients, is ultimately to be deduced. The constants, added one after
another, as the derivation (or integration) proceeds, may cause the in-
troduction of additional imaginary pairs, as just noticed; but none of
these pairs are traceable to the pair in C'=0; and a pair traceable to the
pair in C'=0 would still enter each of the ascending equations, though
no constants at all were introduced.
(17) From what has now been shown, we see—always bearing the
general property (7) in mind—that the search after distinct and inde-
pendent primary pairs in the equation |Z] may be converted into a
search after the independent primary pairs in the group of cubic
equations [ /7]; for although, in applying the tests [3] to each of these
cubics, mis equal to 3, yet that when the blanks in the coefficients
are filled up, the conditions, unaffected by this lower value of the ex-
ponent, become the very same as those marked [3], in which » is the
leading exponent of the equation from which these cubics have been
derived. So far, therefore, as this inquiry is concerned, the group [ ZZ ]
effectually replaces the single equation [| 7], with this advantage, namely,
that as the individual equations [Z/] are connected together so that the
final triad of coefficients of one supplies the leading triad of coefficients
Sey
ab)
is ee
BF ptt POR ao aes
ABER OR LR ORIEN SRB GRRE |
Brasces are
SAS
eee oe
See ats
mapas
nae gS
tices Bae Se
‘i
se
yy
)
354
of the equation next following, we can readily see whether or not ima-
ginarity 1s conveyed from the former to the latter. After the first triad
of [7] (or the first when the coefficients are reversed, it makes no diffe-
rence) each successive triad up to the last is thus repeated in [£7]: it
is this triad—common to two consecutive cubics, which forms the con-
necting link mentioned, and which causes the same fulfilment or failure
of the condition [3], in the leading triad of the second of these cubics,
as in the final triad of the first. And this is the only connecting link
between the two: in other respects they are independent, so that when
the final triad of a cubic (and consequently the leading triad of the next
succeeding cubic) fails to satisfy the condition [38], and the final triad
of this succeeding cubic does satisfy that condition, an imaginary pair,
distinct from whatever other pair or pairs have been inferred from
earlier cubics in the series, must enter the primitive equation: and this
is the same as saying that when a fulfilment of a condition [3] by a
triad of the coefficients of [7] is preceded by a failure, a pair of primary
roots, distinct from and independent of whatever pairs may previously
have been detected, is indicated in the equation.
(18) But before the passage from a fulfilment to a failure, or from
a failure to a fulfilment, there may have been a continuous succession
of such fulfilments or failures in passing from cubic to cubic; or, which
is the same thing, in proceeding from term to term of the primitive
equation. From these uninterrupted concurrences we cannot infer
anything, as to additional imaginary pairs: such additional pairs may
enter the primitive, or they may not; as is sufficiently exemplified in
article (10): but we shall always be on the safe side—that is, we shall
never be in danger of inferring more pairs than really enter—if we
always regard these concurrences as merely repeated indications of one
and the same thing, namely, the succession of fulfilments as only so
many concurring proofs of the existence of but one pair of imagi-
nary roots, and the succession of failures as indications that no addi-
tional imaginary pair is to be inferred so long as the failures remain un-
interrupted by a fulfilment.
We may remark, however, that when there is a continuation of ful-
filments, a peculiar character is impressed upon the several cubic equa-
tions | J7 ], as already adverted to at (18) : the triad supplied to a cubic
by the antecedent cubic, imports primary imaginarity simply; whilst
the triad which the new fourth term completes, so modifies the roots
that, whether we take the direct or the reciprocal equation, the second
term in either case vanishes between like signs; and imaginarity cannot
be expelled, whether we change the final term or the leading term; it
is what it is in virtue of both triads satisfying the condition indepen-
dently ; and is as much a consequence of one triad as of the other. In-
dependent imaginarity in any one of the cubics after the first cubic
can be inferred only when the imaginarity is due exclusively to the
final triad, and may therefore be expelled from the equation by merely
modifying the final term, that is, the absolute number which completes
the cubic. Of course it will be understood throughout these remarks
as = ——————
: Be et ea
300
that transference, or conveyance, of primary imaginarity always implies
transference of a triad of terms.
(19) From what has now been established, we deduce the follow-
ing rule for determining (at least approximately) the number of imagi-
nary roots in a numerical equation, from the mere examination of the
coefficients.
Rue 1. Under the leading term of the equation, write the sign
plus, as the first of a row of signs.
2. Then, taking the second coefficient of the equation as the middle
one of the first three coefficients, apply to those three the proper test
[3] or[5]. If the condition be satisfied, write menus under the second
term ; if it be not satisfied, write plus. In other words, plus or minus
is to be written under the second coefficient according as its square,
multiplied by the proper factor, is greater or less than the product of the
adjacent coefficients multiplied by the proper factor.
3. Passing to the third coefficient; take that as the middle of the
two adjacent coefficients ; and apply, in like manner, the next follow-
ing test; and as before, annex to the former signs minus, or plus, ac-
cording as the condition holds or fails. And in this way proceed till all
the coefficients have been employed. Then as many changes as there
are in this completed row of signs, from plus to minus (not from minus
to plus), so many pairs of imaginary roots must enter the equation: it
may have more pairs, but it cannot have fewer.
Notzt.—The last triad of coefficients need not be tested whenever
the row of signs already written down terminates in a minus sign; and
it is well to remember that the test for the last triad is always the same
as that for the first; for the last but one, the same as that for the
second; and so on.
It may further be observed that it is impossible for fulfilments in
the positive region of the roots to be succeeded by fulfilments in the
negative region, or for fulfilments in the negative region to be suc-
ceeded by fulfilments in the positive region, without a separating
failure; for whether permanencies of sign in the equation, are suc-
ceeded by variations, or variations by permanencies, the sign which is.
the termination of the one set, and the commencement of the other set,
must evidently always have the sign adjacent to it on the one side of
opposite character to that adjacent to it on the other side; so that the
sign written under the middle one of the three must always be +.
The region, therefore, in which a pair of imaginary roots lies, or in
which the pair is indicated, is sufficiently marked by the collocation of
signs in the equation.
(20) The following are applications of the foregoing rule:—
tt: w° — 424+ 403 — 27? —- 5a —-4=0
Sf) Roe ee
The equation has one pair of imaginary roots, at least. By the rule o
Descartes, there are but three roots in the positive region; two of these
are those here found to be imaginary.
ah"
Bae}
Be /
z
ae i
% ae
¥
ye
DS,
ee
he. a
ee
Se
ous
ey
a
ee
rahe a
yi
rab
»
fgwit
Been
4a
aie
ie
Ex
Wary
a»
ot
i
»y
i
5
ee
ist
.
si
a=
re ee
See ee ee
.
PAE
2 es
= T
SE ag a AER TET ATES cope gee
I A pe A POC D
Se
ee
Rein ar ee + APES oA
moet
2
006
Ds Ob on = of 12a ie oO 0
ee et ~
The last triad here need not be tested, as the row of signs already
written down terminates in a minus sign. One pair of imaginary
roots is detected in the positive region.
335 Txt — Qa? + 8a? — 54 +17=0
Be Shae Sie
In this equation all the roots are imaginary.
Tn applying the tests it will always be found preferable to employ
them in the forms marked [5] at page 344. The multipliers in the
right-hand members of these forms are all included in the general ex-
pression m (m—m), and those in the left-hand members, are theseeach
increased by the constant numbern+1. In an equation of a high ©
degree, the easiest way of proceeding will be to place under the second ~
term of the equation »- 1, under the third term 2(m—2), under the ~
fourth term 3 (7-3), and so on; in other words, commencing at the
second term, to multiply the exponents by 1, 2, 3, &c., placing the
results underneath; remembering that these numbers will recur in
reverse order when the middle term, or the first of the two middle
terms, is reached: each will be the multiplier for the square of the —
term under which it is placed; and when this multiplier is increased
by the constant number 7 + 1, that is, by the leading exponent plus
1, the result will be the multiplier for the product of the two extreme ©
terms of the triad we are testing: thus,
4. 522 — Qa? + 30° — 240° = 162+ + 2°? — 4a? = 22 — 60 = 0
7 1 15 16 Toe 7
These numbers are the multipliers for the squares of the coefficients 7
immediately above them; and those for the product of the extreme ©
coefficients of the triad, found by adding 9 to each number, are—
16 21 24 29.) 24. Dl 5 AG
_or, expunging common factors, the two rows of numbers will be those ~
here underwritten :
548 — 2a" + 34° — 24a5 — 16a + a — 4a? — Qe -— 60
For the squares,
7 4 5 16 5 a ET |
for the products,
16 7 8 25 8 a4 16
And since
16.5.3 < 7.2%, 7.2.94 > 4.8%, — 8.3.16 < 5.24, — 25.241 < 16.16,
8.16.4 > 5.1?, — 7.1.2 < 4.4%, and 16.4.60 > 7.22,
the row of signs will be
2 eo ee a
i ay a a ten ta PARAS AEA a
ae ee rie
307
so that the equation has six imaginary roots. As the last term of the
equation is negative, the two remaining roots are real—one positive,
and the other negative.
It may be observed here that when the extreme terms of any triad
have unlike signs, as is the case with the third, fourth, and sixth of
the triads above, it may always be passed over ; the corresponding sien
in the row of signs being written +, to imply that the triad in ques-
tion fails to satisfy the condition of imaginary roots.
It may be remarked, too, that the accurate calculation of the two
members of the inequality appealed to is but seldom necessary. Which
of these two members is in excess of the other may, in most instances,
be ascertained at a glance.
In the foregoing discussion, the case in which the sign of inequality
in one or more of the criteria of imaginary roots is replaced by the sign
of equality is not adverted to, except in so far as to notice (6), that one
pair at least is then implied. There is another case, too, namely, that
in which consecutive zeros occur among the terms of equation, which
has not been specially considered above. The two cases have a certain
relation to each other, and it remains for us to examine what are the
inferences which these peculiarities justify. We shall first consider
the case of consecutive zeros. 3
(21)\—1. When there are consecutive zeros. If all the terms between
the first term and the last are zeros, as in the equation
Meee OOO. Os A= Os. 1]
the exact number of imaginary roots is determinable at once; for since
then
it is obvious that if m be even, and A, negative, there will be just two
real roots, numerically equal, but of opposite signs; and, therefore,
nm —2 imaginary roots; while if A, be positive, all the roots will be
imaginary.
But if n be odd, then, whether 4, be negative or positive, there
will be only one real root; and, therefore, x — 1 imaginary roots.
The terms of an equation of degree n, being n + 1 in number, the
foregoing zeros are 7-1 innumber. Hence, if we apply the rule at
page 355 tothe equation| 1] above, forthe purpose of marking the number
| of imaginary pairs, we must evidently write manus under the first zero;
and then, to secure conformity with the foregoing conclusions, must
write the signs plus and minus alternately, till the last zero is reached,
the sign under which, if 2 be even, must always be the opposite of the
sign of A,; but if » be odd, this sign may be + or — indifferently.
3
EAA
Oe be
an
ADS
Shae "
apr
ro
Seep
tart.
“gies
pre wong ees ergs
eo he
a
Sar
ee
ct a
BONNY
a te fe
o
EAE hes Ae geen
CREE ONE rae at oe
Neg eo ye Be en oe
nats ofa ee wee, he ne -
ee ge ie
wey
popes
Thus—
A,v"+04+0404+....4+0+A,
When nts even
J sR SRS +.
A," +04+040+....4+0+ 4,
a — or +, indifferently.
When n ws odd,
For taking account of the leading sign + in the underwritten row of
signs, it is readily seen that the m — 1 zeros, when is even, furnish >
changes from + to -, if A) is +, and —1 changes if 4, is -. And
1
, whether A, is +
that when n is odd, the number of changes is po
or —: and since each change from + to — implies a distinct pair of
imaginary roots, the number of such roots, thus indicated, is precisely
the same in each case as the number determined above. As the sign
under the zero immediately preceding the last zero is always + when x
is even, and always minus when v is odd, in the latter case it is plainly
matter of indifference which sign be placed under the last zero.
But suppose that two or more significant terms precede or follow
the zeros, or both precede and follow. By taking the successive limit-
ing equations, these latter terms will disappear one by one, till only a
single significant term beyond the zeros is left ; and by reversing the
- coefficients of the equation thus reached, and proceeding in like manner,
we shall finally arrive at an equation of the form
A’, +04+04+04...4+04+4,=0-.. [2],
that is, at an equation of the same form as the equation [1] above.
(22) If, in this latter equation, A’, should be positive, like 4, in
[1], the foregoing conclusions, as to the number of imaginary roots,
would of course apply to it; but if A’, be negative, we should have to
change the extreme signs of [2], or to multiply the terms by — 1,
before we could deduce the number of imaginary roots, as above, from —
the underwritten signs. Yet, leaving the leading minus sign and the
sign of A’, unchanged, if, as before, we write + under the first term,
and — under the first zero; then + under the next, and so on, as directed
above, till we come to the last zero, and write under that + or —-, ac-
cording as A’, is + or —, it is easy to see that the underwritten row
of signs will have the same changes from + to —asif the signs of A‘, and
A’, had themselves been changed ; for it will be remembered that, in
the case of n’ being odd the changes from + to — are the same, which- J
ever of these signs be placed under the last zero. Now, since the |
signs of A’, A’,, are the same as the signs of the original coefficients
from which they have been derived, and as the intervening zeros are | ;
the same in number as in the original equation, it is plain that actual
derivation is not necessary. All we have to do is to proceed with the ;
309
underwritten signs in conformity with the rule at page 353, till we come
to that term which immediately precedes the zeros; under this (what-
ever be its sign) to write +; under the first zero, —; and so on alter-
nately, till we reach the last zero, under which is to be written +, if the
signs of the two terms which bound the zeros are unlike, and — if they
are like, and then to proceed according to the rule. The sign under the
term which immediately follows the zeros, as well as that under the
term which immediately precedes them, will, of course, always be +.
Norr.—It was directed above that when the first of the boundary-
terms is minus, the sign of the other boundary-term is that which is
always to be written under the last zero. If it should be for the
moment thought that what has just been said is inconsistent with that
direction, the reader has only to reflect that, in the case of A’, negative,
if A’, be +, the signs of the two terms will be unlike, and that if A’, be
—, that the signs will be Whe; so that in the former case, + is to be
written, and in the latter case —, the sign being always (in the case of
A’, negative), the same as the sign of A’).
We shall now give some examples of the application of these pre-
cepts.
i. 2+ant+0+0+0+¢6=0;
ead Tete
2. w+art+01+040-ce=0
+ + = + +
The first of these equations has four imaginary roots; the second two,
at least; of the other three, one is positive, and the remaining two ©
belong to the negative region. [It may be observed here that if each
of the roots of an equation be diminished by 6, the number 6 may ob-
viously be taken so small, that in carrying on the transforming process,
by Horner’s method, each addend may be made as small as we please ;
so small, therefore, that the signs of the significant terms of the original
shall all be preserved unaltered in the transformed equation; in which
case, what was a zero in the original, will, in the transformed equation,
be a significant term, with the same sign as the significant term imme-
diately preceding the zero. There will thus be a permanence of sign ;
and in this way permanencies will replace the arbitrary signs of all the
zeros. |
3. ge’ — Qe8 + Ba° — Qa* + 2? +04+0-32=0
se eee eo
Therefore six of the roots are imaginary.
4, at — Qo + 8a? — Qat- 2? +04+0-3=0
fel ee et Ae Oy aT
Here the equation has four imaginary roots, at least; one real root is
positive; the other two roots are doubtful, and belong to the negative
‘region.
R.1I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3c
¥
P
Uy:
eats“
Pe
ee
a%
bse \;.!
D, Sn
ee 4
Ba
rs
SS
ds
Bes
2a
wus
»
Nek
be
y
en
On a
Sor i o3
Pe ots es
ar A
se ba op
type
(ARS
Ons
Pet ap ae ae
ae
Oy eh ee se
Sie ask ee S:
Lavy BOG
a A
ws ae Neg OME: nd 7 =
reat : Sone ah x a
gage GE yg UP * gi OO:
Os ey
BO ci ge Ti,
ROTATE RR tAEREO DS I OAD DE A Be
ai
hago
Baer)
ax
*
ihe.
%
i
v
360
5. — 6a® — 2a" + 308 +0404 0 4 42* —- 227 + 60=0
Se ee dt pera gate pe ec
Therefore all the roots are imaginary. This conclusion may be verified
as follows. Writing the equation thus :—
x°(5a* — 2x +8) + (4a? — Qu + 60) = 0,
we see that each of the two quadratic expressions is positive whatever
real value be given to ~; and, therefore, as x° is always positive too,
no real value of x can satisfy the equation.
6. on? — 52° + 0 — 24° + 72? +0-4=0
+ + - + + 4
Consequently, only two imaginary roots are detected; they are in the
negative region.
er
2°4040+4040-ar7% +0404 0 - b2°+ 02° + 0+ da°+0+040+ 04+0-c=0
+ — + —- + ¢- -— $F -— + fF =- + - FH +t +
Therefore, the equation has fourteen imaginary roots, at least; there
may be sixteen, but there cannot be a greater number, since, as the sign
of the last term shows, two roots, at least, must be real. If this sign
had been +, then the sign under the last zero would have been —-; and
the equation would have had eight pairs of imaginary roots at least.
(23) 2. When there are triads of equality. Let us first suppose that
all the triads, except the last triad, furnish conditions of equality. We
except the last triad, because if every triad throughout were to satisfy
the condition of equality, the roots would all be real and equal; that is
to say, the equation would be of the form
A,(z+r)"=0;
so that
alas
nA,
S=—-7=—
would express each of the ” roots. But if, as here supposed, the last
term A, of the equation be of such value as to render the final triad
one of inequality—all the preceding being triads of equality—then it is
plain that the form of the equation will be
A,(e+r)*+ec=0;
or
* From Fourier—“ Analyse des Equations Déterminées.”
dol
(e being positive or negative according as
Arar Am ho.) or Ay = Ayr" =e.
In the former case A, is in excess, in the latter case, in defect)
a
which shows that when n is even, and, moreover, ¢ positive, all the n
roots will be imaginary ; but, if in this case of 2 even, ¢ be negative,
only 2-2 of the roots will be imaginary. And that when ~ is odd, then
whether ¢ be positive or negative, x will have one real value, and one
only. From this it appears that—
When n is even, and it be found necessary to subtract a positive
number (c) from A, to make the triad one of equality, the equation
will have all its x roots imaginary ; but if it be necessary to add a posi-
tive number (c) to A, for this purpose, then the equation will have n — 2
imaginary roots, and no greater number.
When n ws odd, the equation will have x — 1 imaginary roots, what-
ever be the value of A), or, which is the same thing, whether ¢ be sub-
tractive or additive.
(24) The conclusions, then, are quite analogous to those deduced
above from the case in which the » — 1 terms between A, a”, and Ao,
are zeros, instead of significant terms having the peculiar relations to
one another here supposed. Jf m 1s even, and A, in excess, the sign
to be placed under the last of these intervening terms is to be -; and
if A, is in defect, the sign is to be +; but zfm és odd, then, in the case
we are considering, as in the case of the zeros, it is matter of indiffe-
rence whether the sign under the last of the intervening terms bs + or —;
the number of imaginary roots indicated being the same, whichever sign
be chosen. For the immediately preceding sign in the row will always be
-, asmuch as the sign under the first of the odd number of interven-
ing terms is itself —; and the underwritten signs are alternately — and
+. But, having in view the case to be considered in the article next
following, and in order to preserve uniformity in both cases, it will
always be better to write + or -, according as A, is in defect or in ex-
cess, just as in the case of m being even.
The foregoing conclusions may be arrived at in another way. Put-
ting the proposed equation in the form given to it above, namely, -
_ A, (e+ r)” +¢=0, and supplying the » — 1 zero-terms, it becomes
A,(a+ry?+O0+04¢04+...4+04¢6=0,
which, 2 + 7 being here in the place of x, is identical with the form
[1], at page 357, and whatever values, real or imaginary, x has in the
former equation, so many must x + r have in this, and wice versd, since
the value of r is always real.
Suppose, now, that triads of equality occur anywhere among the
362
terms of an equation; then, by taking the successive limiting equations,
as in the case of cousecutive zeros, we can reach an equation in which
all the triads are triads of equality, except the last triad,* and can thus
return to the case just considered. And it is plain, from what has
already been shown, that the signs to be written under the terms which
intervene between the first term and the last term of this derived equa-
tion will be alternate signs, like as if these intervening terms were so
many zeros; and, as in the case of the zeros, these are the signs to be
written under those terms of the primitive equation from which the
terms here spoken of, in the derived equation, have beendeduced. But
one thing must be attended to here, which, in the case of intervening
zeros, requires no special notice. The signs to be written under the
first term of the leading triad, and under the last term of the series of
triads we are here considering, are not necessarily +, as in the case of
the zeros, but may be either both -, or one + and the other —: which
sign is to be underwritten, the general rule at (19) will, of course,
enable us to readily ascertain. If the former of these two signs is seen
to be -, the sign immediately next following must be +; and so on,
alternately, till the latter of the two is, in like manner, determined by the
rule, and underwritten. In thecase of the zeros, the first ofthese two signs
was invariably + (and so was the last) ; and the immediately next sign,
—; but it may be otherwise here, as the general rule must be obeyed.
It may be observed, however, that an underwritten — always implies a
pair of imaginary roots, as a+ must have preceded it; for it is with a +
that the row of signs under the terms of the proposed equation com-
mences; so that no fewer imaginary pairs can ever be indicated by the
signs under the terms of the primitive than would be indicated by the
signs under the terms of the final derived equation.
We shall now give an example or two by way of practical ilus-
tration :—
1. 2° + 102+ + 40x° + 802? + 802+ 36 =0
+ = + ~ ~ [Here A, = 36, is in excess. |
Hence there are four imaginary roots.
2. 1624 — 962? + 21627 + 216a - 80 =0
Tp ee ee “ [Here A, = — 80, is in defect. }
a
So that the equation has but two imaginary roots.
3. 2 + 5a! — 32° + 560° + 70a + 562° + 287 4+ 62 +4=0
Te. Gt al Bree = ir + ~ |
[Here the 4 is in excess.] |
* If the last triad satisfy the condition of equality, and not all the triads, then, just P }
as in the case of the first triad being a triad of equality, an imaginary pair will be indi-
cated by that triad alone (Art. 6). bie
363
Consequently there are at least six imaginary roots, two in the positive
region, and four in the negative region.
4, 32’ + Ta® + Q1a° + 85a* + 850° — 82? + 1227 —-5 = 0
BR = + - +
Hence there are six imaginary roots in the equation.
As in the first and fourth of these examples the sign immediately
preceding the last is minus, we might, in each of these, have stopped
at that sign: the determination of the /as¢ sign was unnecessary, as no
additional imaginary roots could be indicated, whether the last sign
proved to be + or —; nor could another pair have been indicated,
though the degree of the equation had been even instead of odd.
(25) We here terminate these practical details respecting Newton’s
Rule, which rule is substantially the same as that given at page 355
of this paper. We have not attempted any extension of it, but have
been content with ascertaining what is the utmost amount of informa-
tion, respecting the number of imaginary roots in a numerical equation,
that can be educed from it. The rule itself does not appear to the pre-
sent writer as capable of any extension—if by that term be meant its
being so enlarged as to be available for detecting the presence of ima-
ginary roots other than those which, in the foregoing investigations,
have been called primary pars.* Before, however, passing to other
matters, it may be well to give a practical illustration of the way in
which we may always ascertain whether or not any proposed polyno-
mial is the development of the binomial form A,(x +a)": it was ad-
verted to at p. 346.
Suppose, for instance, we wished to know whether or not the poly-
| nomial following is a binomial development. (See p. 356.)
27x° — 108a° + 180a* — 1602* + 80a? - 214 + aa
Mult. for the squares, 5 8 9 8 5
” 5, products, 12 15 16 15 12
As we find that all the triads satisfy the conditions of equality, and
that here
Me eA 80S 2
nA, 2 OG aan
; 3
we infer that the invelopment of the proposed polynomial is 27| x -— 5
Of course if the last term of any polynomial, when divided by A,, the
* Tt will be hereafter shown, however, that non-primary pairs in an equation are
always convertible into primary pairs by diminishing each of the roots by a determinable
number.
SOE EE an PRES REO eS pet
is
NE Pa a RD
taf
we
Se
eae as
eet,
\ anh Med
Dannie oh ane ae ae
SO Na Re a mee a ee
364
coefficient of the first term, be not a complete power (a”), the root of
which is a=-4A,., + ”A,, we should at once know that the poly-
nomial cannot be the development of any expression of the form
A,(x+a)"; norcan it be if the terms be neither all positive, nor yet alter-
‘nately positive and negative. Yet if any number of consecutive triads
satisfy the conditions of equality, an expression of this form may
always be found by computing towards the left, as well as towards the
right (if the consecutive triads be intermediate terms), such that those
terms shall be identical with the corresponding terms of the develop-
ment for some values of A, anda. [The foregoing method of comput-
ing term by term, may of course be employed for developing any case
of A,(a+a)"}.
(26) The remainder of the present communication will be quite in-
dependent of the rule of Newton, and of everything that has preceded,
except the group of Criteria at page 344. These formule [3] are
merely deductions from the principle of De Gua; but as we shall have
frequent occasion to advert to the numerical multipliers connected with
the formulee [3], and as these same multipliers are those employed in
the rule of Newton, we shall for brevity and convenience refer to them
under the denomination of Newtonian factors. The following general
property will be found useful in the business of actual solution.
If an equation be represented by the notation /(x) = 0, and its roots
be each diminished by 7, the transformed equation will be f(z + r) = 0,
each of the roots (x) of which will be less by r than the corresponding
root («) of the original equation :* and we know from the theory of
equations, that f(a + r) may be written either
Jerr) =flx) + filer + share + ahile)r+ ste heiaish
Swe
eee
oo - —
ine een crema
+ ee
1
Pein
|
ac
ee
=fir) +fir)z + shlra® + sghilr)as 1 een
1
EI
A a Nae
eer.
Now the property we propose to prove is this, namely :—If the middle
one of any three of the consecutive functions,
a ee See
1 1 |
ik
ay
* Of course, although we here speak of the roots being “‘ diminished” by r, it will be ) tn
understood that r may be regarded as either positive or negative. Indeed the property | bry
in the text holds whether r be real or imaginary, as the general demonstration of it proves.
365
be squared, the first two terms of the result, when multiplied by the is
proper Newtonian factor (as suggested by the degree x of the equation), BS:
will always be the same as the first two terms of the product of the B
extreme terms when multiplied by the corresponding Newtonian factor. ri
Let any consecutive three of the functions [2] be represented by Dk
PA UE eA ge te he, =
A pda + ZG AN pce .
m m ae
—~__ pp - 1) Aor? + —_*_(p - 1) (p- 2) Alar? +. :
m(m +1)" ° m(m + 1) were is
a
The first two terms of the product of the first and third of these ex- o
pressions retaining coefficients only, are— x
nh
——— wp - 1) 4? + "| p(p ~ 1) + (p- 1p ~ 2)) 4a t
m(m +1) m(m + 1) isi
soaN)
or ae —1)A? + rene - 1)°A A’ [3 it
m(m + 1) m(m + 1) ae 5
and the first two terms of the middle expression squared, coefficients i
only being retained, are— as
1 2 | x
wal + (pp - 1)Ad'... [4] a
| 1 ms
By multiplying [3] by -- ; Ser we get [4]: therefore if we R:
iF, 3)
| multiply the former expression by (#+1)p, and the latter by m(p—-1), .
_ the results will be the same; and these two multipliers are the proper a
| Newtonian factors, as is easily seen by putting 1, 2, 3, &c., in succes- a
| sion for m, and n, n—1, n — 2, &c., in succession for p. 3
The same conclusion may be arrived at more expeditiously thus— ‘
w
see
If f (« + r) were a power, that power would, of course, be
A,..\* J
je rrpa(os 2) EE Glee IE seh [5]
and the triads of [1] would all be triads of equality. The square ofa
middle term, multiplied by its Newtonian factor, would be a result
which, in a// its terms, wouldbe the same as the product of the extreme
| terms, multiplied by the proper factor. But though f(v +7) be not ,
, equal to (x +1)", f(a), and, therefore, all the functions [2] derived
| from it will have the first two terms of each the very same as if the
+=
ws an ote So te ve
SO cae ps BS PS rg ey RT
ae
scp Wer 5g
366
polynomial were the power [| 5], as is obvious; and hence the truth of
the theorem announced above.
(27) An immediate deduction from this theorem is, that if the con-
dition of imaginarity hold or fail for the first three coefficients of any
equation, it will, in like manner, hold or fail for the first three coefii-
cients of every transformed equation which can result from increasing
or diminishing the roots by any quantity (7) whatever.
For the proposed equation being
A,” + A, xe + val ap 45 ees + A, = 0,
we know that the first three coefficients of the transformed equation
f (@ +r) = 0 will be the last three of the second development [1]; and,
therefore, writing the final coefficient first, that they will be of the
forms
Any ar che ZAP br? ite il a Anis
But, by the foregoing general principle, if the condition hold or fail for
the three original coefficients, A,, A,., A,», 1t must equally hold or
fail for these, inasmuch as that 2m times the product of the first and
third of them differs from m—- 1 times the square of the second by
exactly the same amount that 2n4,A,. differs from (” —1)A?,,;
for the two terms involving r disappear from the difference, as just
proved.
Hence, for every transformation, these two functions of the coefii-
cients have the same constant difference.
Suppose we had developed one of the roots of a cubie equation by
Horner’s method, and that we wished to ascertain whether the roots of
the quadratic equation
Aw’ + Aw + A’,=0,
to which the process would conduct us, were real or imaginary; that
is, whether 4A’,A; be less or greater than A’... Now we know, from
the foregoing principle, that
34,A,-A,?=34',4,-A'?.... [ 6 |
and, therefore, having calculated the first of these expressions from the ]
original coefficients, we see that we have only to ascertain whether
A’, A, added to it will make the result positive or negative. If positive, —
the other two roots of the cubic equation are imaginary; if negative,
they are real.
of the equation
a + 8a? + 6a — 75:9 = 0
eonducts to the quadratic
xv 4+ 15'2771a2 + 62°46326147 = 0
For example: In the writer’s treatise on ‘‘ The Analysis —
and Solution of Cubic Equations” (p. 172), the development of a root
367
and from the principle abeve, we readily see, without any calculation
with these large numbers, that since
18 — 64 + 62°... is positive,
the remaining roots of the cubic must be imaginary.
But it may be well to show here the amount of numerical labour
spared when the character of the roots, from close proximity to equality,
is much less readily discoverable, by the ordinary method, than in this
example.
By the method here proposed, the work is
18 - 64 = - 46
62°46326147
16°46326147
By the common rule (after multiplying the absolute number by 4),
249'85304588
(15-2771)? = 233:38978441
16°46326147
If the first of the expressions [6] be itself positive, we should know,
at the outset, that two roots are imaginary. If it be zero, then, since,
when increased by a positive quantity, the result would be positive,
we should know then, also, at the outset, that two roots would be
imaginary ; and similarly in reference to the second triad of coefficients,
as the coefficients may be reversed. But both of these conclusions may
be inferred from what has been previously established.
(28) Returning now to the first of the equations, p. 364, if we re-
present the original polynomial f(x) by X), and the successive co-
efficients of r, r?, &c., in [1], that is, the several derived polynomials,
by X,, X,, &c., respectively, a very general form may be given to the
criteria of imaginarity at p. 344, namely,
2nX,X,> (n-1)X?
3(m — 1) XX; > 2(n — 2)X,?
4(n — 2) X,X, > &(m — 3) X;°
5(m — 3) X,X;5> 4(n - 4) XP
2nX,2X, > (n we I ee tes
in which expressions the w involved in X,, X,, &c., may take any real
value, positive or negative, whatever. If we put x= 0, the formule
become those at page 344; X), X), &c., and Ay, A), &c., then being
identical. Take, for example, the equation
* X,, is, of course, always identical with A,
k. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3D
=
See en DEN Nene Mere SRS Se ee OTR NS EN Pee SENS MON SRR AA, oP
ee SA Ee ee ee ee ee Be ea ea
yy
cA
a
oe
\ a
PT an a
a
ae
Borge:
een
af Seer ae
368
X,= 424-1029 + 92? -3”+3=0
then X, = 16a? — 3027+ 18% - 3
X, = 24x07 —- 30x + 9
37) Ag Lore 10
” XxX, = 4
When « = 0, these give the original coefficients, namely,
X, X; X, X XY
410.9 28.44
and for underwritten signs,+ + + + ,showing no imaginary roots.
2)
But when « = 1, the results are—
X, X; X, X, X
4+64+3+1+4
andthe underwritten signs,+ + — , showing two imaginary
roots.
The other two roots are found to be real; one lies between °1 and -2,
and the other is ‘5.
The coefficients last written are those of that transformed equation,
which we should get by diminishing each root of the original equation
by 1—an operation much more readily performed than that above. And
we see, by this example, that non-primary pairs of imaginary roots in
an equation may become primary pairs in the transformed equation that
would result from diminishing or increasing each root by some number;
but what this number is we can discover only by trial, or by a previous
analysis of the equation. Yet, by developing a real root by Horner’s
method of approximation, whenever we find that two variations of sign
are lost or gained, in passing from one step of the operation tothe next, we
may always ascertain, as here, whether the two roots passed over are cer-
tainly imaginary, or possibly real; and in thus testing the several triads
in any of the transformed equations, the first triad need never be examined,
since, by the foregoing theorem, the results of such examination is
already known from the three leading coefficients of the primitive equa-
tion. And, as regards other triads, any nice calculation of the squares
and products of the coefficients will very seldom be necessary; a mere
glance at those coefficients will often suffice to assure us whether the
criterion of imaginarity is satisfied or not. We can generally see, by
inspection, whether the square of the middle coefficient of any triad is —
less (or not greater) than the product of the other two coefficients; and,
since the numerical multiplier of the square is always less than the ~
numerical multiplier of the product, we may thus, in most instances,
have sufficient indication of the presence of a pair of imaginary roots
without any actual numerical work. .
(29) We have stated above that in developing a real root by —
Horner’s method, it would be well, so soon as the two variations are
369
lost or gained in a transformed equation, to apply the test of imagi-
narity anew; but we need not wait till such changes occur: the test
will be as likely to discover the presence of an imaginary pair
before any change of variations takes place, as after; so that when
in the case of doubtful roots in the assigned interval, we carry on the
work of approximation in uncertainty as to whether these doubtful
roots may eventually turn out to be real or not, reference to the criteria
should always be made at each completed step. Thus, take the ex-
ample at page 308 of the ‘‘ Theory of Equations,’ namely,
12x? + 242? - 58x + 25 = 0,
in which it is doubtful whether the two roots indicated between °7 and ‘8
are real or imaginary. Proceeding on the supposition that they are real,
the first figure of each root must be ‘7. Diminishing by this number,
the transformed equation is
12x? + 49°2x* — 6°76% + °276 = 0.
The next figure, still presuming the roots to be real, is °06 ; and the
next transformed equation is
1227 + 51-362? — °7264x + :050112 = 0.
Taking the first of these three equations, we see at a glance that 58? is
greater than 24 x 25, and greater even than four times that product, or
24 x 100; so that here there is no indication of imaginary roots. Tak-
ing the second equation, the conclusion is similar: it is seen at once
that 6°76? must exceed not only 4:92 x 2°76, but also three times this
product. But as respects the third equation, the conclusion is different ;
-7264? is obviously less than 5°136 x ‘50112; and therefore we may be
certain that the two roots, hitherto in doubt, are imaginary.
Suppose, however, instead of the inferior limit °7, between which
and °8 the roots are indicated, we had taken the superior limit, and had
diminished each root by ‘8: the transformed equation would have been
12a? + 52-8a? + 8°44a + 104 = 0,
in which the condition of imaginarity is satisfied; for three times
52°8 x -104 is greater than 3°44”, since it is pretty obvious that 3°44? can-
not be so great as even 15.
(30) Of all the known methods for determining the numerical
values of such of the roots of an equation as may be real—after by
trial, or by a previous analysis, the intervals in which they lie are as-
certained, Horner’s method of continuous development is to be preferred.
And if this method be employed in combination with the criteria of
imaginarity in the case of doubtful roots, we shall always be led to
satisfactory conclusions respecting all the roots of a numerical equation.
But even without applying these tests, the true character of the
doubtful roots may always be discovered by proceeding onwards with
woe
bee Nag eae gis eA ng or ar
Rtg dare ethints t~ ae Wf EL ge ONE igor origete
Mace ‘H aire as ts ae Nae ar ae Xt
SAP Sy Bee es GR ap TS GIS NER BA et aes ee ER a
+
¥ =~ 5h
o~
ae
x vy re
PE re we \'5
aie =
‘4
tae
See =
big ahs
eae
Sahatyey
Spb
MER Rr
as
a
“eee
Me
A se
370
the development exactly as we should do if the doubtful roots were
known to be real. For in this way we shall invariably arrive at an
absolute term in a transformed equation which, if the roots be imagi-
nary, will be seen to be irreducible to zero, however far the approxima-
tive process be continued; that is, we shall have evidence that the ab-
solute term (the final number) in each successive transformed equation
must tend, as the work proceeds, not to zero, but to a finite limit, be-
yond which, towards zero, the absolute term cannot pass—a conciusive
mdication that the roots in the interval we are thus contracting are
imaginary. But the tests of imaginarity will generally enable us to
resolve the doubt at an earlier stage of the work.
Tt is always better, in Horner’s process, to develop positive roots
only; and, with this object in view, to convert negative roots into posi-
tive by changing alternate signs: the passage of a pair of roots
will then always be indicated by the Joss of two variations, and
there can never be a gain of variations. We speak here of the
passage of but a single pair of roots in thus contiauously proceeding
from the inferior towards the superior limit of the interval; but, in
equations of high degree, several pairs may pass simultaneously, and
consequently as many pairs of variations be lost. Such will always
happen when there are four, six, &c., equal roots, or when either of the
functions is made up of equal quadratic factors, whether the roots of
these be real or imaginary. [The consideration of these cases of equal
roots is postponed to a Notx at the end.| It is scarcely necessary to
remark here that the process for computing the function f(a), for any
value of x, by Horner’s method, supplies, in its progress, the computa-
tion, in order, of the subordinate funetions
1 il
ae) FO, fe i
for that value of z. Ifthe interval which is doubtful, as respects the
equation /(#) = 0, is doubtful also in reference to one or more of the
inferior equations f(a) = 0,4 f,(x)=0, &e— a circumstance which
the rule of signs of Budan will apprise us of upon comparing the
signs due to one limit of the interval with those due to the other limit,
then the first of the functions [1]—the function f(z) = 0, suppose,*
which, when equated to zero, has two doubtful roots in the same inter-
val as each of the functions following, up to f(x) = 0, inclusive, must
be such that the immediately preceding function /,(x) = 0, will have
one, and only one, root in this same interval.t And it is always to this
real root that our approximation tends as we work onwards towards
* For simplicity, we here suppress the fractional multiplier: the roots of an equation
being the same whether the significant member of it be multiplied by a number or not,
and as it iswith roots only, and not with numerical values of functions, that we are here
concerned, the multiplier alluded to may be dismissed. :
+ See ‘Theory of Equations,” p. 170.
37
fiz). It is thus that the roots of f(x) = 0, lying in the same interval,
are separated, when they are real, and when not real, are shown to be
imaginary by the continuous tendency of f(x), after a certain stage of
the process, not to zero, but to a finite limit; and it is obvious that such
tendency there must necessarily be whenever the roots of f(x) = 0, in the
interval under examination are imaginary, whether the roots of f;(x) = 0,
in that interval be imaginary or not. If these latter roots be real, the
process will separate them; if imaginary, /,(x) will itself also tend to a
finite limit ; and a pair of imaginaries in f(z) = 0 will be indicated. In
the former case, after the passage of the real root of f,(x) = 0, if a real root
of f(z) = 0 have not also passed, the process is to be renewed, the ap-
proximation being now directed to the development of the remaining
single root of f;,(~) = 0 in the remaining interval; just as at first it was
directed to the development of the single root, in the original interval,
of f,(x) = 0; until, in the case of the roots of f(z) = 0 continuing
doubtful, notwithstanding this further contraction of the interval, these,
if real, become separated ; and so on, up to f(z) = 0, and f (@) = 0
| In this way, the doubtful roots, if they turn out to be real, are con-
_ tinuously approximated to, however closely they may lie together; and
_ we now proceed to show that the criteria established at the outset of
this paper—without even regarding the tendency of the absolute num-
ber,*— can never fail to detect their existence whenever the doubtful
_ roots are imaginary :—to show, in fact, that whatever be the character
_ of a pair of imaginary roots of the proposed equation, that pair will al-
ways be replaced by, or give rise to, a primary pair in a more or less
remote transformed equation; and this, we think, is an important
truth.
| In order to prove it, however, we must premise, what has been clearly
enough proved by Fourier, that in the operation of continuous develop-
ment, briefly described above, the limits of the doubtful roots become so
‘contracted as we proceed, that not only do those lmits exclude all
/ roots except one root, of the function (taking the series of functions
from right to left) immediately beyond the last of [1], into which the
doubt enters, but they also exclude every root of the immediately next
following function: in other words, the interval becomes at length so
contracted that in the passage over it, while two variations are lost in
the series of signs under the functions [1], reckoning onwards from left
to right, up to the above-mentioned doubtful function inclusive, only one
variation is lost in the series terminating at the immediately antecedent
function: and no variation at all is lost in the series ending at the
function immediately before this.}
(31). Now let f(x) be the function described above as the last of the
* Nevertheless, it is always advisable to take note of this tendency as the approxi-
‘Mation proceeds. The fluctuations of the absolute number, in its passage from one
transformation to another, may give early indication of the true character of the doubt-
ful roots, although it be not to a root of fi(x) = 0 that the approximation is directed, .
+ See ‘‘ Theory of Equations,”’ p. 172, et seq.
=
Re Fy
5
yp
bat
€
*
N
cee
mies
sone
Br eh
peed
we gem Sd ai
372
consecutive functions {1] in which doubt enters; and let us assume
that the two roots of f,,(7) = 0, in the interval under examination, are
imaginary: then the operation of continuous development, as explained
above, will conduct us eventually to a transformed equation, such that
the three coefiicients under the functions,
FmA2), FmalX), Fol)
will satisfy the condition of imaginarity ; that is, the triad will indicate
the presence of a primary pair of imaginary roots in the transformed
equation, as may be proved as follows:
The approximation being to the real root (r) of f,,..(z) = 0, lying in
the contracting interval, the coefficient under /,,.:(#) will continue
tending to zero, whilst the coefficient under 7,,(7) is approaching a
finite limit. Moreover, in the passage over the interval [7—6, r + 6],
6 may become so small that, in the terms of the transformed equation,
up to the term under /,,..(x) inclusive, no variation shall be lost: but,
taking in the two terms next following, two variations are lost in the
passage over the root 7, since /,,.(2) changes sign in this passage,
whilst the signs of the preceding functions, as well as the sign of f,(z), —
remain unchanged. Now this cannot possibly be unless for the trans-
formation 7 — é the collocation of signs under the three functions is either
+—4, or—+-; for otherwise there could not be two variations to
lose. Hence, in passing over the interval, [r — 6, r + 6], the signs of
the first and third of the coefiicients under the above three functions —
continue to be like signs; and as the middle coefficient vanishes in
this interval, it follows that not only at, but before and after. this
evanescence, the square of the middle one of the three coefficients must
be dess than the product of the other two coefficients. The triad must —
therefore satisfy the condition of imaginarity; and must do ao all the ©
earlier in the process of continuous development, masmuch as the —
square has for multiplier a number /ess than the multiplier for the pro-
duct by the number w + 1 (formule 5, p. 344). So soon as the triad of ©
coeiiicients satisfies this condition of inequality, a stop may be put to
the work, provided but one pair of doubtful roots lies in the interval. |
We should know that, in the remaining portion of the interval, a pair
of imaginary roots would exist for each succeeding function. If, how-
ever, there are other pairs of roots in the interval under examina-—
tion, the transformation must be completed, and the development be
proceeded with, in order to ascertain, from the variations lost between
ry —6and r + 6, whether additional pairs of imaginary roots are also in-
dicated by the passage of the root r.
Whatever pairs, besides these additional pairs (if any), may still ba
indicated in the original interval [a, 6], they are to be sought in the
partial interval |r, 6, by proceeding in the same way as at first. We
have only further to observe that, when the /eading triad of the proposed:
equation satisfies the condition at page 343, we know that the leading
triad for every transformation will also satisfy it (27). But the pair of ima-
ginary roots in (x) = 0, which this triad indicates, lies in the interval
3738
a, &' |, which, embracing two roots of f (x) = 0, embraces also the root
of the middle equation of the first degree.* It thus appears that those
roots of an equation which have not, at first, the character
of what we have called primary pairs, become pene ie into primary
pairs by the same process of continuous approximation by which they
would be separated and computed if they were real. And we submit
that all desirable extension and efficiency is thus given to Horner’s
method of development, and to the general criteria at page 344.
(32) As to the practical operation of carrying on the development
adverted to, when two or more roots are indicated in the same interval,
and are long in separating when real, or in disclosing their character
when imaginary, we must refer Be the necessary directions—more
especially as to the trial divisors for facilitating the discovery of the
successive figures of the real root actually approximated to, to ‘‘ The
Theory and Solution of Equations of the Higher Orders,” pp. 259-263.
But we may add here that, in testing a triad of coefficients by the con-
_ dition of imaginarity, if the figures of these coefficients are numerous,
and it be seen necessary to compute with some degree of precision, the
squaring and multiplying may be tedious operations. In such cases we
would recommend a shorter method of proceeding, thus :—Let the pro-
_ duct, with its proper Newtonian multiplier, be represented by pPP’,
and the square, with its proper multiplier, by gQ?: then the condition
pP
pPP > o@ implies > =
_ and these division operations being carried on, a figure at a time alter-
nately, we shall find which quotient exceeds the other without com-
puting even a single superfiuous figure.
_ (83) We shall terminate this paper with the investigation of a
general formula for determining the character of the roots of a complete
cubic equation, independently of actual development.
If either of the two triads of a cubic equation satisfy the condition
of imaginarity, no special formula for this purpose will be necessary:
_ we have therefore only to provide for the case in which both triads fail,
or in which the square of the middle term of each (with its proper fac-
tor), minus the product of the extremes (with its proper factor), is a
positive quantity. Let
P =A, + Axw?+Az+Ay; or, page 367, X,
Q = 3Ayw + 2A + A, a X,
i = 3A + A, 39 XxX,
| @_ 3PP'=(A} - 3A,A;)2? + (4,4, -94,As)2+ (A? - 84,4.) - [1]
* The passage of this root being attended with the loss of two variations; that is,
two variations are lost in passing from r—¢ to r + 0.
3V4
Now, this expression is positive for every real value of x, provided
it be either a complete square, or that it satisfy the condition
A( Ae = 8A,A,)CA? — 9A,A,) (AGA, = SAGA ce pi
and it cannot be positive, for every real value of x, unless one or other of
these conditions hold. Hence, when all the roots of P=0 are real,
[1] must be a complete square, or else the condition [2] must have
place, and conversely ; so that the condition which must be satisfied
when a pair of roots is imaginary, and which cannot be satisfied unless
there be an imaginary pair, is
4(Ayt - 84,45)(4)* — 84g 42) <(414,-944,%--- [3]
The criterion of imaginary roots for an incomplete cubic, is, of
course, but a particular case of this more general condition ; the case, —
namely, in which A, = 1, and A, = 0; for making these substitutions, a
[3] becomes
-124°<(94,), or (- fa (F 7)
as at p. 351; A,, Ao, here, being p, gq, there.
It follows from the above conclusions that when the roots of
Q?-3PP’ = 0 are imaginary, those of P=0 mustall be real; and that
when the roots of Q?-3PP’' =0 are real, two roots of P =0 must be ima-
ginary, and vice versd, unless the roots of Q°- 3PP’ =Oare equal roots; —
and equal roots they will always be whenever P = 0 has two equal —
roots, the equal pair in the former of these equations being the same
as the equal pair in the latter. Yor one of the two equal roots of P= 0,
namely, =r, must enter the equation Q=0; so that Q@ and 3PP’
are each divisible by (x —7r)?; therefore 7, 7, are the two roots of the —
quadratic Q?- 3PP’=0. In the case supposed, therefore, [1] is always —
a complete square :* hence, if the equation P= 0 have equalroots7, 7,
A, aye 34,43, and A; raz 3A A»
must be squares; and
A? ee, 3A,A,
A? - 3A4,A;
——
and whether the sign of 7 is to be positive or negative will be at once as- g |
certained from the signs in the proposed equation, by the rule of Des- = |
cartes, as all the roots must be real. =
* Of the form m?(# — r)?.
379
If A, = 0, then — 34,4, is a square, in the case of equal roots, and
Ifall the roots of P=0 are equal, each coefficient of [1] will be zero;
Q — 3PP’ being then identically zero.
Nore 1.
' In the foregoing discussion, we have not specially considered the
eases in which equal roots enter an equation, with the exception of
_ what has just been said as to the cubic. Such special consideration of
these cases, when actual solution of the equation is the sole object in
| view, we do not regard as at all necessary ; and we cannot but think
. that a great deal of labour is sometimes expended, with but little profit,
' in trying to find out, by tedious common measure operations, whether
_ an equation has roots strictly equal or not.
If equal roots really enter an equation, the approximation to that
_ one of them which always enters singly into an antecedent derived
equation, must cause, not only the results in the corresponding column
of work to approximate to zero, but also the results in each of the sub-
sequent columns, up to the final column, or that which computes
_ f(x). The simultaneous tendency to zero of the results under f(x),
—«dSi(2), f(z), &e., always of course indicates so many roots either
_ accurately equal, or nearly equal; unless, indeed, the tendency to zero
in f(x) should cease, after a certain number of steps, and thus conduct
_ us to the condition of imaginary roots.
| When, however, the approximation to the single real root here al-
_ luded to has been carried on so far that the incomplete development
would be regarded as a value sufficiently near to the complete root of
F(x) = 0, if this were the only root in the interval; then, although the
_ approximate root neither separates the other roots of f(z) = 0, nor yet
_ conducts to the condition of imaginary roots, we may, nevertheless,
discontinue the development, and may safely regard the value obtained
as a close approximation to one, or two, or three, as the case may be,
of the values of x which satisfy the equation f(x) = 0.
For the roots in question, having been developed up to whatever
‘number of figures may have been settled upon at the outset, as sufficient
‘for the purpose in hand, what can it matter whether the superfluous
figures which follow those already found to be common to the two or
more roots, are the same, or different for those roots? The roots are
practically equal if the figures which completely express them are of
ine practical value beyond those thus far found to coalesce, or to be
|
|
|
k. I, A. PROC.—VOL. xX. 3E
woes
RRB WROTE
PS
awe
Pay
ea
376
common to them all; whether the more remote figures agree or disagree
can be of no moment in reference to the object in view; since, agree or
not, they are confessedly useless.
We submit that there is no difference of opinion as to Horner’s
being the best method of computing the real roots of a numerical equa-
tion of an advanced degree by continuous approximation; and with ap-
proximations only, in all those instances where a root has interminable
decimals, we must be content, even though those interminable decimals
may be but a very simple vulgar fraction in another form. As is usually
the case with general methods of computation, in whatever department
of practical mathematics they are proposed, there will always be parti-
cular examples that might be better treated by particular rules. The
present writer is not likely to be charged with undervaluing Horner’s
‘method: he believes that its merits are such that, as a general method,
it will never be superseded. But, however high one’s estimate of any
practical process may be, it is right fairly to state its inconveniences in
particular cases, as wellas its general advantages; and an inconvenience —_
in Horner’s process, it certainly is—we think the only inconvenience—
that a fractional root has to be developed in decimals.
Suppose, for example, one of the roots of an equation to be+: this
root, by Horner’s method, would be determined in the approximate form
-142857 ...., and if the equation were of an advanced degree, a good
deal of numerical work would be required to obtain this approximative
value of +. If the development were to be extended two or three
places further, the recurrence of the figures would, no doubt, suggest
the equivalent fraction; but fractions may readily be assigned the
equivalent decimal of each of which would not be seen to be a recurring
decimal till many more figures were computed. However, if it be of
no practical consequence in the inquiry before us that a root with in-
terminable decimals, and which is not the development of any finite
fraction, should be approximated to beyond, say, six places of decimals,
neither can it be of any practical consequence that :142857 should re-
place + in that inquiry.
Viewing the matter generally, in reference to incommensurable roots,
it would be more strictly accurate to regard our approximations—not as
approximations to the exact roots of the equation we are dealing with (for
it may not have exact roots—roots expressed in finite numbers), but to
consider each as the complete or exact value of a root of an approximate
equation—this approximate equation differing from the equation pro-
posed only in its final term or absolute number. The amount of the
difference may be made smaller than any assignable decimal; for the
development of the incommensurable root may be carried to such an
extent, that the final term of the transformed equation, at which the - |
operation is stopped, may differ from zero by as small a quantity as we
please; and the root thus far developed will be a complete root of that. 3
approximate equation which would arise from merely correcting the
absolute term of the proposed equation by the small decimal alluded to.
What is here said as to a single incommensurable root applies, of course,
QR
Olé
equally to two or more roots which agree in their leading figures to the
extent mentioned. These are equal roots of an approximate equation,
and have the same claim to be considered equal roots of the proposed
equation as either of them has to be considered a root of it. The con-
‘clusion is the same, whether at a more remote figure the roots would
separate, or the condition of imaginary roots, hitherto delayed, be after-
wards fulfilled for a final triad. In either case a real value is found
which satisfies an equation so nearly coincident with the equation pro-
posed that, since approximations only are attainable, the two equations
may be regarded as identical—in so far, at least, as the roots thus far
common to both are concerned.
No doubt, in thus prosecuting the development of one of a pair of
contiguous roots, there may be abiding uncertainty as to whether the
roots are strictly equal or not; for the decimals being interminable, all
that we can affirm, however far these decimals are carried, is, that thus
far, at least, the roots are undistinguishable from equal roots—supposing,
that is, that a separation has not yet taken place. But in the case of a
pair of imaginary roots, there need never be abiding uncertainty at all.
The approximative process may fail to separate a pair of real roots—for
they may not be separable; but a pair of imaginary roots must, sooner
or later, unfold their character as such, by means of the tests of ima-
ginarity. There are no such tests for incommensurable equal roots:
by continuous approximation, f(~) may, in the one case, continuously
tend to zero interminably ; in the other case, it cannot approach zero
within a certain finite limit;* but, in either case, the process may be
stopped when a sufficient number of decimals is obtained; and the
inexact root, thus far developed, will be an exact root of an equation so
nearly coincident with that proposed, that it may be substituted for it
without appreciable error, in so far as concerns the particular roots in
question.
It should be observed, however, that the approximate equation, of
which a partially developed root of the proposed equation is an exact
root, is not precisely the same as the approximate equation for another
partially developed root ; since for different inexact roots the correction
for the absolute number of the proposed equation will most likely be
different ; and similarly as respects different groups of approximate equal
roots. But unless the correction in each case be so small as to be of no
practical consequence, the approximate equation will not have ap-
proached near enough to the proposed to justify its being substituted for
it. All that the present Note affirms is, that a pair of real roots may
have so many leading figures in common, or a pair of imaginary roots
may have the imaginary element so insignificant, that both in the one
ease and in the other the roots may be regarded as real and equal—
satisfying the conditions of the equation with as much precision as the
* If it be not the final triad, but a preceding triad, which indicates the imaginarity,
then, as the approximation will not be directed to a root of Si(#) = 0, the successive
values of f(z) may even diverge from zero, though not beyond a finite limit.
ait oS eee Aa
e
Da
bs.d
1
a
378
received approximate value of any single incommensurable root of it
satisfies those conditions. And we therefore think that the indiscri-
minate rejection of roots involving an imaginary element, regardless of
the influence of this element on the coefficients of the equation, is un-
justifiable, and, moreover, inconsistent, where approximate values only
of the real roots—that is to say, exact values of the roots of only ap-
proximate equations—are received.
Some remarks on this subject will be found in Peacock’s paper, in
the ‘‘ Report of the Third Meeting of the British Association,” p. 349.
There is, however, one case of equal roots which deserves special
notice—namely, the case in which the roots are all equal imaginary
airs.
: Let the equation be one of the fourth degree, made up of two equal
quadratic factors (X ) each having a pair of imaginary roots: the equa-
tion is then XX =0. Taking the successive limiting equations (or
differentiating), and remembering that X being of the second degree,
we must have, at the third step of the operation, X” = 0, the limiting
equations will be
2X = 0 geaarneee
2X XE 2X = On) cece [eet
4X’ X" + 2X’ X" = 0,
that is, CAG 0 ies Git OA
6X” X” = a positive number.
Now, the root of the equation X’ = 0, of the first degree, is the real
root of [1] of the third degree ; and it is equally the root of [3]; which
is also of the first degree, X’”’ being a constant number. Hence, if the
roots XX = 0 be diminished by the root of the simple equation X* = 0,
that is, if we cause the second term of the proposed equation to disap-
pear, the fourth term will vanish also; they will vanish, moreover,
between plus signs; for X? is always plus, and in [2] X? and X are
both always plus; and X” is apositive number. When, therefore, the
imaginaries are equal pairs, the alternate terms, in the transformation
which removes the second term, are zeros, each zero being between like
signs, and we know that whenever this happens the roots are all ima-
ginary. The same has place when the equation is X?+ V=0, WN being
any positive number, though the pairs are not then equal pairs.
The conclusion is the same, whatever be the number of equal qua-
dratic factors XXX ...of the above kind; that is, if the roots of the
equation be each diminished by the root of the simple equation X’ = 0,
the last of the derived equations, the result will be an equation in which
the alternate terms will be zeros, each zero being between like signs. For,
let the number of equal quadratic factors be 1; then, using the notation
above, no X can appear in any of the derived equations with more than
two dashes, because X”’is zero. In the first derived equation, there occurs
but one dash in each term ; in the second, there are two dashes in each
term ; in the third, three ; andso on up to the final step, in which there
379
are 2” dashes; this last result being a positive number: moreover, each
term consists of a group of n X’s.
Now, it is plain, when in each of the terms, or individual groups,
entering a derived equation, the number of dashes is odd, that X’ must,
of necessity, enter that group once, or some oddnumber of times ; and that
when the dashes in each group of X’s, ina derived equation, are even
in number—since that even number can be made up without any X t
all—there must be one group from which X’ is absent. It follows,
therefore, that the root of the simple equation X’ = 0 is equally a root of
every ascending equation of an odd degree; but that for this, and for
all real values of x, every one of the functions of evenjdegree is posi-
tive; hence, if we diminish each of the roots of the proposed equation
by the root of X’=0, we shall arrive at a transformed equation in
which the alternate terms will be zeros, each zero being between plus
signs.
‘ In diminishing by the root of X’=0, should it consist of two or
more figures, Newton’s Rule, in the case here considered, is of special
service; as the conditions of imaginarity are likely to hold_and fail al-
ternately before the full development of the root of X’=0 is completed.
And the same may be said in reference to equations made up of qua-
dratic factors furnishing imaginary pairs not strictly identical, but only
nearly so. But inevery application of this rule to the determination of
the number of imaginary pairs in an assigned interval [a, 6], care must
be taken that pairs outside that interval are not included in the enume-
ration ; that is, that the evanescencies—which Newton’s Rule anticipates
—are not any of them delayed beyond the limit b; such as are so delayed
imply pairs belonging, of course, to the succeeding interval [8, ¢].
Nore 2.
It may be well, before closing this paper, to give a short practical
illustration of one or two of the theoretical principles established in
the latter articles of it. The equation of the fourth degree, at p. 368,
is well adapted to this purpose, since the roots are all doubtful, and all
lie within the narrow limits [0, 1].
The inquiry is—Does an imaginary pair enter this equation? and
if so, by which triad of terms is the entrance of the pair first indicated ?
It cannot be by the leading triad, from the principle at (27); that
is, an imaginary pair cannot enter the derived equation X,=0. Can
pair aig the derived equation of next higher degree—namely,
1 = 0
The roots of the derived quadratic X, = 0—that is, of 8x* - 10x
+ 3 = 0—are readily found to be ‘5, and -75. Taking the smaller of
these as a transforming number, and working up to X,, if imaginarity
380
is not indicated in X,=0, real roots of X, = 0 (if such exist) may
separate.
4 eles So So ee eons
SRY ieee pee S053
Tigres 2) A PS 0
peed 33 Loge
256. 2 5
9 tere
APUG G
2
ae
Here we see that ‘5 is a root, not only of X, = 0, but also of X, = 0;
and that there is no indication of imaginarity in X,=0. A real root
of this equation is, however, passed over; and it further appears that,
for the transformation °5 — 4, one variation, in the entire series of signs,
would be lost—the signs for this transformation being + -++-, as 1s
obvious. Hence, one real root of the proposed equation X, = 0, lies
between 0 and ‘5; a second real root, as just seen, being 5 itself.
Again, diminish the roots by ‘7.
4-10 +9 —3 +°25 (7
28 —~504 2°772 —-1596
19-9 .°3-96.— -998 --0904
2:8 — 3-08 616
aed eae -388
9-8 - 1-12
Eg eeoA
2-8
L°
As before, one root, and one root only, of X, = 0, is overstepped; but
there is indication sufficient that the other two roots of this equation—
and, therefore, two roots of X, = 0—are imaginary. Hence, the equa-
tion has two real roots, ‘5 and [0, ‘5], and two imaginary roots. The |
approximate value of the latter of these two real roots, found in the
usual way, 1s ‘12256: it is somewhat more expeditiously found by em-
ploying for the purpose the depressed equation of the third degree,
42° — 8x? + 5x ~ ‘5 = 0,* as given by the first row of coefficients in the
former of the two operations above.
* We need scarcely remind the reader that the first member of this equation is the
quotient arising from dividing the first member of the given biquadratic equation by |
ae — ‘0.
381
In the foregoing operations, we have analyzed the interval [0, 1],
within which the four roots are all comprised, by commencing with the
roots of the quadratic X, = 0, seeing that these roots are real, and their
values so easily determined. ‘There is, of course, no necessity to reach
this quadratic through the descending steps at p. 8368; we may ascend
to it by means of the three leading coefficients 4- 10+ 9; thus the
simple equation is 4x 4% -10=0, that is, 16z-10=0; and the
3x16
eee? +3x 100 +9 =0, that is, 2422 - 307 +9=0. But
quadratic,
if, without regarding this quadratic, we had commenced with the lead-
Ove
A aah ee
a proceeding which would have been in strict accordance with the ge-
neral directions at p. 370, the corresponding transformed equation would
have been
ing figure of the root of the semple equation, namely,
4a ~ 4a? — 36° + 4542 + 0484 = 0;
so that the original interval would then have been subdivided into the
two partial intervals [0, 6] and |°6, 1], each comprising two roots ;
and the character of each pair would become known by contracting each
of these intervals as above.
Notes 3.
It is here proposed to prove that whenever the condition of imagi-
nary roots holds or fails for any triad of the functions X,, X,,, X,,2,
&e., as deduced from the primitive X,, for an assigned value of x, it
will in like manner hold or fail, for the same value of x, for the cor-
responding triad (the first, second, third, &c.) when X, is taken for the
primitive function.
If we take X, for the new primitive, the series of expressions fur-
nished by X, and its derivees will be the original series 1), X,, X3, &c.,
_ multiplied respectively by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., taken in order.
If X, be taken for the new primitive, X, and its derivees will be the
original X, X,, X., &c., multiplied, in order, by 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, &c.
And if X, be taken for the new primitive, X, and its derivees will
be obtained by multiplying the original X;, X,, X;, &c., by 1, 4, 10,
20, 35, &c., taken in order, and so on.
This will be readily seen to be the case from a mere inspection of
the several developments.
Now the general expression for the m™ term in any one of these
series of figurate numbers is
m(m +1) (m+2)(m+8)...(m+p-1) orgy
P23. 4 ok p
382
p being of permanent value for the same series, whatever be m, or the
number denoting the place in the numerical scale, of any single term
[A] in that series; thus, for the first series, y=1; for the second, p= 2;
for the third, y=3 ; and so on.
If we take the two terms B, C, next following this m” term [A ],
the first of these, B, will evidently be the expression [A] with the
leading factor, m, suppressed, and the new factor (m+ p) annexed; and
the next term, C, will be what [A] becomes when the two factors
m(m +1) are removed, and the two, (m+p)(m+p+1), introduced.
Hence we have the conditions
1)C B
wet tam+p+l, amp. ety
. {(m+1) AC, mB} = {m+pt+1,mt+p} AB...[2],
m being the numerical place of A in the series, and p denoting the place,
or order of the series itself.
[ We may here notice, in passing, as an inference from the relation
[1], that the place (p) of any one of the series being given, we can
readily write the entire series from the beginning, or can extend it,
(m+ p)A
m
when leading terms of it are already written, since B = ; and
p, it will be observed, is always equal to the second term minus 1:
thus, for the third series the first two terms are 1, 4; the next term is
3
ee 10); the next aa
From the numerical equivalence [2], the proposition enunciated
above may be deduced as follows :—
Let X, (taken as primitive), and its derivees, be denoted by (X,)o,
(X,)1, (Xp)2, &e.: then calling the highest exponent of # in X,, n’', we
shall have the several conditions (p. 367) for these new functions, by
substituting them for the functions, X,, X,, X,, &c., in the formule re-
ferred to, provided we put n’ for » throughout. But since, by the pro-
perty adverted to at the outset (X,)), (X,),, &c., are no other than X,,
Xpa, &¢., multiplied, in order, by the figurative numbers,1, 1 + p, &c.,
if A be the m” number in the series, B, C, being the two numbers im-
_ mediately following, then, as (X,)m is the m” function in the series
(X,)o, (Xp)1, (Xp)2, &e., we shall have
AC Xe as -p+m+1 Cay Cee and Bix = CEs
= 20; and so on. |
Now, by the formula [4] at p. 344, the condition of imaginarity for
the three functions here last written is
(m +1)(n' — m — 1)(X,)m-i(Xp)ma > mn! — m)(X,)m + « [3]
and the condition of imaginarity for the three functions of which these
[3] = (4).
383
are the multiples (A, B, C), is the condition within the brackets in the -
following expression, namely,
((p+m+1)(n—p—m=1)XpimiXpime > (pt m)(n— p — m) X? 4m} AB [4]
and by the property [2] these two expressions [3], [4], are equal; for,
puttig in the former n—~p for n', which it is, we see that the two
members of [3] and the two of [4] are respectively what the following,
namely,
(m+ 1)AC, mB,
{m+pt+1,m+p\}|AB
become, when the first member of each is multiplied by the same num-
ber, (7 —- p)-—(m-1); and the second member of each by the same
number, »—y-—m. Hence if the condition of imaginarity hold or fail,
for any value of x, for the three functions in [3], the condition will,
in like manner, hold or fail for the same value of x, for the three func-
tions of the same degree in [4], and, moreover, the two members of the
condition [3] are the two members of the condition [4], each multiplied
by AB. |
As a practical illustration of this, in a particular case, let X,; be the
function taken as primitive’; then p = 3, and n’ = » — 3; also, for this
value of », the figurate multipliers are 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c.,
Taking the first triad of these for A, B, C; then the second triad ;
and so on, we have
ist. {2(m ~ 3)10X,X, > (nm - 4)16X%,} =
[2(m — 3)(Xs)o( Ms )a > (m — 4)(4a)*} =
{5(n — 3)X,X, > 4(n — 4)X3} 4.
2nd. {3(n — 4)80.X,X, > 2(n - 5)100X,*} =
. (3(n — 4)(X3),(Xs)s > 2(n — 5)(X,)s*} =
{6(n -—4)X,X, > 5(n - 5)X,7} 40.
Srd. (4(m — 5)350.X,X, > 8(n - 6)400.X¥7) =
[4(m — 5)(Xs)a( Xa), > 3m — 6)(Xy)3*} =
{Tn — 5)X,X, > 6(n — 6).X,?} 200.
and so on, conformably to the general conclusion above, namely, that
The object of the foregoing investigation is to prove that when a
limiting equation X, = 0, derived in the ordinary way from the primi-
tive equation X, = 0, has imaginary roots indicated between assigned
limits, in contracting these limits by Horner’s process—whether we ope-
rate upon the equation X, = 0 itself, or upon the derived equation of
inferior degree, X, = 0, the indications of imaginary roots will present
themselves, in both operations, at precisely the same step of the two
processes. Since the numbers, resulting from a transformation in the
one operation are all different (except those under X,, and such as
R.I A, PROC.—YOL. X. 3F
ae ae ine eNO eee ee
Sie WA ee
Saar rte aera oe i Ran ie aire Banca erin
An ee Aan ge eC ELS Ce
384
may be zero from the numbers resulting from the corresponding
transformation in the other operation, there might be uncertainty, in
the absence of proof, as to whether the indications of imaginarity, when
we operate upon X)= 0, might not be delayed beyond the step at which
they would offer themselves if we were to operate upon X, =0 itself;
we now see that such delay can never occur; but that the fulfilment or
the failure of the prescribed condition, for any triad of coefficients in one
of the transformations of X,=0, implies the like fulfilment or failure for
the corresponding triad of coefficients, in the corresponding transforma-
tion (by the same number) of X, = 0.
And hence the remarks, at p. 378, respecting equal and nearly equal
imaginary pairs entering X,= 90, equally apply whenever such paire
enter a derived equation.
XXXIX.—On an OeHam-rnscrisED Monument in Guew Fars, County
Kerrey. By Ricnarp Rott Brasy, M.R.1. A.
[Read November 9, 1868. ]
On November 8th, 1858, a paper of considerable interest was read
before the Royal Irish Academy by the late Venerable the Archdea-
con of Ardfert, Dr. Rowan, giving an account of the discovery by that
gentleman of a remarkable inscribed monument in Glen Fais, and of
the historic locality in which it was found. As the readings given in
the Archdeacon’s paper appeared to me unsatisfactory, as also those
given in other publications, I was anxious to obtain a personal inspec-
tion of the stone in question, to ascertain if the published copies,
as well as others in my possession, were correct, as I have had abundant
reason to distrust copies of Ogham inscriptions, unless made by very
experienced and trustworthy Oghamists. Being on an antiquarian tour
in the barony of Corcaguiney, in July of the present year, [ had an oppor-
tunity of gratifying my desire, by visiting the locality of the monu-
ment, which I found lying prostrate in a grass field in the townland of
Camp, a portion of Glen Fais, or, as it is locally pronounced, Glenaish,
under the west face of Caher Conrigh mountain. It lies about twenty
yards inside the fence, to the left of the public road winding up the
glen, and about ten minutes’ walk from Camp Post-office ; distant from
Tralee nine miles. The locality will be found on sheet No. 37 of the
Ordnance Survey of Kerry, on which, however, the monument is not
marked. It is an irregular flag-shaped monolith, measuring in length ie ’
eleven feet five inches, and in extreme breadth five feet nine inches,
and varying in thickness from ten to eighteen inches; it is a hard,
compact, close-grained red sandstone, the inscription being on an |
obtuse angle on the face of the stone towards the left, and about
midway in the length of the monolith. The engraving which &.|
accompanied Dr. Rowan’s paper (‘‘Proc. R.I.A.,”’ vol. vii. p. 104), |
is a fair representation of the stone, while the inscription is, I am happy
to say, accurately copied. The line on which the characters run is ‘a
3890
more of a natural ridge on the face of the stone than an actual angle.
The letters are sharply and clearly cut, and are all perfectly legible, so —
that, comparing my own copy with those of Dr. Rowan, Mr. Windele,
and others, I found no difference. The consonants are marked by short
strokes, deep and broad; the vowels, with one exception, by oval dots,
well sunk—that exception is the first vowel, O, the second letter of the
inscription, which is expressed by two short strokes across the line, as
if an error of the engraver, or as if he changed his mode of representing
the vowels. This peculiarity has been noticed by Dr. Rowan.
We find also in this inscription the Ogham equivalent for the
diphthong EA, which is the only character of that class yet found on
these monuments, and only on a few, as on Nos. 1 and 10 of the Collec-
tion of inscribed Ogham stones in the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy; on a stone from Tinahely, county Kerry; on one at St.
Olan’s churchyard, county Cork; and from the Rath of Roovesmore,
same county, but now in the British Museum.
i ie a we
0 Q@ U Q@EAF FM O Bes One $Qre Us I
Dr. Rowan has inserted in his paper a translation of this inscrip-
tion by the late Rev. John Casey, formerly of Dingle, a well-known
Irish scholar, and one intimately conversant with the antiquities of
this district ; but one whose enthusiasm sometimes got the better of his
judgment, particularly i in dealing with inscriptions of this class. This
monument, being found in the track which our mystic history and tradi-
tions assign to the invading Scoti, after their landing at Inbher
Sgeine, the rey. gentleman conceived it probable that it marked the
grave of some one of the fallen chiefs, or captains of the invaders, and
that the name of such might be found on it; he accordingly reads it :—
“So cu uarf mo ni so cu O Ni,”
1, e. ‘‘ Here is martial sun officer Druid Ni, here illustrious alas Ni.”
Mr. Casey states, that Niis Nighe, oghamically written, the same
as Vighe, according to Keating, the father-in-law of the Amazon
Fais, who was slain in the battle at Sliabh Mis, that he was one of the
Druids whom our Irish Livy designates under the names of Uar and
| ther. The original inscription, however, cannot by any means be
| made to bear out his interpretation. To form the word Uarf, he turns
| the fifth character, Q, into an R, and omits the diphthong EA. To
bring out the words O Nz, he transposes the sixteenth group—namely,
the vowel U into an O; and the seventeeth letter, which is a palpable
R, being five strokes across the stem line, into an N. I need not
remark, that a translation, founded upon such an unwarrantable muti-
lation of the original inscription, cannot be accepted as of the slightest
philological value. Mr. W. Williams, of Dungarvan, who, Iam informed,
has examined and copied this inscription, gives the following reading :—
“' Soc huid thi f mon il loco art,”
Wp Wester ieee
Re Se SERS Ee NT Ne EOE
pe ge eT eg Iie ee
386
which he translates, ‘‘The sacred stone of hosts of mighty men in the
place of slaughter.”’
The same objection also lies against this rendering in a much
greater degree, as to produce it, the original characters are changed,
transposed, and subdivided, in an extraordinary manner. Another
Trish scholar, now resident in New York, has published a reading as
follows :—
‘< So cu ceinb-mont; So cure,”
i.e. ‘The priest of holy cnub (or cneph) the priest of the sun.’ It
is quite evident that a foregone conclusion in each of these cases sug-
gested, in a great degree, the translation; and, consequently, we find
that the original letters have been made to minister to these views.
In reference to such arbitrary modes of dealing with ancient in-
scriptions, I would here repeat that sound canon of criticism, recom -
mended by the late Mr. John Windele in a similar case :—‘‘I confess
I dislike arbitrary dealing with the letters, where we find a group of
scores well defined, and so unconnected with any others at either
sides—so isolated as to warrant the conviction that it has been care-
fully and well expressed; or, where its direction, whether vertical or
oblique, is expressed with similar care, I am disposed to be very
jealous of any intermeddling with it, and am disposed to protest
against any arbitrary forcing or dislocation” (‘‘ Proc. R. I..A.,” vol. vii.,
p- 105). Dr. Rowan expresses some doubt as to the value of the six-
teenth group of dots; he writes—‘‘ The sixteenth group is cut where
a natural inequality in the stone renders it doubtful whether the points
are to be read as two vowels or one’”’ (Lbid.), :
This point I paid particular attention to; the dots are equidistant,
and there is no doubt that the group composes one letter, U. Mr.
Windele, who, I believe, never attempted a rendering of this inscrip-
tion, recognized it as an U. I now respectfully offer, for the considera-
tion of the Academy, my reading of it :—
i — ae” a ae gg i = rk ot
“So cu Cueaff Moni so cu Ri ;”
— 2:
literally rendered :—
‘This is the warrior Cueaf my grief, this is the warrior king.”
So, pron. this here, this is (O’ Reilly and O’Brien).
Cu, sm. & champion, a hero, a warrior (Jézd.).
Cueaff, a proper name, of the same family as Cuan, Cucaech, Cucaille,
Cuisin. 7
Mon, an Oghamic form of ‘“ Monuar,” an interjection — My > 4
grief! alas! woe is the day! (O'Reilly). The rest is obvious. P
In this rendering, it will be observed, that I have not in any wise g
interfered with the integrity of the original. T have not altered or | &
transferred a single score; taking the inscription simply as it stands, —
it naturally divides itself into the Gaedhelic words I have given.
387
The legend itself is of that simple, archaic, and expressive form
usual on very ancient monuments, and is quite consistent with
the genius and feeling of our people. That this monolith should have
been erected over the grave of an arch-chief or king is also consistent
with the great size of the stone, and the accuracy with which the
characters are cut. The formula, ‘‘ Warrior King,” is found in our
ancient MSS. ‘Thus, in the “ Wars of the Gaedhil with the Gaill,’’
as edited by the Rev. Dr. Todd, we have the following passage :—
“Now, this Cathal was the king-soldier and champion of Erinn
during his career in his own time’’. (p. 75).
» The same epithet is also applied to this warrior at p. 83 of the
same work :—‘‘Great spoils and plunders and ravages were now
committed by Mathgamhain in Mumhan. By him great spoils were
taken from the Ui Enna of Ane, and there it was that Cathal, son of
Feradach, the king-soldier of Erinn, was killed.”’
A far more ancient example of the same formula is given by Raw-
linson from the concluding portion of the inscription on the tomb of
Midas, the Phrygian—
“‘To Midas the Warrior King.”
We must also observe, that the four concluding characters of this
inscription form the name of an ancient chieftain of this immediate
district, and whose Caher, or Dun, looks down dark and grim from the
lofty summit of Caher Con-righ mountain, on the very spot where lies
the great pillar stone. I allude to Curi, or Curoi Mac Daire, of the
race of EKremon, who was king of Iar Mumhan about the time of the
Incarnation. The following account of the family of Curoi Mac Dairé
__ is given by the late Mr. John Windele, in a privately printed paper, en-
titled ‘‘ Cahir Conri’’ :—‘‘ He was the head of the Milesian Ernains of
Munster; so called from their original settlement in Brefny, beside the
shores of Lough Erne, whence they had dispossessed a Belgic tribe,
also denominated Ernains, from the same vicinity. It is curious to
observe that, when this Belgic tribe was expelled from Brefny, it located
itself in that part of Kerry, from which it was again driven forth by the
same Milesian tribe, themselves now exiled from Ulster by the Clanna
Ruraidhe, of the race of Ir. This expulsion took place in or about
A.M. 3920, under Deaghaidhe, the son of Suin, descended from Olild
| KErann, of the line of Fiacha Fer Mara, son of Aengus Turmach, king
of Ireland, 150 years B.C. The reigning monarch at this time was
Duach, of the race of Heber, known in history by the name of Dalta,
or the fostered of Deaghaidhe, who had adopted him. This prince
bestowed upon his foster-father possessions in Luachra, the then general
name of Kerry, a large portion of which received from him the name
Siimachar Deagaidh. ...... The descendants of Deaghaidh gra-
dually extended their power and authority over West Munster, and
several of them obtained the sovereignty of the whole province, to the
exclusion of the Heberian line. As the Ua Deagaidh, or Degadu, they
were noticed by Ptolemy, in the second century, in their proper ter-
RH TES i et) SEIS IRR NEN ihe oe
ayy
ee a Tae Dae Ee Ae Freee Re Me eT Se AT A ae
Si ere St ae Cs PE? Be ee Be We PT
Reta,
Se Saree
r
lass
ee
anh
Pits)
pus
388
ritory in West Munster, under the name of Udei, or Vodii, which very
nearly expresses the pronunciation of Dheaghaidh.
Better known by the name of Clanna Dheaghaidh, they occupy a
prominent place in the military history of the time, as one of the three
warrior tribes who represented the rude chivalry of the period. The
others were the Craob Ruadh (red hand, or branch), of Ulster, and the
Gaman raidhe, of Irrus Domnann, in Mayo. Deghaidh had three sons,
lar, Daire, and Conal. .... Daire, the second son of Deaghaidh,
had by his wife, Maoin, or Moran Mananagh, 1.e. of the Isle of Man,
Conroi, much celebrated for his valour and prodigious strength :—
** Moran of Mana of honor pure,
Was the child of Ir, son of Uinnsidhe,
The sister of Eochaidh Ecbeol she
And mother of Curigh, son of Dari.”*
Curoi Mac Dairé is the life and soul of Munster romance: the great
Cyclopean Caher on the northern spur of Bawr-tri-Gaun (the summit of — 4
the three cows), overlooking Glen Fais, is attributed to him, and bears
his name. His success in carrying off the fair Blanaidh from his
rival Cuchullin, and his death by the hand of the latter, are inexhaust- — : |
ible themes for the story tellers. He is represented as being brave
and chivalrous—a hero both on land and sea—haying been engaged in -
many foreign expeditions. Many ancient historic tales are rounded on
his exploits, some of which are no longer in existence, as the Cath
buadha Conree, mentioned by the bard, Erard Mac Coisi; also the ~
Aithed Blathnate imgen Pall Mie Fidaig re Coinchullaind, and —
Argan Cathar Chonrat. In the “ Leabhar-na h-Uidhre,’”’-we havea —
tale called ‘‘ The Mesca Ulladh”’ (or the inebriety of the Ultonians), who,
in a fit of excitement, after a great feast at the royal palace of Hmania, —
made a sudden and furious march into Munster, where they burned the ~
palace of Zeamhair Luachra, in Kerry, then the residence of Curoi Mac —
Dairé, king of West Munster” (O’Curry’s Lectures. &., p. 185). q
Among the historic tales in the Book of Leinster, called Oitte 4
(tragedies), is one, ‘‘ The Tragical Death of Curoi:” a more ancient ~
version of this curious tale will be found in the MS. Egerton, 88, British —
Museum. ‘‘The Adventures of Curoi,”’ is another historic tale in the 4
Book of Leinster. In Dr. O’Donovan’s Battle of Magh Rath is the 3
following passage (p. 139) :— E
‘‘Oh! Leth Mogha, who are wont to gain the victory,
Oppress the Ultonians with eagerness.
Remember Curi of the Spears, .
And the chiefs of the youths of the Hrnaans.”’
It is worthy of remark that the orthography of the name in the ~
above passage is the same as that on the stone at Glen Fais. I think ©
that there are strong presumptions in favour of this stone being the ~
monument of Curl, or Curoi Mac Dairé :-— a
* “Canta Conrt,” p. xvii.
389
First. The name on this monument.
Secondly. Its great size and evident importance, of showing that it
was erected to commemorate some distinguished personage.
Thirdly. The finding of this stone in close proximity to the reputed
palace, or Dun of Curoi Mac Dairé, who was king of the whole dis-
trict, and who was treacherously slain by Cuchulainn, in the very
locality.
Should we then conclude that the four last letters on the Glen Fais
Monument present to us the name of this provincial monarch and
warrior, the inscription will stand thus—
‘‘ This is the Warrior of Cueaff My grief, this is Curi.’’
An apparent difficulty arises from the presence of two proper names,
but this may be fairly accounted for by the fact that many of our
ancient celebrities bore more than one name, thus:—Nuadhat, king of
the Tuath Dé Dananns, was also called ‘‘ Airgetlamh,” or ‘‘ of the Silver
Hand.” Finn Mac Cumhaill, bore also the name of ‘‘ Mongan.”” The
monarch Con was surnamed ‘‘ Cead Cathach;’’ and the celebrated Niall
had also the name of Naoighiallach, “ or of the Nine Hostages.’’ Nume-
rous other examples will be found in our ancient MSS. of a similar
- nature, so that the apparent difficulty vanishes before the probability of
both the names in the inscription being applied to the same personage,
| though, as far as I have been able to ascertain, he is only known to us
by that of Curi or Curoi. In the Book of Leinster it is stated, that the
Lecht, or monument of Conri, is on Slieve Mis Mountain. The late
| Dr. O'Donovan (in Magh Rath) states that it is still to be seen on the
- north-east shoulder of the mountain (Caher Conri).
Dr. Rowan, in his paper, has referred at some length to the account
_ given by Keating, from the Book of Invasions, of the landing of the Scoti
or Clanna Miledh, at Inbher Sgeine, and has referred to the topography of
| the district, names of places, the pillar stones, and to the recent discovery
| ofa considerable number of cist-formed graves in Glen Fais, as to a certain
| extent confirmatory of the bardic accounts of that event.
While I fully agree with the reverend writer that the facts and circum-
| stances he has adduced are evidences that in this district some remark-
| able transactions occurred at a remote period, and that probably in this
| identical glen a battle may have been fought between an invading force
} and the then possessors of the soil. I am not disposed to accept the circum-
| stances attending the landing of the Scotiand their conquest of Ireland, as
set forth by Keating from the Book of Invasions, and other authorities.
While the main facts of the case are probably true as to the Scoti being
a people from the maritime coasts of Spain, their having landed in the
south-west of Kerry, and of their having become the dominant race in
our island, the details are entirely unworthy of credit. This will be
better understood by referring briefly to Keating’s narrative :—‘‘ Three
days after Heber and his followers were got on shore, they were attacked
1) by Eire, the wife of Mac Greine, one of the princesses of the country,
| at Sliabh-Mis, or the Mountain of Mis. This lady was attended by
\a strong body of men, and a desperate battle followed, in which
) many were destroyed on both sides. In this action Favs, the wife of
Ee ee Se ee eee A ee EOE EERE SSL OR SM RATT Beet NEN RETR EN Re NE ES a NO RC SNe RN IAS ST ie Oe ot
oS KAS POONA REE Soe La RO CREM GR FREER ARG NSP OAR AON TE CRUG GOES LATS PLR OB, TE GBP ATEN c EA SLOTS EIN RE ERR PORN OEY LEN POS CAEN A TR
yp le
et
i,
he
,
Key
5
ie
Seo
ae:
yaeche ne en ares
See eee
Fats
+
"hag
390
‘ Un Mae Vighe,’ was slain in a valley at the foot ofthe mountain, which
from her obtained the name of Glen-Fais, which signifies the valley of
ass”
The death of Fass is thus observed by an old poet :—
“The valley where the lovely Fais fell,
From her, as ancient Irish records tell,
Obtained the name Glen-Fais.”
‘‘Scota, the relict of King Milesius, was likewise slain in this en-
gagement, and was buried in another valley on the north side of Shabh
Mis, adjoining the sea. This valley, which was the place of her inter-
ment, was called Glen-Scothian, or the valley of Scota, as an old poet
testifies.
This;was the“first battle that was fought between the Milesians and
the Tuath-Dé-Dananns, for the empire of this island, as we are informed
by the same author.
‘“‘The persons that fell on the side of the Milesians in this action
were, the Princess’ Scota, and the Lady Fais; they likewise lost two
of their principal Druids, whose names were Uar and Zither, and there
was no more than three hundred of the Gadelian soldiers missing after
the fight; notwithstanding, they defeated the Tuath-Dé-Danans, and
slew a thousand of them.
“ Hire, the wife of Mac Greine, one of the princesses of the country,
with as many of her flying troops as she could keep together, retired to
Tailte. = The“Milesians continued on the field of battle burying their
dead, and celebrating the funeral rites of the two Druids with great so-
lemnty.”’
So far, Keating: the narrative which has been received as gospel
by many Irish antiquaries has absurdity on the face of it, and will not |
stand one moment the test of criticism. The country is represented as
having been at that time under the dominion of a people called Tuath
Dé Dananns, and who were governed by three kings reigning conjointly —_|
at Tailte, in Meath, and named Mac Cuil, Mac Ceacht, and Mac Greine;
they seem to have been lazy, cowardly fellows, for they remained at
home, and sent out their three wives, Fodhla, Eire, and Banbha, todo __
battle against the; invading Scoti. The invaders are represented as
landing at Inbher Sgeine, which is generally supposed to be the present —j) ;
bay of Kenmare, upon what evidence I am at a loss to conjecture, as |.
all the probabilities are against it. To believe Keating’s narrative, we |) ;
should imagine that the Tuath Dé Dananns must have had electric tele- |) ,
graphs and railroads radiating from the seat of their power at Tailte — |)
into the remote wilds of Dunkerron, or Corcaguiney; otherwise, how |;
could they, in“three davs after the landing of a hostile force, not only
have had intimation of the same, but actually an organized army, under |.
the command of the wife of one of the reigning kings, ready to confront __
them in battle, in this remote district ? Again, if the Scoti landed at |
the bay of Kenmare, what business had they in marching on Sliabh
Mis? Was not their natural and politic course to march eastward into |"
the rich, level, and fertile heart of the island, if indeed they felt them- —
selves equal to its conquest? Let us for a moment look at the geography ~ |
39
of the district ; take the map of Kerry and examine the country lying be-
tween the bay of Kenmare and the Sliabh Mis mountains, which run
south of Tralee into the remote barony of Corcaguiney, and we find
between these points an immense tract of the most rugged, mountain-
ous, and wild moorland country in the three kingdoms, comprising the
baronies of Iveragh and Dunkerron, with their mountain ranges, includ-
ing the Reeks, the highest mountain range in Ireland. To an invading
force, ignorant of the district, such a march was an impossibility.
Again, did they land at the south side of the bay, and making a detour
eastward, skirt round the Killarney mountains and lakes; and then
bending to the north-west, make a long and weary march through the
great bog district between Killarney and Tralee, could they have ac-
complished their march, and be in fighting order, within three days
after their landing? Again, what business had they making a long
and painful march into a wild and remote district, if their object was
the conquest of the island? As I have stated before, their natural course
was to march eastward into the centre of the country, and towards the
seat of government. Again, what object had the army of the Tuath Dé
Danans in marching to Sliabh Mis, when their intention was to en-
counter and cut short the progress of an enemy landing in the bay of
Kenmare? In the former place there was nothing to defend, no strate-
getic point to cover; on the contrary, such a proceeding would leave
all the passes into the rich and fertile provinces quite open and unpro-
tected. The natural course of the defenders of the country would be
to select some strong and defensible position covering the direct route
into the heart of the island, and there await the enemy’s approach. In
truth, the details of the narration are opposed to all probability, and to
the physical features of the distfict. But while I am disposed to reject
the details, I am by no means disposed to give up the broad facts upon
which they are founded. I accept the statement, that at some remote
period an emigrant colony from the maritime coasts of Spain, or north-
western Gaul, landed in the western district of Kerry, and who, under
the name of Scoti, or Gaedhelians, or Milesians, became the dominant
race in Ireland.
That in remote times such a migration was probable we must ad-
mit, if we look back at the history of Spain and Gaul, during the
Carthagenian and Roman occupations. We know that each of these domi-
nant states harassed and oppressed the natives, and where more likely
_ should thev flee for shelter but along the shores of Spain and Gaul, into
| these remote and then undisturbed islands? Such a migration will
» account for what has been deemed mythical in our early history, as
I firmly believe, the pedigree of the Scoti to be Cuthite, and the course
of their migration to be from Asia Minor, through Northern Africa,
_ into Spain, and from thence to Ireland.
| The Scoti, then, must have been a seafaring people, and consequently
| must have attained to a respectable civilization, in accordance with the
\ age: they could not have come to our island in any great numbers,
consequently they could not have effected its conquest in the quick
| and off-hand manner described in the Book of Invasions. That they
R. I, A. PROC.—VOL,. X. 3G
ane
392
landed at a place then known as Inbher Sgeine is very probable, and
that the names of their leaders, as Eibher, Eremon, Ir, Donn, Colpa,
Scota, and Fais, &c., are genuine historical ones, I have no doubt; for
however facts may be disguised, distorted, or invented, names of places
and individuals are generally preserved intact, and will hold their
ground through ages. I have long been of opinion that the Bay of
Kenmare was not the scene of the landing of the Scoti. I believe that
event took place in the Bay of Dingle. Accepting the statement in
Keating, that a battle was fought at Slabh Mis, three days after the
landing of the Scoti, it could only be true on the supposition that their
landing took place either in ‘the Bay of Dingle, or that of Tralee. If
we examine the map of the district, we find a long narrow peninsula,
the present barony of Corcaguiney, stretching out between the above-
named estuaries, and having a ridge of lofty mountains running through
the centre, from Tralee to Brandon Head. At the extremity, on the
north side, is the open Bay of Smerwick; on the south side, are the
harbours of Ventry, Dingle, and a small land-locked inlet, now dry at
low water, called ‘‘ Tra-beg,” or ‘the Little Strand,” upon the shore
of which lies the most remarkable Ogham monument we have. Dingle
is also a land-locked harbour, having a very narrow entrance, but of con-
siderable capacity inside. Now, the ocean current that runs round
the south-west shores runs into the Bay of Dingle, striking between
Dunmore Head and Ventry Harbour; these currents do not run into
Kenmare Bay. This is importantin estimating the chances of a fleet of
strange adventurers navigating, in their frail barks, seas to them little,
if at all known, and landing on our coasts. Jf it be admitted that our
shores were previously known to the invaders, they could not have
selected a more suitable locality for an infant colony. Here were safe
and sheltered harbours; a district remote from the centre of power and
population; asea teeming with fish, the mountains and woods with game;
a district naturally fortified by the sea, and by mighty mountains, at
whose feet were large tracts of fertile soil.
If, then, the Scoti landed at Ventry or Dingle harbours, they would
march along the base of the mountains through the lowlands skirting
the bay towards Castlemaine, and the first available pass through which
they could penetrate would be Glen Fais. In this pass a battle may
have been fought between them and the natives who inhabited the
great district of country lying between Tralee and the Shannon. ig
they had heard of the arrival of the strangers, and were bent on opposing
them, the passes of the Sliabh Mis mountains, which terminate at Glen
Fais, would be the natural points of defence; and, accordingly, we find
this mountain range handed down to us as the scene of their first battle,
and the two principal passes, Glen Fais and Glen Scothian, identified
with the names of two of the invading colony—Fais and Scota. In this
view of the case the difficulty as to time vanishes, as the distance be-
tween Ventry and the centre of the Sliabh Mis mountains is not more aq
than thirty-five miles, so that an invading force could have landed,
marched to that locality, and have fought a battle within three days—
a feat utterly impossible had they landed in the bay of Kenmare.
393
I am not, however, disposed to accept Keating’s narrative as to
time. I think our bardic writers have misrepresented the nature of the
Scotic invasion, which, I believe, came more in the capacity of a colony
seeking for a permanent settlement, than of an invading army bent on
conquest. According to the bardic annals, our island had seen at least
two dynasties—the Firbolgs, and the Tuath Dé Danans—who are re-
presented as having been engaged in a fierce conflict, ere the former
were subdued by the latter; therefore an invading force must have
been numerous and powerful to effect the subjugation of the country in
a short time. Now, the Scoti are stated to have come in thirty ships,
thirty men in each ship: this is a moderate computation, and a hkely
number to form a colony, but quite inadequate to conquer a kingdom,
more particularly when we find 390 out of the 900 killed in the first
battle, to say nothing of the wounded and missing. Again, the people,
likely to have invaded our island at that remote period were not hkely
to possess fleets capable of transporting an army equal to the sudden
subjugation of a country having a settled government, and large mili-
tary resources for a semi-civilized people.
We must therefore, in my opinion, conclude that the Scoti came as
quiet colonists, and selected this remote and favourable district as a
place where their infant state might mature unmolested. It is very
probable that they were superior in arms and civilization to the natives;
that, increasing in numbers, they pushed their way inland through the
counties of Kerry and Cork, occupying the southern and western districts
of Munster, and ultimately becoming the dominant race in Erinn. JI
should not be surprised if future investigations will sustain the view I
present of this subject. ‘That avery numerous archaic population oc-
cupied this remote barony at a period far back in our pre-historic annals
will appear to any person who visits the locality, and investigates its
antiquities, as I have done.
The aboriginal town of Fahan, with its stone-roofed huts, its cashels,
forts, and souterrains, the headland fortifications on almost every pro-
minent point, the cromlechs, stone circles, pillar stones, and raths, form
a collection of ancient remains, unequalled for number and importance
in any other district of our island. The late Mr. Richard Hitchcock,
who so thoroughly explored Corcaguiney, in a valuable and interesting
paper contributed to the ‘‘ Transactions of the Kilkenny Archeeological
Society” (vol. ii1., p. 136, 1852), thus enumerates them :—‘“ Eleven
| stone cahers, three carns, forty cealluraghs, or obsolete burial grounds,
where unbaptized children only are interred; . . . eighteen artificial
caves; . . . two hundred and eighteen cloghauns, or bee-hive shaped
stone houses; sixteen cromlechs; ... . three hundred and seventy-six
earthen forts or raths; one hundred and thirteen gallauns, or immense
rude standing stones, fifty-four monumental pillars, most of them bear-
ing Ogham inscriptions, and seventy-six holy wells.’ He further re-
} - marks:—‘‘I have made no mention in the above list of the stone
circles, so numerous in Corcaguiney. They are to be found inall parts
of the barony.”’ That even in Christian times this district was densely
populated, we have undeniable evidence. Mr. Hitchcock enumerates
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the following :—‘‘ Twenty-one churches in ruins, ten castles, twelve
large stone crosses, fifteen oratories, nine penitential stations, and
twenty-nine miscellaneous antiquities’ (iid. p. 137).
Dr. Smith, who published his ‘‘ Antient and Present State of the
County of Kerry,’ in 1754, alludes to the number of ecclesiastical
ruins as evidence of the existence of a much more numerous population
in remote times than existed in his day. He writes: ‘‘It contains no
less than twenty parishes, which shows that this barony was formerly
better inhabited than at present; each parish having had its respective
church, most of which were very large, as appears by their ruins”’
(p. 172). Again he remarks: ‘‘ In the southern division are also large
tracts of mountain, which have formerly been cultivated up to the top.
Several of them, which are but poor barren rocks, have great numbers
of old inclosures and marks of culture on their sides, which are now
neglected ; and this is a further circumstance that tends to prove that it
- hath been better peopled formerly than at present’’ (p. 173).
In a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy, Nov. 8th, 1867,
I hazarded a conjecture, that from the fact of the Ogham monuments
being principally localized in the counties of Kerry, Cork, and Water-
ford, and particularly along the sea-board of these districts, the proba-
bility is, that the character was brought into our island by a colonizing
people who landed on our south-western shores. Further investigation
has strengthened that opinion, and I am more than ever disposed to
award that honour to the Scoti, or Clanna Méledh, and not to the Tuath
Dé Dannans, to whom the writer in the Book of Ballymote attributes the
invention of these letters. It is fatal to the claims of the latter that
not a single inscription has been found in those localities looked upon
as the special seats of their power—not one on the celebrated field of
Magh-Tuireadh, where the Firbolgs are represented as receiving their
last and crowning defeat, which gave the sovereignty of the island to
‘‘the Mythic race.”
On the contrary, in the very spot assigned by tradition, and our
native annals, as the landing-place of the Scoti, they are sown broad-
cast, while they are also found along the line of their probable occupa-
tion.
This will appear in a very remarkable degree by an examination
of the accompanying map (Pl. XX VIII.), upon which I have coloured
the districts where Ogham monuments have been found. It will be
seen that they are clustered round the harbours of Ventry, Dingle,
and Smerwick; one on the outermost isle of the Blasquets, one on
Dunmore Head; they are found along the southern shores of the
barony—one in Glen Fais; they reappear about Castlemaine—and
Kilorglin, in the neighbourhood of the Killarney lakes, about Ken-
mare; there is then a considerable hiatus, when we find one at Bal-
lycrovane, near Castletown Berehaven, county of Cork; one at
Bantry; another hiatus, and we find them about Macroom, and Ban- .
don, and in considerable numbers at the north side of the Lee river
as far as Middleton; here again we have another gap, until they
re-appear on the other side of the Blackwater at Grange, Ardmore, |
399
and about Dungarvan, in the county of Waterford, and as far as
Stradbally, where we again lose them, to re-appear in one solitary
monument found at Hook Point, and again in another at Castletimon,
not far from Carnsore; while up the valley of the Suir we find them
at Crihinagh, Ballyquin, and Coolnamuck. Now it is also a singular
fact, that while we have not hitherto found any of those inscriptions
north of ‘‘ the Sacred Promontory,’”’* we find them exactly on the op-
posite shores of Wales, in the sea-coast counties of Cardigan, Pembroke,
and Glamorgan, and one near Brecknock; in the very districts seized
on and held for a considerable period by the Gaedhal, ere they were
driven out by the Cymry. Itis a remarkable and a suggestive fact,
that many of the inscribed stones of Wales present us with names in
Romano-British characters identical with names found on our Ogham
monuments in this country—a subject which I hope to illustrate on
some future occasion.
XXXIX.—On THE CavERN CALLED ‘“‘ Gitiiz’s Hore,” at KNockmore,
Co. Frrmanaco. By. W. F. Wakeman.
{Read April 12, 1869. ]
Some months ago I had the honor of laying before the Academy an
account of a remarkable cavern (usually styled the ‘‘ Lettered Cave)” of
| Knockmore, Co. Fermanagh. At that time I was not aware of the
| existence within the magnificent rock of Knockmore of a second in-
| scribed cavern, reference to which is now, for the first time, presented
| to the learned in antiquities. In the southern face of Knockmore, at
a considerable distance from the base of the cliff, and in a wild unfre-
| quented position very difficult of access, may be seen a small opening
about four feet in height, and roughly square in form, which, upon
| examination, proves to be the mouth ofa long narrow fissure or gal-
) lery, known in the immediate neighbourhood as ‘‘ Gillie’s Hole.” This
) name is of no great antiquity, dating only from the latter half of the
| last century, when the cave was for some time the abode of a hapless
| pair of lovers named “ Gillie,” or ‘‘ Gilleece,”” who, in consequence of
/an imprudent or objectionable marriage, had been discarded by their
‘respective families. For a little distance from its opening the cavern
}increases somewhat in height and width; it then gradually narrows,
-and terminates in a mere fissure, through which a small animal could
/scarcely pass. At the time of my visit, the sides, roof, and floor did
‘not present any appearance of damp or moisture, and indeed upon the
/whole, in a rude age, the cavern, as a place of abode, might very well
‘have supplied the requirements of a simple family. The walls, though
‘generally in a natural state, present at a few points appearances
‘which indicate that they had been worked by the hands of man; and
upon a tolerably smooth surface, to the right of the entrance, occur
|
* Carnsore Point.
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396
a number of carvings of a singularly interesting character, precisely
analogous to designs which are to be found upon monuments of an
undoubtedly pagan origin. In this instance, however, the carvings
are uniquely elaborated in a manner which will be better understood
by reference to the accompanying woodcut than by the aid of any
mere verbal description. The period of transition, from the pri-
mitive scoring which occurs upon the rock at Ryefield (disco-
vered and illustrated by the late Mr. G. V. Du Noyer), and upon ~
the walls of several of our early sepulchral monuments, to that style of —
art which culminated in the glories of the “‘ opus Hibernicum,’’ has not,
as far as lam aware, been ascertained. Indeed, the origin of our in-
terlaced patterns and scrolls usually described ‘Celtic’ is involved
in the deepest mystery. Whence the derivation of the style, as
well as the period when it was first introduced, are questions as yet
unanswered. From the extreme scarcity of existing examples, in
which an early style of stone or rock carving appears blended with or _
modified by work ofa later and perhaps Christian period a consideration
of a portion of the engravings at ‘‘Gillie’s Hole” will afford a subject of
high interest to the archeologist. In Fig. 1, sheet 1, of the illustrations,
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drawn one-third of the real size, will be recognized a design very com-
mon in carving usually referred to pagan times. It is simply a diagonal
cross enclosed within a quadrangle. The figure, however, is here
elaborated by the introduction of two lines running parallel to the
397
central cross, and so arranged as to form a symmetrical interlacing
design, or ribbon pattern. The arms of the cross are bisected by the
sides of a lozenge-shaped figure enclosed within the rectangle, the
whole presenting the appearance of an elegant knot. Fig. 2 in the
same group represents a primitive cross enclosed within a quadrangle,
and enriched with work of early Greek, or rather Etruscan design—a
style of ornament, however, which is sometimes found in connexion
) with monumental slabs of early Christian times. Almost touching
: these crosses are a number of crosslet scorings (Fig. 3) which at first
sight present in some degree the appearance of a species of oghamic
writing. A profusion of similar scorings may be observed upon the
Ballydorragh stone, first noticed by Mr. Du Noyer; and numerous
examples occur in the ‘‘ Lettered Cave” at Knockmore, and elsewhere.
Fig. 4, in the same sheet, represents a couple of lines, which, though
placed at some distance above them, may possibly be associated with the
group of crosslets already noticed. In sheet 2 will be found a third
eross enclosed within a quadrangle, and exhibiting the Etruscan style
of enrichment already described in Fig. 2, sheet 1. Immediately be-
neath occurs a four-lined figure, not unlike an early letter A, accom-
panied by a small, plain, primitive cross.
My aim at present is not to theorize, but simply to call the atten-
tion of the antiquaries of the Academy to the fact of the existence of
these very curious designs. J may say, however, that the occurrence
of an interwoven pattern in the so-called ‘Celtic’? style, in con-
_ nexion, and in absolute contact with the primitive cross usually
_ found upon monuments of undoubtedly prehistoric character, forces
the suggestion, either that our interlaced designs, in some cases at
| least, may be of much earlier date than that very usually assigned to
them, or that the pagan style of scoring or of symbolic writing, such
as we find exemplified at Dowth, Newgrange, Slieve-na-calliagh, and
elsewhere, was used in Ireland down to a period subsequent to the in-
| troduction of Christianity. In either case the ‘Celtic’? work at
_ “Gillie’s Hole’? may be regarded as perhaps the oldest example of true
interlacing pattern hitherto noticed in Ireland.
+ XL.—On tree Occurrencr oF Mammalian Bones, Brown Coat, anp
Pessies in Minerat Verns. By Wituam K. Sutrivan, Ph. D.,
Secretary of the R. I. Academy, and Professor of Chemistry in the
Catholic University of Ireland, and Royal College of Science.
[Read November 380, 1868. ]
‘Tuat the mineral matters filling up veins must be newer than the
\rocks containing them is self-evident; but how much newer they may
)be is a question which is very difficult to answer. Are the mineral
veins that occur in Silurian rocks, for instance, necessarily older than
those occurring in carboniferous rocks? or in other words, does the
|
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098
relative age of the containing rock also determine the relative age of the
mineral vein? So long as geologists believed mineral veins to have
been formed by sublimation from below, the answer to this question
must have been in the affirmative, for the deeper the fissures, the
nearer would be the source of the metallic sublimates. But when this
hypothesis was shown by the gradual progress of mineralogy, and a
more careful study of the question from a chemical point of view, to
be untenable; and that the greater number, at all events, of mineral
veins have been formed by precipitation from descending solutions,
there was no longer any necessary connexion between the relative age of
the containing rock and that of the vein. The fossils found in the rocks
afford satisfactory evidence in most cases of their relative ages, but until
within the last few years no fossils had been discovered in mineral
deposits. In many places we find pseudomorphites of several metallic
ores in the form of fossils; as at Wiesloch, in Baden, where we find
the limestone of the muschelkalk, which is one mass of shells, con-
verted into Smithsonite or zincic carbonate. Again, at Minsterappel, in
Rhenish Bavaria, cinnebar is found coating fish impressions of Amblyp-
terus, and in small crystals in the interior of Calamites. But the inter-
change between the caleic and zincic carbonates in the muschelkalk, and
the infiltration of the mercuric solution may have taken place at any
time since the deposition of the rocks in which the ores are found. These
cases then afford no satisfactory evidence of the recent formation of
mineral deposits in rocks of considerable geological age.
In a valuable paper on the Geology of Bolivia and Southern Peru,
read to the Geological Society of London, in November, 1860, Mr.
David Forbes mentions the occurrence of mammalian bones in the
Santa Rosa mine, belonging to the group of copper mines, known as
the Corocoro Mines. Professor Huxley, to whom Mr. Forbes sub-
mitted the portion of the bones which he succeeded in getting,
has shown that the animal belonged to the camel tribe, and was
closely related to the existing llama of the Andes. He named the
species Macrauchenia Boliviensis. The bones are in some instances
“‘almost converted into copper, or at least the pores are filled with that
metal.’”’ Fossil wood has also been found at a considerable depth at —
the same mine. The occurrence of a post-pleiocene fossil in a mine
in Permian rocks would settle the relative age of the mineral deposit if __
it occurred in the deposit itself. But at Santa Rosa this was not so.
In the Corocoro cuprifercus formation, as we learn from Mr. Forbes,
the ore occurs disseminated irregularly in certain beds of sandstone
which are of Permian age. The bones could not have occurred in these
beds. Mr. Forbes suggests that the animal had fallen into a fissure and
been subsequently covered up by the crumbling sandy debris of the
adjacent rocks which had gradually consolidated. Into this fissure —
cupric solutions would naturally be always flowing from the action of
water on the ores in the beds.
Interesting as this occurrence of bones undoubtedly is, it does not |
help us to determine the relative age of the metalin the sandstone,
Saye
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399
which, so far as this evidence goes, may have been deposited when the
rock was formed, or at any subsequent period.
In a paper by Mr. J. P. O'Reilly and myself, read to the Academy,
November 11th, 1861*, and in a subsequent memoir on the geology and
mineralogy of the Province of Santander, in the north of Spain, which
we published in the ‘ Atlantis’’}, and afterwards as a separate workf,
we gave an account of a remarkable fissure in the limestone in the
Valley of Udias, filled with hydrocarbonate of zinc, in which were im-
bedded numerous mammalian bones, and also teeth probably of Elephas
Primigenius. These fossils fix the relative age of all the great deposits
of hydrocarbonate of zinc in the Province of Santander. This is, there-
fore, the first instance in which the geological age of any ore has been
determined with certainty. The hydrocarbonate of zinc and carbonate
of lead are, however, secondary deposits derived from the decomposi-
tion of sulphides, whose age we are as yet unable to fix with perfect
certainty. Though in the case of the ores of Comillas—blende, galena,
and Smithsonite, or carbonate of zinc—the age of the hydrocarbonate
enables us to approximately fix that of the ores just mentioned.
In Angust, 1867; I had an opportunity of seeing another in-
stance of Mammalian bones imbedded in mineralized matter, of even
more importance than the Udias fossils, because they occurred in a
regular vein containing galena, in carboniferous limestone. The mine
where the specimens which I now exhibit were found is one of a
group of mines around Stolberg, in Rhenish Prussia, and known as
the Albertsgrube. The carboniferous limestone at this place, which is
not far from Hastenrath, forms a saddle, resting on Devonian sand-
stone. In this limestone five lodes are met with in the workings
at the Albert Mine. One of these, inits higher parts, consists of yellow
clay, more or less mixed with sand. Lower down calc spar in large
crystals, with imbedded crystals of galena, is associated with this clay.
Galena: also occurs in the clay in lumps, which are often one hundred
pounds weight. This galena is sometimes associated with a kind
of hard cale sinter, and some granular concretions of cerussite, or
plumbic carbonate, are found on the galena. The latter mineral is also
found by itself in the clay, under circumstances analogous to those
under which it occurs in the mines of Santander; it, however, gra-
dually disappears in depth.
In a part of this vein, and at a considerable depth, a thin band
| of what looks like the fine mud of very dense peat or brown coal,
| more or less mixed with fine sand, occurs. This band is generally only
a couple of inches thick; but the coaly substance is here and there
diffused through the clay and sand for some extent. Some of the calc
sinter in its neighbourhood looks like a soft black limestone, owing to
* “ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,” vol. viii., p. 9.
+ “ Atlantis,”’ vol. iv., p. 378.
t “Notes on the Geology and Mineralogy of the Spanish Provinces of Santander and
Madrid.” London, 1863, p. 66.
Rk. IT. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3H
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igo 3
eer an
Beek
400
the amount of the mud mixed up with it. Small stems of herbaceous
plants or grass are sometimes found through this sinter. Where the
sand predominates the black mass looks like the fine quartz sand and
peat mud which may be seen mingled in the bed of a mountain
stream. In some cases the sand is consolidated into a very friable sand-
stone-like mass. On a specimen of the latter exhibited to the Academy
are a number of cubical crystals of galena, the upper faces of which are
nearly one square centimetre in size. These crystals consist of thin
shells of galena filled up with the brown coal. The galena on the
surface of the cale sinter found in the neighbourhood of the brown coal
is also intimately mixed up with that substance. The formation of
crystals of galena around the brown coal proves beyond all doubt that
the deposition of this part of the galena was posterior to the brown
coal. The whole vein is clearly of very modern origin, and formed by
the filling in of a fissure by matters borne mechanically, as well as
in solution, by water into it. But what makes this perfectly certain is,
the occurrence of small pieces of wood in the brown coal band. One
of the proprietors of the mine, himself a practical miner, and who
obligingly conducted me during three or four hours through the work-
ings, showed me a piece of coniferous wood several inches long which
he found in it. The bits which I observed here and there were
extremely small. But more important still is the occurrence of Mam-
malian bones in it, of which I am fortunately able to exhibit a piece of
one to the Academy. This bone is quite black from the action of the car-
boniferous matter, and contains some lead, due, no doubt, to the water
containing lead in solution, and by which the vein was mineralized.
The quantity of lead is very small, however—there not having been the
same favourable conditions for effecting an interchange between the
lead and the calcium of the bone, as in the case of the bones con-
taining zincic phosphate from the Dolores cave in the valley of Udias
in Spain above alluded to.
Some time before my visit a good many bones had been found at —
the Albertsgrube; they were presented to the University of Bonn.
Herr von Dechen mentions this fact, as well as the occurrence of the
brown coal, in his ‘‘ Orographisch Geognostische Uebersicht des Regie-
rungs Bezirks Aachen,” which is a model of what a geological
account of a district, written for practical purposes, ought to be. He
there states that the bones belonged to asmall species of Hippopotamos.
I have not seen any other account of those important fossils.
Among the specimens from the same mine exhibited to the Aca-
demy are two others of considerable interest. One is a specimen
of stalactitic pyrites, which is as truly the result of deposition front 3
solution as any stalactite of a carbonate I have ever seen. The otheris —
a rolled chalk flint found in the yellow clay forming the principal ma-
trix or material of the lode. This chalk flint, and perhaps a gooddeal
of the clay, comes from the denudation of the cretaceous rocks to the |
north and west. It may be worth mentioning that there is a considerable |
deposit of soft brown coal to the eastward; others of the same kind |
401
may have also existed, which are now denuded. In connexion with the
occurrence of this chalk flint, I may notice an interesting lode at the
Brenessel Stockwerk, in the same district. The lode in question lies
at a considerable depth in dolomitic limestone, and consists—first, of a
band of blackish clay; then of a band of reddish clay, from one to
two feet thick, containing small pieces of galena and cerussite. The
blackish clay appears to be merely this clay mixed with brown coal or
dense peat mud, hke the substance found at Albertsgrube. On the
reddish clay les a layer of white quartz sand. This lode resembles in
many ways the dykes of clay and white sand, sometimes associated with
a band of hematite of considerable thickness, which are found in the
carboniferous limestone of Ireland. ‘There seems very little doubt that
the sand and clay were washed into a fissure in the same manner as the
brown coal, chalk, flint, and bones of the Albertsgrube.
The occurrence of pebbles, and other evidence of aqueous ac-
tion in veins, have not attracted the attention they ought, chiefly
because, on the one hand, the pebbles were found by practical
miners, who did not see their value, and next, because the sub-
limation theory so affected the views of geologists, that they
heeded not the evidence around them in every mine of aqueous
action. Among the specimens which are exhibited to the Aca-
demy is a rolled pebble, found at the depth of about forty metres
in the Dreikonigszug mine, on the Potzberg, near Kussel, in Rhe-
nish Bavaria. This mine, which is worked in a kind of sandstone,
permeated by cinnabar or mercuric sulphide, and yielding from 0-005 to
0-01 of mercury, has been carried down to a considerable depth. More
than forty years ago, when M. Brard visited it, it had attained a depth
of two hundred metres. The pebble is quartz, and is coated with
erystallized cinnabar, so that the mineral was formed after the pebble
had fallen, or been washed into the fissure in the sandstone.
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402
XLI—Caratocus or 103 Drawines or Coats or ARMS FROM ORIGINAL
SkercHes FRoM Tomsstones, &. By Grorcr V. Du Noynr, Ksa.,
M. R. I. A., District Surveyor, G.S.1., to form Vol. X. of ‘‘ An-
tiquarian Sketches,”’ presented by him to the Library of the Royal
[Owing to the sudden demise of Mr. Du Noyer the following Paper
has not had the advantage of his revision. |
Irish Academy.
[Read December 14, 1868. |
No. Name. Date. | Place. County.
iL Adair, 1698 | Antrim Churchyard, Antrim.
2 | Barnewall, ee. 1684 | Tremlestown Castle, Meath.
3 | Bellew and Birmingham, Rathmore Abbey, 5
4 | Bell,. 5 1734 Slane’s old Church, Down.
5 Blackey 5 1696 | Kilmallock Abbey, Tipperary.
1615
6 Bligh. hires ts ee | to | Rathmore Abbey, Meath.
1775 | 3
7-| Boyd, Desertmartin old Church,| Derry.
Saliambradyars : 1776 | Cavan old Church, Cavan.
9 | Brady (Elizabeth) 1585 Ardbrackan Church, Meath.
1618
LO Pa as GICCsa ue ae tag to Ballycarry old Church, | Antrim.
1636
Holy Ghost Hospital
i Browne (Margaret), . 1630 Gare Wee E “Al } Waterford.
=| 12 Ditto, alias Reilly. | 1777 | Delvin Churehyard, “Meath.
wees Franciscan Friar
13 | Butler (Galdrie), . to | Cl z ys } Tipperary.
YB onmel,
iG | eaCautields 7. aa) 1833 | Donaghenryold Church,; Tyrone.
i Aughadowne old
17 | (Chalmers; 7. 1760 {" ieee oh y Derry.
18 | Cheevers,?. Athlumney old Church, | Meath.
1756
OMG MOOLe, Cr asthe. ‘to Clones Churchyard, Cavan.
1826
20 | Collingwood, 1732 | Antrim Churchyard, Antrim.
21 | Colvill, 1697 | Newtownards Abbey, Down.
22 | Colvil, 1701 Ditto, 56
23 Cooper, : 1614 | Carrickfergus Church, Antrim.
24 | Cumuskey or Comerford, Crosserlough old Church,; Cavan.
25 | Cuppage, 1714 | Coleraine Churchyard, Derry.
26 |. Davis, 1766 | Cavan old Church, Cavan.
27 Delamar, Multifarnham Abbey, Westmeath.
29 Dillon, { Newtowntrim old Meath.
Church,
| 30 | Doddington, Coleraine Church, Derry.
| 31 | Evered, Donaghpatrick, Meath.
|
403
ee eS EE
Name.
Farrell, 4
Fielding (Susan), alias
Montgomery, .
Fitzgerald, :
Fleming,
Hox’,
Galt, .
Graham,
Gray, |.
Harte’ fargaret), alias
Brennis, .
Heyland,
Hore,
ELOUSEOM sc) ak css 5 3
Kilroy,
Lea and Walsh,
Mineola.
Longwood,
Lutwidge,
Lyndesay,
Ditto,
Martin, . .
Meares (Elizabeth),
alias Howard,
Montgomery,
Ditto,
Moore,
Ditto,
McCabe, A Pees
Ditto (Rose), alias
McGuire, aa
McGill, (?) .
Ditto and Dixon, .
McKenna, . :
McKieran, . .
Nickelson, alias Molloy,
Ogle, . ;
O’Dempsey, .
O’Neille, .
O’Quin, Fever
Oreilly
1D
O’Sullivan, ..
«(een
Patterson, alas Moore,
Perse;
Plunket and Golding,
Date. Place.
1799 | Moatfarrell old Church,
1793 Carmavey old Church,
1630 Kilmallock Abbey,
Rathmore Abbey,
1634 | Fox Hall old Church,
| Coleraine Churchyard,
Drumboe Churchyard,
1780 | Ballycarry,
i
|
|
Fedamore Church,
Raloo old Church, (?)
Holy Ghost Hospital ) |
Church, Waterford, } |
Ballyaghran old Ch urch,
Ballymachus Church-
yard,
Holy Ghost Hospital )
Church, Waterford, J
Holy Ghost Hospital |
Church, Waterford, i
Near Summerhill,
Athboy Churchyard,
Tullyhog old Church,
Loughery House,
Slanes old Church,
Tristernagh old Church,
Drumboy old Church,
Grey Abbey,
Larne, (?) old Church,
Desertmartin,
Ballintemple old Church,
Ditto,
Grey Abbey,
Ditto,
Danestown old Church,
Scrabby Churchyard,
Kellsve 7
Mulchan’s old ‘Church,
Kells Churchyard,
Holy Ghost Hospital
Church, Widaca |
Tullyneskin Church,
Scrabby Churchyard,
Inchamore Abbey, \
Lough Gouna,
Reisk old Church,
Clongill old Church, .
Ballygally old Church,
Tristernagh old Church,
Rathmore Abbey,
County.
Longford.
Antrim.
Tipperary.
Meath.
Longford.
Derry.
Down.
Antrim.
Limerick.
Antrim.
Waterford.
Antrim.
Cavan.
Waterford.
ve)
Meath.
9
Tyrone.
99
Down.
Westmeath.
Down.
99
Antrim.
Tyrone.
Cavan.
97
Down.
Meath.
Cavan.
Meath.
Westmeath.
Meath.
Waterford.
Tyrone.
Cavan.
99
Waterford.
Meath.
Antrim.
Longford.
Meath.
Pee ga ge Re Se
re ess ce Re Sih es eer
‘: ee en a a- SN tna
Bhs
an
>,
23
Besa
teete
No Name. Date. County.
68 Plunket and Dillon, 1581 | Clonabreany old Church,| Meath,
69 Ditto, and O’ Reilly, 1581 Ditto, i
70 Porter and Dowdall, . Ardmulchan, sai 5 Be
A Holy Ghost sa ;
71 | Port (Catherine), { Ghnren t waverord Waterford.
73 | Reilly, 1756 Ardmulchan old Church,| Meath.
74 | Ditto, : 1720 ae ey Gavin
77 | Ross ea: 5 1713 Coleraine, : ; Derry.
On| MeDIGtOM ye 5 1704 | Slanes old Church, Down.
79 Rowley, 167* | Coleraine Churchy ard, Derry.
81 Savage, 2 450-6 1752 | Portaferry, Down.
80 | Scohey, Desertmartin old Church, Tyrone.
Toll-house, Newtown-
82 | Shaw, ae \ Down.
; Prat oes
83 | Shee (Rose), . 1790 | Kilbarrymedan, Waterford.
84 | Sheridan, . 1822 Ballymachus, : Cavan.
85 Ditto, 1830 | Scrabby Churchyard, 43
: 3 Holy Ghost Hospital :
89 Skydi, 1641 \ Church, Waterford, Waterford.
90° | Ditto; 1625 Ditto. 55
86 | Smith, 1836 | Ballinagh old Church, Cavan.
87 Ditto, 1860 Crosserlough, or Kells, ss
88 | Ditto. 1741 Portaferry old Church, Down.
91] Stanley, 1733 | Wardstown old Church, | Meath.
92 Stewart, Coleraine, . Derry.
93 Ditto, Tullyhog “old Church, Tyrone.
94 Stirling, . Coleraine, Derry.
96 | Todd, alias Wilson, Desertmartin old Church, Tyrone.
97 Townley, ; 1699 |; Hey pie ne Cisan
oo | Walla gules WR, EOEO { Church, Waterford, Waterford.
99 Ditto and Lumbard, . 1570 Ditto, 3
100 SS aWibtes, Wine. 1641 Ditto, i
101] Wiety, Coleraine, . Derry.
102 | Woodside, Ballycarry old Church, Antrim.
103 j Ballycowan Castle, King’s County.
404
Place. |
Notzt.—In the Catalogue to the previous volume of coats of arms I
have described the shield from over the doorway of the old Castle of |
Ballygally, county Antrim, as the arms of Shaw and Burns?, with a
query after the latter name. I now find that the latter name should be
Bisset.—G. V. D.
l;
ahd.
5 12
405
DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREGOING 103 Coats or ARMs.
[ Zhe Mottoes as in Originals. |
Apatr. Three hands appaumée: crescent in honor point.
Crest, mailed arm and dagger embowed on wreath, over
helmet in profile; barred for baron or knight.
. Barnewatt. Party per pale: dexter side, in bordure en-
grailed, a field ermine; sinister side, three bars ermine.
Crest, a bird over helmet in profile; plain for esquire or
knight; motto, Hn bon esporr.
. BELLEW AND Brruincuam. Party per pale: dexter side, a
frette for Bellew; sinister side, in bordure bezanté, field
divided per pale indented, for Birmingham.
. Bztt. In bordure, party per fesse ermine, three bells—two
and one. Orest, eaglet (?) displayed on wreath over helmet
in profile, plain for esquire.
. Brackrny. Party per cheveron ermine, three lions’ faces, a
crescent in chief. Crest, hand and dagger on wreath over
helmet in profile; barred for baron or noble; motto,
Auxilium meum ad alto.
. Briew. Party per pale: dexter side, a dragon erect with
three crescents—two and one; sinister side, barrulée.
. Boyp. Party per fesse chequeée, four estoiles—two and two.
. Brapy. A hand appaumée rising from a cuff with estoile in
chief. Crest, acherubim over wreath on helmet in profile ;
plain for esquire; motto, Pretate et virtute.
. Brapy. Party per pale: dexter side, barry of five ermine;
sinister side, a hand appaumée rising from a frill or cuff.
. Brice. In bordure charged with a mullet, in dexter chief
(for cadency) a saltier: erect hand and dagger on wreath
over helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
Browne. An imperial eagle, or eagle with two heads, which
severally look to the dexter and sinister.
. Brown, alias Rettty. Party per pale: dexter side, per
bend, cotised wavey, charged with three lioncells passant
(for Brown); sinister side, two lions sinister rampant,
holding a hand appaumée (for Reilly). Crest, an im-
perial eagle on wreath over helmet.
Such would be the correct marshalling of these arms; but
the sculptor, wanting space on the bend for the three lion-
cells, extended this charge across the entire width of the
shield, thus leaving but one sinister chief for the emblazon-
ment of the lions. The device for the helmet is so con-
ventional that I have copied it accurately.
No. 18. Burren. Party per fesse indented: three covered cups; a
cross paté in nombril point.
Sele bg te gt epi Bg aD
vat. eres ted ret, % tm - ‘~,
Ee MP GeO SL SOF EN EO 4 il VB
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
. 15. M‘Cane, alias M‘Guire. Party per fesse: wavey three fish—
. 19. Cots. In bordure a lon rampant. Crest, a helmet in profile;
. 20. Cottinewoop. Party per chevron: three stags’ heads erased.
. 21. Corvity. Quarterly, first and fourth, a cross patée; second
. 24. Cumuskny or Commorrorp. Dexter side, a hand appaumée; —
. 25. Cuppace. Party per pale: dexter side, party per chevron =|
. 26. Davis. Per chevron, charged with three trefoils ; erect ‘4
406
14. M‘Casz. Party per cheveron: three battle-axes—two and
one. Crest, a hand and battle-axe on wreath over helmet
in profile; plain for esquire; motto, aut vincor aut mort.
two and one. Crest, demi-cockatrice on wreath over helmet
in profile, plain for esquire; motto, Aut vincor aut mort.
16. Cautrirtp.—Party per pale: dexter side, barry of nine,
argent and gules on a canlon a lion passant; sinister side,
quarterly, first and third; a lion passant on a field party
per pale engrailed ; second and third, crucilee, with a
chevron.
17. Cuatmers. On an escutcheon of pretence a demi-lion on a
wreath over a fleur-de-lis. Crest, a hirondelle; motto,
Spiro.
18. Cuurvers. (?) Party per pale: dexter side, party per che-
vron, three goats passant—two and one; sinister side
party per chevron, in chief two fleur-de-lis, in base
a lion rampant. Crest, a helmet in profile; plain for
esquire.
plain for esquire.
Crest, stag’s head erased on wreath.
and third, a fesse chequée. Crest, a horse’s head, charged _
with a cross patée on wreath: motto, In hoe signo vinces.
22. Cortvit. Same as before; but the shield charged with one
inescutcheon, or a chief engrailed.
23. Cooprr. Party per pale: dexter side, in chief, three anulets,
in base a crescent over three martlets—two and one; —
sinister side, party per bend engrailed, in chief an escalop. —
Crest, a lion’s head erased on spike over wreath on helmet
in profile; barred for baron or knight.
sinister side, a rose. Crest, a serpent coiled on wreath;
motto, God protect me. i
charged with three escalops; three trefoils—two and one;
sinister side quartered; first and fourth, a lion rampant; |
second and third, a fesse chequee. Crest, wolf’s (?) head |
erased on wreath on helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
dragon’s head erased over helmet in profile; plain for; |
esquire. Supporters; dexter, lion rampant; sinister, an |
angel carrying an escutcheon, charged with a lion’s face; |
motto, Lus tentala drechura.* he
* Thus given on the tombstone.
407
No. 27. Detamar. Party per fesse dancetty; three lions courant—
two and one. Orest, demi-lion on a wreath over helmet in
profile; barred for baron or noble.
No. 28. O’Dempsry. Party per fesse in chief; a lion rampant be-
tween two swords erect; on base an inescutcheon; in bor-
dure, party per fesse dancetty. Crest, an eagle (?) displayed
wreath. ;
No. 29. Ditton. A lion rampant erased by a fesse.
No. 30. Doppineron. Party per pale; dexter side, three bugle horns;
sinister, three swords piled from middle base.
No. 31. Evererp. Party per fesse; wavey three estoiles—two and
one. Crest, a pelican or swan on helmet in profile; barred
for baron or noble; motto, Virtus in actione constitit.
No. 32. Farrett. A lion rampant. Crest, a greyhound courant
over an Earl’s coronet ; motto, Coobred be derb.t
| No. 33. Fistpive, alias Montcomery. In bordure quarterly; first
and fourth, three fleur-de-lis; second and third, a fesse.
Crest, a figure of hope leaning on an anchor, and holding
in the left hand a decollated human head by the hair on a
wreath.
No. 34. Firzcrratp. A saltier charged with a erescent. Crest,
chained monkey over helmet.
The device for the helmet is so conventional that I give
a correct sketch of it.
No. 35. Fremine. Party per fesse; chequée and vert. “
No. 36. Fox. Party per pale; dexter side, a chief void; in base a ‘
sceptre in bend between two crest-coronets; sinister side, *
on a canton, a cross; barry of six ermine, or three bars ‘
ermine, with crescent in chief for cadency. Crest, a Rs
Winged sceptre on wreath. »
No. 37. Gatt. Three garbs—two and one. Crest, a Moor’s head on
wreath over helmet in profile; barred for baron or noble.
No. 38. M°Girtz. Three martlets, with a mullet in fesse. >
No. 89. M°Grrz anv Dixon. (?) Party per fesse; dexter side, in
bordure, three martlets—two and one; sinister side, semée e
| with stars. Crest, a phoenix enciendiée on wreath over .
helmet in profile; barred for baron or noble; motto, Sine ‘
fine. i
| No. 40. Granam. In bordure, quarterly; first and fourth, or, three 4
I escalops in chief; second and third, three cinque foils— :
two and one. Crest, a hawk killing a heron on a sovereign
| j S i
ian helmet affrontée bared, rising from a ducal coronet. »
| No. 41. Gray. In bordure, a chief charged with three roundels en- iS
closing a caltrop or triangle; in base, barry of three :
-
* Anglice, The rushing or tearing hound.
BR. 1. 4. PROC.—VOL, X. Sr
rsh
CPB Ea
No.
No.
No.
No.
. 42.
2 42.
. 44,
. 40.
. 46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
408
charged with six ermine spots—three, two, and one. Crest,
the sun in splendour erased by a unicorn passant over
Earl’s coronet; motto, Love strength.
Harte alias Brennis, Party per pale; dexter side, party
per bend; three fleur-de-lis—two and one; sinister side,
three doves paley, with olive branches. Crest, dexter side,
a tower on wreath, supporting a flaming heart; sinister
side, three lions’ faces paley ; motto, Loyal a mort.
Heytanp. Lion rampant, erased by a bend. Crest, horse’s
head on wreath ; motto, Hsse quam videre.
Horr. Party per bend cotized ; charged with three escalops,
Crest, a human head and neck on wreath over helmet in
profile; plain for esquire.
Houston. Party per chevron checquée, three martlets—
two and one. Crest, an hour-glass on a helmet in profile;
barred for baron or noble; motto, J have learned to die.
M°Kenna. In bordure, party per fesse, in chief, a grey-
hound pursuing a stag; in base, a Lymphad below two
crescents.
M°Kieran. In chief, two lions counter-rampant against a
tree in pale fructed; in base, three lioncells—two courant,
and the third, on the sinister side rampant. This arrange-
ment of the lioncells may be the fault of the carver, or
whoever thus utilized the space for the third lioncell;
motto, Virtute et industria.
Kitroy. A dagger in pale erect; motto, Virtus sola nobilitas.
Lea anp Wats. Party per pale; dexter side, a chevron ;
sinister, a chevron between three arrow heads—two and
one.
Lynpresay. In bordure, party per fesse chequée; in chief,
three mullets; in base, a crescent. This tombstone bears
the following inscription :—
** Here lyeth Robert Lyndesay of Tillo g (Tullyhog),
Esq., late chief Marberger (Harbinger) to King James.
Enobili Scotorum Lyndes ayorum familig
oriundus in Hibernia missus a rege jacobo
qui undem matre de Tillahog . ,
UDI O. eae ODIL Say
filiorum totidem qui fliar ex matre
jenet achesonia hune posuit 1616”
No. 51. Lynpesay anp M. R. (Name not given). Party per pale;
dexter side, the arms of Lyndesay; sinister side, party
per saltier ; a lizard in chief; in base, alymphad. Crest,
a swan on helmet in profile; plain for esquire; date,
1632. ,
These arms are built into the house at Loughroy, near
Cookstown.
No.
No.
No.
No.
52.
53.
2-6,
57.
58.
Se
. 60.
» 61.
409
Irycot. A lion rampant.
Lonewoop. Three martlets on an inescutcheon, barry of six
ermine and crusilée, cross patée, a chief void. Crest, a
pelican in piety on a crest coronet over helmet in profile;
plain for esquire; motto, Constans contraria spernit.
. Lurwiper. Three chapeaux—two and one. Crest, a lion
rampant on wreath over helmet in profile; plain for
esquire.
. Marrry. In bordure, party per pale; dexter side, a fesse
cotized; in base, a chevron; sinister side, a fesse cotized;
in chief, two dragons in pale. Crest, dragon’s head
erased on wreath.
Meares, alias Howarp. Party per pale; dexter side, a
lymphad, or ship in full sail; sinister side, a hon rampant
facing sinister. Crest, a mermaid with comb on wreath
over helmet in profile; barred for baron or noble.
Montgomery, Party per tierce; quarterly of six; first and
fifth, three fleur-de-lis—two and one; second and fourth,
three signet rings—two and one; third, three martlets in
fesse; sixth, a fesse void (?) or ermined. (?) Crest, hand
and dagger.
Monreomery. In bordure quarterly; first and fourth, three
fleur-de-lis; second and third, three roundells—two and
one (wrongly carved for signet rings). Crest, a figure
of hope with anchor, holding in left hand a decolated
human head by the hair on wreath.
Moorz. Party per fesse; charged with three mullets, two
garbs 1n chief: in base a garb at dexter, and a dove with
olive branch at sinister side. Crest, a Moor’s head on
wreath over helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
Moore. Three Moor’s heads—two and one. Crest, a Moor’s
head on wreath over helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
Nert O’Netiter, Bart. Party per pale; dexter side, in chief,
a hand appaumée; in fesse, a fish over six lines wavey for
water; sinister side, a cross fleuriée. Crest, hand and
dagger on wreath over helmet facing.
This tombslab bears the following inscription :—
‘‘ Here lyes the body of St Neal O’ Neille, Barronet, of Killi-
lag, in the County of Antrime, who dyed y® 8 of July, in
the year 1690, at the age of 32 years and 6 months. He
married the second daughter of the Lord Viscount Moly-
neux, of Sefton, in Lancashire, in England.”
No. 62. Nicxetson, alias Mottoy. Quarterly; first, three fleur-de-lis ;
second, three martlets—all two and one; third, lion ram-
pant; fourth, a greyhound passant. Crest, head of a
cockatrice or dragon erased, over helmet in profile; barred
for baron or knight.
410
No. 63. Octe. Party per bend, charged with a crescent ; three
crescents—two and one. Crest, a dog or wolf’s head over
wreath on helmet in profile; barred for baron or noble.
No. 64. Parne. Lion rampant. Crest, demi-dragon on helmet in ~
profile; barred for baron or noble; motto, Spem meum
No. 65. Parresson, alias Moorr. On chief indented, charged with
three mullets, a crescent; motto, Duris non frangere.
No. 66. Persz. On a fesse doubly cotized (or between two bar
gemelles) three lioncells passant. Crest, mailed hand and
arm embowed, holding a flag barry of piece on wreath over
helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
No. 67. Prunxer anp Goutpine. Party per pale; dexter side, a
bend, with tower in chief (for Plunket); three martlets—
two and one—in sinister side (for Goulding).
No. 68. Prunxer anp Ditton. Party per pale; dexter side, the Plunket
arms, the bend charged with an annulet for cadency ; sin-
ister side, lion rampant erased by a bend, with a mullet
over a crescent in the four chief points (for Dillon).
No. 69. Prunxet anp O’Reitty. Per pale; dexter side, Plunket
arms, same as No. 68; sinister side, two lions, counter-
rampant, holding a hand appaumée.
No. 70. Porter anp Dowpatt. Party per pale; dexter side, three
bells—two and one; sinister side, party per fesse; five
martlets—three and two, in fesse.
No. 71. Porte (Catuerine). Party per fesse; a stirrup, the chief per
pale; dexter side, ermine; sinister side, two stirrups in
pale.
No. 72. O’Quin. On a cartouche, in bordure, party per fesse; in
chief, two crescents in fesse; in base, an arrow head.
Crest, (?) lion’s face.
N o. 73. Retry. On a tree accrued in foliage, eradicated, a Teartoueae
chequée. Crest, mailed hand and arm embowed, with
dagger over helmet in profile; barred for baron or ‘noble;
motto, Portitudine et prudentia. :
No. 74. Rerztty. Two lions counter-rampant, holding a hand ap-
paumée. Crest, a serpent twining round a tree accrued in |
foliage, eradicated, on wreath over helmet in pion: plain —
for esquire.
No. 75. O’Rerrty. In pale a serpent twining round a tree accrued
in foliage, eradicated, two lions ann se rampant. Crest, a —
mailed hand and arm embowed with dagger on crest —
coronet; motto, Portitudine et prudentia. .
No. 76. O’Rertty. Impaled i in chief, a tree accrued in foliage, eradi-
cated, two lions counter-rampant over a greyhound pur- —
suing a hare; in base, a lion courant. Crest, mailed
hand and arm embowed with dagger on helmet in profile;
barred for baron or noble.
sehide
x78.
nd Oe:
. 80.
81.
1182.
. 83.
. 84.
. 85:
86,
Be Slike
OO
CHR
= 90.
2 SUE
411
Ross, alias Ross. Party per pale; dexter side, per chevron
chequeée, three water bougets—two and one; sinister side,
per fesse chequée, three roses or six foils—two and one.
Crest, a fleur-de-lis.
Ross. Party per pale; in bordure, dexter side, for Ross,
same as No. 77; sinister side, in chief, a heart; in base,
three cinque foils—two and one. Crest, hand and arm
embowed with dagger on wreath over helmet in profile;
plain for esquire; motto Defendere et vincere.
Rowxrey. Per bend cotized, charged with three crescents.
Crest, a wreath over helmet in profile; barred for baron
or noble.
Sconey. Dexter side, a cinque foil or rose slipped; sinister
side, a dove.
SavaGe. In bordure, six honcells—three and three. Crest,
a lion’s paw on crest coronet over helmet in profile; plain
for esquire; motto, Hrontis atque fidelis.
SHaw. ‘Three covered cups in fesse. Crest, a phoenix en-
ciendiée on wreath over helmet in profile; plain for
esquire.
SHEE (Rose). Party per pale; dexter side, quarterly,
charged with a Latin cross; first and fourth, three lioncells
rampant—two and one; second and third, three escalops—
two and one; sinister side, party per bend indented; a fleur-
de-lis in chief and base. Crest, head of St. Hubert’s stag,
with cross, cabossed, over wreath on helmet in profile;
barred for baron or noble; motto, Per cruce ad coronem.
SHERIDAN. A lion rampant between three quatre foils.
Crest, a stag lodged on a wreath; motto, Cervus lacessitas
leo.
SHerman. Lion rampant, holding a trefoil slipped. Crest
and motto same as No. 84.
Smite. In bordure, in chief, a naked hand and arm em-
bowed, holding a sword erect in pale; in base, two hands,
holding swords in pale erect. Crest, a baron’s coronet ;
motto, Tenebras expellet et hostes.
Smirn. Shield and crest same as No. 86; supporters, lions
rampant, guardant, collared, and chained.
Suir. Party per cross fleury, four peacocks.
Sxypr. Per chevron cotized, charged with a rowell, three
stirrups—two and one.
Sxipr. YVhree stirrups, with leathers attached—two and one;
a rowell in chief.
Stantey. Parte per pale; dexter side, a bend cotized, charged
with three wolves’ or dogs’ heads; sinister side, void.
Crest, a pelican in piety on wreath over helmet in profile ;
barred for barron or noble.
No.
412
92, Srewart. Quarterly; first and fourth, a lon rampant; se-
cond and third, a fesse chequée. Crest, a demi-lion holding
a cross-crosslet fitchée on wreath over helmet in profile;
plain for esquire.
. 98. Stewart. Per fesse checquée; three lioncells rampant—two
and one. Crest, lion’s head on wreath.
. 94, Srrrtine. Party per fesse; in sinister chief, a naked hand
and arm embowed, holding a dagger in pale; base, party
per bend engrailed. Crest, a lion passant on wreath.
. 95. O’Suttrvan. Party per fesse and pale; in chief, a serpent
coiling round a sword and hand; in pale, between two
lions counter-rampant, in dexter base, a sanglier; in
sinister, a stag at speed; motto, Modestia victrix.
. 96. Topp, alias Witson. Party per fesse cotized; three bleeding
hearts. Crest, hand and arm embowed, with double
dagger on wreath over helmet in profile; barred for baron
or noble; motto, An Dieu est mastance.
. 97. TowntEy. Quarterly; first and fourth, party per fesse, three
mullets in chief; second and third, party per fesse daucette,
six mullets—three and three. Crest, a bird, (raven ?), on
helmet in profile; plain for esquire.
. 98. WatsH anp Wise. In bordure, party per fesse; dexter side,
party per chevron, three arrow heads erect; sinister side,
chevronée of three.
. 99. WatsH anp Lumparp. Party per pale checquée; dexter side,
arms of Walsh same as No. 98; sinister side, imperial eagle
demediated.
. 100. Wuire. Party per chevron cotized, three roses—two and
one
. 101. Wiety. Party per chevron cotized checquée, three ines-
cutcheons void. Crest, demi-lion holding a tilting spear
erect on helmet in profile; barred for baron or noble.
. 102. WoopstpE. Party per pale; on dexter side, a tree accrued
in foliage, eradicated, between two crossed-crosslets fitchée ;
sinister side, three bows bent, in pale, strung, with one
arrow. Crest, a garb on wreath over helmet in profile;
barred for baron or noble; motto, Zn domino confido.
- 103. (Name unknown.) Party per pale; dexter side, three lion-
cells rampant—two and one; sinister side, a fleur-de-lis.
Double crest; dexter side, a demi-human figure, holding
an armlet erect, on wreath over helmet facing sinister;
sinister side, a dog chained on wreath over helmet facing
dexter; motto, By God of might I hold my right.
413
XLII.—Conrrisurions towarps A KNowLEepGE oF THE FLoRA oF THE
SEYCHELLES Istanps. By Professor E. Percrvat Wricut, M. D.,
F., ET: S.
[Read December 14, 1868.]
In this, after giving a slight sketch of the geographical position and
geological structure of the Scychelle group of islands, Dr. Wright alluded
to the different zones of vegetation to be met with on their mountain
sides, and then proceeded to describe in detail Wormia ferruginea (Bail.),
which was figured; and as new species, Gardenia anne and Nepenthes
Wardi; both species are figured ; and the latter is of very great inte-
rest, as the only Pitcher plant belonging to the genus Nepenthes as yet
met with out of the Asiatic continent and islands.
XLIII.— Bioerapuican Nortce oF THE LaTE GrorcEe V. Du Nove,
M.R.I.A. By M. Gaczs.
[Read January 11, 1869. ]
DeatH has just taken from amongst us a colleague commendable by
his many qualities of mind and heart—an exact geologist, a learned and
indefatigable antiquary—-George Victor Du Noyer.
He was born in Dublin in 1817. Of a family originally from Pro-
vence, where it occupied an honourable position, the union of southern
and Irish blood in his veins made of him a type of charming origi-
nality.
| He was educated at the well-known seminary of the late Mr. Jones,
in Great Denmark- street, and at an early age became a pupil of George
Petrie, from whom he acquired that exquisite taste for Art and deep-
felt love for everything relating to the archeology of Ireland which
distinguished him.
| When scarcely yet twenty years of age, he owed to the friendship
of his master—that large-hearted and generous man—the good fortune
of being associated as draughtsman in the labours of the Ordnance
Survey of Ireland.
Petrie infused into him a love for the ancient art of Ireland, of its
_ Christian monuments. The several men eminent in various branches
of Natural Science then associated in that great national work, the
_ Ordnance Survey, inspired him with a taste for the study of nature.
This double association of his youth made Du Noyer an eminently
original artist.
Attached afterwards to the Geological branch of the Survey, then
. directed by a distinguished man, the late General Portlock, who remained
ever afterwards his protector and his friend, he designed with great
ability the fossils and illustrative views which adorn the learned Re-
port on the Geology of the Counties of Londonderry, Tyrone, and Fer-
managh.
P| Sa ease
ie hee 7
414
The talent which he displayed in those different illustrations, and
his varied knowledge of natural history, led to his being permanently
employed on the Geological Survey of Ireland when again revived,
first under the local direction of Captain (now Sir Henry) James, in the
labours of which he took part up to the moment of his death.
Du Noyer was before everything an artist; his knowledge in exact
science only served to bring into the foreground, to place in better relief,
his artistic qualities. His educational tableaux, even the mere sketches
scattered here and there in the explananations of the published sheets
of the Geological Survey of Ireland, have that artistic effect which he
knew so well how to give to his productions of a higher art. His water-
colour drawings of objects of natural history, Irish roses, grains, birds,
&c., possess a charming truthfulness; but it is as a geological landscape
painter that his productions show so much of poetry and truth—his
brilliant colouring brightening, and giving, so to speak, life to his
pictures.
Du Noyer had the special peculiarity, that his artistic imspiration
kept company, was associated with his daily work —practical geology ;
and his pictures were, so to speak, the expression of his thoughts—a kind
of poetry which belonged to him. The charm and artistic merits of his
pencil might have been for him a source of profit; but, alas, questions
of money never occupy much the thoughts of men like him. This
may no doubt be a great fault; nevertheless, in spite of all our
utilitarian tendencies, we love yet to see the flower of the field
occupying a modest place in the midst of our corn fields, and con-
trast, by the vivacity, of its colour with the golden yellow of the well-
filled ear.
Asan archeologist, the name of Du Noyer will remain honourably as-
sociated with the labours of this Academy. His contributions, the nume-
rous sketches which he so spontaneously offered to the Academy, were
the fruits of his leisure moments during his geological wanderings.
There is not a ruin, not a stone, that he did not faithfully reproduce in
his album, fearing to see it disappear, and always with the disinte-
rested intention of increasing our archeological archives. This labour
of predilection, the result of that love for everything Irish which he
had acquired from his early associations with Petrie, he pursued with
zeal up to the moment of his death.
As a private man no one knew better than Du Noyer how to be
so simply happy. Seriously occupied with his daily work, that poetry
which animated him for the things of nature accompanied him to his
home. His life passed between his duties, art, and family. The
simplest and truest eulogium we could pass upon him would be to say,
that he always met his best friends among his fellow-labourers.
At his death he reckoned almost thirty-three years of active service,
part in the Ordnance Survey and part in the Irish branch of the Geolo-
logical Survey of the United Kingdom. Let us hope that his long and
faithful services and his merit, so well appreciated by this Academy,
may draw the benevolent attention of her Majesty’s Government to his
wife and children.
415
XLIV.—Contrisvtions to tHE History oF THE TEREBENES.—ONn Co1o-
PHONINE AND CotopHonic Hypratr. By CuHanrtes R. C. Ticnporne,
fC... MR. 2. A., &e.
[Read January 11, 1869.]
Tus paper contained a description of two substances discovered by the
_ author, and procured from the products of the destructive distillation of
| resin.
The paper will be found 7» exfenso in the ‘‘ Transactions”’ of the Aca-
| demy, vol. xxiv., Science.
|
Colophonic Hydrate is white, and perfectly odourless; it is very
soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and is but slightly soluble in cold
bisulphide of carbon; it crystallizes readily from water and alcohol in
_ beautiful acicular prisms, which sometimes attain a considerable magni-
tude.
Colophonic Hydrate has the following composition :—
CH 0° : H*0.
On submitting Colophonic Hydrate to a heat sufficient to fuse it, a
molecule of water is after some time dissociated with partial sublima-
tion of the hydrate, Colophonine remaining. It has the following com-
position :—
Cle H?22 O03.
Colophonine is probably isomeric with terpine hydrate, or is more
_ correctly a homologue of terpine. When it is treated with sulphuric
_ or any of the acids, it forms beautifully coloured products, which give
various shades of green, red, or blue. The alcoholic solutions give
| peculiar absorption spectra, which were figured in the above paper.
XLY.—BiocrapuicaL Noticr or Avaust SCHLEICHER.
By Dr. Lorrner.
[Read January 11, 1869.]
U
4
TuroveH the kind permission of your Council there has been accorded
to me the sad privilege of speaking to you a few words on the life and
labours of my illustrious countryman and fellow-philologist, August
Schleicher, whose untimely and sudden death is a severe blow to all
) students of the science of languages, and cannot but be a source of
sorrow for scholars throughout the civilized world. He was born in
1821; and he died on the 6th of December, 1868, scarcely more than
forty-seven years of age.
Itis but little more than a year since we had to deplore the death of
our great master, Franz Bopp, and already he has been followed by the
ean upon whom most of us looked as his intellectual, though not his
| R.I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3K
I
416
official successor. ‘‘ As the generations of leaves, even so are the gene-
rations of men.’ Sooner or later, they all perish in the storm of time.
But it is a different thing to have the sear leaves sinking before the
autumn winds, and quite another grief to see in midsummer the green
leaves unexpectedly broken down, still fresh and full of sap.
Franz Bopp died in good old age; he had lived to see the end of his
labours accomplished. On the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of
his first book he found himself surrounded by deputations from all parts
of the globe, and academies and monarchs vied with each other to crown
him with honours. He left behind him a countless crowd of loving and
admiring disciples all over Europe, in India, in America, many of them
already themselves in their turn masters, of admiring followers. The
little book with which he started in 1816 had expanded into a vast
system of comparative grammar. So he died taking with him the con-
sciousness of having accomplished his work.
August Schleicher, on the contrary, it will be seen in the progress
of this discourse, though he has done much, was yet called away before
the ideal of his youth had been realized, and the aspirations of his man-
hood fulfilled.
Schleicher was born in February or March, 1821 (my informants
differ on this point), at Meiningen, a town of Saxony, where his
father practised as a physician. Soon, however, the family changed
their abode, and came to live at Sonneberg, a neighbouring town.
Schleicher was educated at the High School of Coburg, and frequented
from 1840-43 the Universities of Tiibingen and Bonn, with the
avowed intention of studying theology. His chief teachers were first
Ewald, the great Orientalist, who instructed him in the Semitic lan-
guages, in Persian, and also in Sanskrit. This was at Tubingen. At Bonn,
Lassen, the great Indianist, and Ritschl, the eminent Latin scholar,
were his chief instructors. All these three men survive their great
disciple. It was at Bonn that Schleicher’s predilection for lnguistical
studies became so prominent that he gave up theology altogether for
them. He became “‘ privatim docens,”’ i.e. unpaid university teacher,
at Bonn in 1846, the subject of his lectures being, as a matter of course,
comparative philology. Even before this he had, in 1848, published,
at the early age of twenty-two, his first book—namely, the first part of
a work, called ‘‘ Researches contributory to the Science of Languages,”
of which more anon.
Fortune seems never to have smiled upon him, and he was put to
strange shifts to gain his livelihood. At one time he was even forced to
write correspondence for newspapers, chiefly I believe to the ‘‘ Cologne
Gazette’’—by no means in Germany an easy way of making money. | +
Having spent considerable time in France, Hungary, and Moravia, he | »,
returned to Bonn; but was soon called to Prague, as Professor of Sans-
krit and Comparative Grammar. But in the political agitations of those
times, he, being a German, speedily became the object of the national — |
animosity of the Bohemians. So it was quite a godsend to him that, in |)
1852, he was enabled to undertake, at the expense of the Vienna Aca- | i
417
demy, a journey to Lithuania, in order to study the language of that
country. He had, however, to return to Prague.
At last, in 1857, his high merits were so far recognized in his native
country as to procure him a place, as ‘‘ Professor Extraordinary,” of
Comparative Philology at the University of Jena, with the insignificant
salary of 1800 shillings a year, ultimately raised to 3000 shillings; yet
he refused several lucrative offers made to him from Russia, preferring
a difficult existence in his native land. But the Petersburgh Academy
created him one of their members, nevertheless. So he continued to lead
at Jena what, in a worldly point of view, seems to have been anything
but an envious life, till he was overtaken by the treacherous malady—
inflammation of the lungs—to which he fell a victim on December 6th
of last year, leaving a widow, with three children.
From this sketch of Schleicher’s outward existence, it is pretty clear
that he was not rich in the goods of this world. In compensation, he
was wondrously rich in the world of ideas, A scholar’s true life is, after
all, in his thoughts, and the true record of that life is in his books.
I now, with your kind permission, procced to say a little of Schlei-
cher’s more prominent scientific productions.
The earliest of them, as already observed, is the writing called
“« Researches contributory to the Science of Languages,” divided into two
parts, the first copy of which has, in German, the unmistakable title
of ‘‘ Beitrage zur vergl. Sprachgeschichte,” but it really treats of Zeta-
- cism: the second was published in 1848, with the title of ‘‘ Languages
of Europe.”
You will allow me to dwell for some time on this earliest literary
_ achievement of August Schleicher. He was very young at the time, only
twenty-seven years of age, when he wrote the second part; but if ever
proverb came true with regard to any man, the Latin proverb did in
respect to August Schleicher ‘‘ Ex ungue leonem.’’ The most cha-
racteristic features of Schleicher’s mind and Schleicher’s opinions are
already visible—distinctiy visible—in this his first work.
The writing on Zetacism treats of the changes which consonants
/ undergo through the influence of a y consoNANtT, a w, a V, or a slender
vowel following them, and treats of all this witha lucidity and complete-
_ness which makes you marvel how a young man of twenty-two could
possibly have such extensive information on nearly all the then known
languages.
The second part, published in 1848, of the ‘‘ Researches,” bears the
modest title, ‘‘ Languages of Europe.” It isin reality a sort of encyclo-
pedia of the science of languages, as far as such a thing was possible at
the time. The isolating languages (Chinese), the agglutinating lan-
»guages (Turkish, Mandshu, Finnish, Hungarian), the inflecting lan-
guages (our own Indo-Germanic, and the Semitic families), the incorpo-
rating languages (American, especially Delaware), and besides some
Caucasian tongues, all appear in their turn admirably sketched in such
a way as a clever painter gives in a few outlines the true character
| of the faces of his friends.
418
Next to Bopp’s’ Comparative Grammar, and Grimm’s German
Grammar, I know of no book from which I have learnt so much (I
mean MULTUM, not mutta) as from August Schleicher’s ‘‘ Languages of
Europe.”
As I said before, all that distinguishes Schleicher from other scho-
lars, and raises him above them, appears already in this book—accuracy
almost marvellous in the statement of facts—I never yet found a mis-
take of that kind in his books—width of view, clearness and elegance
of exposition, and withal, a genuine modesty, that shows he was not
seeking his own glory, but truth, and truth alone.
Besides, these ‘‘ Languages of Europe’ embody his youthful con-
ception of the ideal aim of his life, which he has never quite abandoned ;
for frequently he has announced to the world that his ultimate intention
was to write a history or encyclopedia of language at large, not confin-
ing himself to the Indo-European family. He has never given up
that idea. The paper inserted in the Memoirs of the St. Petersburgh
Academy (1859) on the Morphology of Language, and various others,
to be mentioned soon, showed that he kept that end steadily in view.
It seems, however, that no part of that encyclopedia, which would have
been a reproduction of the ‘‘ Languages of Europe’’ on a larger scale,
has been fully shaped for printing, and that the students of comparative
philology shall miss it for evermore.
Next we come to the work called ‘‘ Grammar of the Church Slavo-
nic,” in which Schleicher has given, for the use of comparative philo-
logy, a masterly exposition of the forms of words of ‘‘ Paloslavonic,”
published at Bonn in 1852.
Perhaps his chef-d’euvre is the ‘‘ Manual of the Lithuanian Lan-
guage,’ (Prague and Sonneberg, 1855-56), the result of his scientific
journey to Lithuania, supplemented by the work “Lithuanian Tales,
Proverbs, Riddles, and Songs” (Weimar, 1857). This latter is a trans-
lation, in part at least, of the Lithuanian, Anthology, which forms the
second part of the Lithuanian Manual.
Schleicher’s forte certainly lay in that direction : than his Lithuanian
grammar a better one of any language can scarcely be conceived, and
the anthology attached to it is full of delightful and instructive
matter, tales, and songs SIMPLE AND IMPRESSIVE.
It is no wonder that a language possessed of excellent, |sweet,
and simple poetry engrossed the attention of August Schleicher. He
never gave up its study entirely. One of his last publications was an
edition of the poems of the only great poet Lithuania has produced,
namely, Christian Donalaitis. It appeared at St. Petersburgh in
1865. Donalaitis’ works I have never seen; but August Schleicher is
positive that his chief poem, called ‘‘The Seasons,” bears comparison
with the English work of the same title, and with Calidasa’s poem
of the Seasons; and as Schleicher was a man of exquisite taste, we
are bound to believe him.
419
Whilst diving into the secrets of Slavonian and Lithuanian literature,
August Schleicher never forgot his native land and his native lan-
guage, and remained fondly attached to his own native town.
In 1858 he published, at Weimar, a book about the language, tra-
ditions, manners, and customs (Volksthiimliches) of Sonneberg, the
small Saxon town in which he spent his early youth. This was fol-
lowed, in 1860, by a book called ‘‘ The German Language”’ (Stuttgart),
a short scientific narrative of the origin, and exposition of the structure
of the present literary language of Germany—his native tongue and my
own—next to Grimm’s Grammar, the most scholarly book on the
subject, indeed in some respects surpassing Grimm.
The last great work (in the estimation of the learned world his
greatest achievement) is the ‘‘ Compendium of the Comparative Philo-
logy of the Indo-Germanic Languages”’ (first edition, Werner, 1861-62).
The second edition appeared in 1866, and obtained in the next year
from the French Academy the Volney Prize—no mean honour. As a
supplement, or rather as a second part to this, Schleicher published his
‘‘TIndo-Germanic Anthology,” a collection of texts, taken from the
Sanskrit, Zend, old Slavonic, Lithuanian, old Latin, Oscan, Umbrian,
Gothic, and old Irish, with notes, transcriptions, and glossaries,
partly done by himself, partly by friends of his. This was his
last. Professor Kuhn informs me that a grammar of the Polab lan-
guage, a Slavonic dialect near the Elbe, is ready for printing, as also
a book on the comparison of the declension of the Slavonian languages.
Schleicher contemplated, according to a statement of M. Bréal, a com-
parative grammar of the Slavonic languages in general; but he said
it would take him ten years more to accomplish it. His greatest
and noblest promise—the history of language in general—remains un-
fulfilled. What a noble achievement it would have been we may con-
clude from the specimens given—‘‘ The Languages of Europe,”’ the
paper on ‘‘ Morphology,” quoted above, and the short but significant
writing, published in 1863 (Weimar), on ‘‘ The Darwinian theory as
applicable to the Science of Languages,”’ in which he tries to show that
by a process of ‘‘ natural selection” the languages of the nobler races
supersede, and have superseded, those of inferior nations.
Another paper, ‘‘ On the Importance of Language for the Sciences of
Anthropology and Ethnology,’ Weimar, 1865, is unknown to me;
but the title, coupled with the knowledge we have of Schleicher’s
views in general, is sufficient to show that in it a wide vista must
have been opened on the primeval history of our species.
Besides these Schleicher contributed many essays to various journals,
chiefly Kuhn’s Zeitschrift fir vergleich. Sprachforschung and the Bei-
trage zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung, of the latter of which he was
co-editor with Prof. Kuhn.
August Schleicher has paid, as might have been expected, due at-
tention to Celtic matters—in fact, next to Pictet, Bopp, Zeuss, Ebel,
and Gliick, he must be considered as having done most for the due
oo Wir NS
aa
sf
420
appreciation of Old Irish on the Continent. There is, however, no
separate writing on Celtic, but various papers in periodicals, and some
chapters in the Compendium.
Connected with this part of his studies is a feature which will show
to you in what unselfish spirit he pursued his researches. He had started
a theory, if [am not mistaken, before Zeuss’ work appeared, that there is
a more intimate connexion between the Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin than
between other Indo-European languages, and that there had existed
what he called an Aryopelasgan nation, continuing together as one,
after Celts, Slavonians, Germans, &c., had separated from the original
stock.
I myself, some time after showed cause, guided or at least encou-
raged by Mr. W. Stokes, why we should believe that there is rather a
most intimate connexion between the Latin and the Celtic, and that
they are nearer to each other than any other two branches of the
Indo-Germanie family.
Schleicher, after some hesitation, has frankly adopted this theory in
the last edition of his Compendium—no slight thing to do for a mature
scholar in favour of a young man, whom he might easily crush by the
weight of his authority ; but this shows the uprightness of the man, and
at the same time the interest he took in everything Celtic. In this latter
point of view, may I remark that he has a special right to have his me-
mory honoured by you, and kept fresh and green in the hearts and
minds of Irishmen ?
I cannot part from such a man without some attempt at trying to
pourtray his individuality. I did not know him personally; my rela-
tions with him have been exclusively scientific, and, as I have already
observed, August Schleicher has shown himself to me most courteous.
As he acted towards me, the younger man, so he did towards those
of his own age. After having refused the Russian professorship, offered
to himself, he recommended to it a man who had been his scientific ad-
versary, perhaps even his personal enemy.
Of his patriotism I have given proof before. Attached to Germany,
attached to his native duchy, he seems to have been equally attached
to his family. Sentimentality was not in his nature—indeed, it would
be difficult to give vent to sentiment in philological writings. Never-
theless, every now and then a few words escaped unawares from his
pen, which clearly show that the accomplished scholar was also a true
man.
In the Preface to the ‘‘ Lithuanian Anthology” he informs his
readers that, after having collected the various pieces composing the
volume, he wrote out the signification of the words occurring in iton
paper slips, ‘‘ which my wife put into alphabetical order’””—perhaps not
a very exalted task, but yet showing that refined womanly sympathy
accompanied August Schleicher through his severe labours.
August Schleicher retained throughout his life his respect for me-
taphysical studies, and his veneration for his great master, Hegel,
421
whom it is ltterly the fashion in Germany to scorn and scoff at. Me-
taphysical knowledge is not common amongst the members of the
reigning school of German philologists. August Schleicher forms an
honourable exception.
Schleicher was very fond of music, and himself a skilful performer ;
he also had a passion for flowers, which he cultivated in his garden, on,
says Professor Kuhn, ‘‘ strictly scientific principles’”—altogether a man
of harmonious nature.
It would be wrong, even in the depths of our grief, to think
that such a loss is irretrievable: scientific movements do not depend
upon any one individual; they depend on their own intrinsic truth,
that will never fail to find hands to work. Daily and hourly the
number of workers in the field of comparative philology is increasing ;
yet, many a day and many a year will pass before German philo-
logers will have again in their ranks one like him—learned and clear,
deep and elegant, bold and cautious—a distinguished scholar, and a
noble man.
XLVI.—Tue Goppess oF WAR OF THE ANCIENT [RISH.
By W. M. Hennessy.
[Read January 25, 1869. ]
Tue discovery of a Gallo-Roman inscription, figured in the ‘“‘ Revue
Savoisienne”’ of the 15th of August, 1867, and republished by M. Adolphe
Pictet in the ‘‘ Revue Archeologique” for July, forms the subject of
one of those essays from the pen of the veteran philologist for which
the students of Celtic languages and archeology cannot be sufficiently
thankful.
The inscription, the initial letter of which has been destroyed by an
injury to the stone on which it is cut, reads—
Athubodvae
Aug
Servilia Teren
tia
S. I. M.; or, fully extended,
Athubodve Augluste| Servilia Terentia [votum] s[olvit] l{rbens |
m| errto |.
M. Pictet’s essay is entitled ‘(Sur une Déesse Gauloise de la
guerre ;’ and if he is right in his suggestion that the letter destroyed
was ac, and it almost amounts to a certainty that he is, and that athu-
bodve should be read cathubodve, the title is not inappropriate ; and in
the cathubodve of the inscription we may recognise the badb-catha of
Irish mythology.
The etymology of the name athubodua, or cathubodua, as we may
venture to read it, has been examined with great industry by M. Pictet,
who has managed to compress within the narrow limits of his essay a
ea =) ¥ ee ay Vetere ots
PA ne EE era ET rR We Wai eee
422
great mass of illustrative facts and evidences drawn from all the sources
accessible to him. The first member of the name (cathu, gen. of cath,
1.e. pugna) presents but little difficulty to a Celtic scholar like M.
Pictet, who would, however, prefer finding it written catu, without
aspiration, as more nearly approaching the rigid orthography of Gaulish
names, in which it is very frequently found as the first element; but
the second member, bodua, although entering largely into the composition
of names amongst all the nations of Celtic origin, from the Danube to
the islands of Ara, is confessedly capable of explanation only through |
the medium of the Irish, with its corresponding forms of bodb or badb,
aspirated bodhbh, badhbh (pron. bov, or bav), originally signifying rage,
fury, or violence, and ultimatately implying a witch, fairy, or goddess,
represented by the bird known as the scarecrow, scald-crow, or royston-
crow, not the raven, as M. Pictet seems to think.
As regards the etymology of the name Bads, the following evidences
may be added to the notices already furnished by M. Pictet.
Badb was the name of the horse of Mac Luighdech, one of the com-
panions of Finn Mac Cumhaill.—Agallamh. ‘‘ Book of Lismore.”
“* Selais Conall in claideb aithger rarlebur assa entig bodba.” “‘ Conall
draws the sharp long sword out of its terrible scabbard.”—‘‘ Book of
Leinster,’’ fol. 142, b. 1. ;
“Co rocherddainse mo buraig feirge ocus mo thigardail mbodba for
na sluagab.”’ ‘*That I might discharge my paroxysm of rage, and my
fierce onslaught on the hosts.”,—J0.
‘* Badb-slat ;’ “scion of Badb,”’ or warrior.—Pet. Zara, fol. 165,
89:
‘“« Lan-badba ;” *‘* full-fierce.”’—‘ Book of Rights,”’ p. 4.
The etymology of the name being sufficiently examined, M. Pictet
proceeds to illustrate the character of the Badb, and her position in
Irish fairy mythology, by the help of a few brief and scarcely intelli-
gible references from printed books, the only materials accessible to
him; but finds himself unable to complete his task, ‘“‘for want of
sufficient details,” as he complainingly observes more than once. The
printed references, not one of which has escaped M. Pictet’s industry,
are no doubt few; but the ancient tracts, romances, and battle pieces
preserved in our Irish MSS. teem with details respecting this Badb-
catha and her so-called sisters, Neman, Macha, and Morrigan, or, more
correctly, Morrigu, who are generally depicted as furies, witches, or
sorceresses, able to confound whole armies, even in the assumed form of
a royston-crow.
Popular tradition also bears testimony to the former widespread
belief in the magical powers of Badb. In most parts of Ireland the
royston-crow, or fennog liath na gragarnaith (‘‘the chattering grey
fennog’’), as she is called by the Irish-speaking people, is regarded at
the present day with feelings of mingled dislike and curiosity by the
peasantry, who remember the many tales of depredation and slaughter
in which the cunning bird is represented as exercising a sinister in-
fluence.
423
They will not rob the nest of this bird. Some people attribute this
to the belief that such an act would surely be revenged by a raid on the
chickens ; but those who are well versed in folk-lore, especially in the
South of Ireland, confess that the immunity enjoyed by the scare-crow
is due to some other cause than fear for the safety of young chickens;
and although few persons are to be met with capable of defining the
actual reason, there is little doubt that the freedom from molestation is
traceable to superstitious fear inspired by the Badd in ancient times.
The croaking of the Badb was considered to be peculiarly unlucky—
much more so than the croaking of araven. In fact, not many years
ago, sturdy men who heard the scare-crow shriek in the morning would
abandon important projects long fixed for the same day.
Nor is this superstition confined to Ireland alone. The popular
tales of Scotland and Wales, which are simply the echo of similar
stories once current, and still not quite extinct, in this country, contain
frequent allusions to this mystic bird. The readers of the Mabinogion
will call to mind, amongst other instances, the wonderful crow of
Owain, prince of Rheged, a contemporary of Arthur, mentioned in the
tale called the Dream of Rhonabwy, which always secured victory by the
aid of the three hundred crows under its command; and in Campbell’s
Popular Tales of the West Highlands we have a large stock of legends,
in most of which the principal fairy agency is exercised by the hoody
or scare-crow.
It may be observed, by the way, that the name hoody, formerly
applied by the Scotch to the hooded crow, or scare-crow, from its appear-
ance, is now generally applied to its less intelligent relative, the com-
mon carrion-crow. But the hoody of Highland fairy mythology is,
nevertheless, the same as the Badd, or royston-crow.
Thave referred to Neman, Macha, and Morrigu, as the so-called sisters
of the Badd. Properly speaking, however, the name Badd would seem to
have been the distinctive title of the mythological beings supposed to rule
over battle and carnage. M. Pictet feels a difficulty in deciding whether
there were three such beings, or whether Neman, Macha, and Mor-
rigu, are only different names of the same goddess; but after careful
examination of the subject, I am inclined to believe that these names
represent three different characters, the attributes of Neman being like
those of Eros, who confounded her victims with madness, whilst Ior-
rigu incited to deeds of valour, or planned strife and battle, and Macha
revelled amidst the bodies of the slain.
The task of elucidating the mythological character of these fairy
queens has not been rendered easier by the labours of the etymologists,
from Cormac to O’Davoran.. Thus, in Cormac’s Glossary, Nemann is
said to have been the wife of Neit, ‘‘ the god of battle with the pagan
Gacidhel.”’ In the battle of Magh-Rath (O’Donovan’s ed., p. 241)
she is called Be nith-gubhach Neid, ‘‘ the battle-terrific Be-Newd,” or
‘‘ wife of Ned.” In an Irish MS. in Trin. Coll. Dublin, class H. 3, 18,
p. 78, col. 1, Neit is explained ‘‘ guim duwine .i. gavsced; dia catha.
R. I. A, PROC.— VOL, X. 31
LES VS RS
424
Nemon a ben, ut est Be Neid ;’’ i.e. ‘‘man-wounding; valour; god of
battle. Nemon [was] his wife; ut est Be eid.” A poem in the Book
of Leinster, fol. 6, a 2, couples Badb and Nemann as the wives of Nerd
or Nevt.
Neit mac Indui sa di mnaa,
Badb ocus Nemaind cen got,
Ro marbtha in Arliuch cen ail,
La Neptwir @ Fhomorchaibh.
‘¢Neit son of Indu, and his two wives,
Badb and Nemann, truly,
Were slain in Ailech, without blemish,
By Neptur of the Fomorians.”
At folio 5, a 2, of the same MS., Fea and Nemann are said to have
been WVevt’s two wives; and if Mea represents Badb, we have a good
notion of the idea entertained of her character, for Cormac states that
Fea meant ‘‘ everything most hateful.’’
But in the poem on Aztech printed from the Dinnsenchus, in the
‘‘ Ordnance Memoir of Templemore” (p. 226), Wemand only is men-
tioned as the wife of Net, from whom Adlech was called Ailech-Neit ;
and it is added that she was brought from Bregia, or Meath; in other
words, probably, was one of the fairies of the Brugh.
In other authorities, however, Morrigu is said to have been JVeit’s
wife. For instance, in the very ancient tale called Zochmare Emhire,
or Courtship of Emir, fragments of which are preserved in Lebar na
hUidhre, and the Book of Fermoy, Morrigu is described as ‘‘ an badb
catha, ocus vs fria idberiur Bee Nerd, i. e. bandea in cathae, war 1s nan
Ned ocus dia catha;” i.e. “the badb of battle; and of her is said
Be Neid, i. e. goddess of battle, for Neid is the same as god of battle.”
A gloss in the Lebar Buidhe Lecain explains Macha as ‘‘ badb, no ast
an tres Morrigan; mesrad mache, .i. cende doine var na nairlech ;” 1. e.
‘a scald-crow; or she is the third Mor-rigan (great queen); Macha’s
mast-feeding, i. e. the heads of men that have been slaughtered.” The
same explanation, a little amplified, is also given in the MS. H. 3, 18,
Trin. Coll., Dublin (p. 82, col. 2), where the name Badb is written
Bodb, and it is added that Bodb, Macha and Morrigan were the three
Morrigna. In the same glossary, under the word beneit, we have the
further explanation :—‘‘ Vert nomen viri, Vemhon a ben; ba neimnech
in lanomium; be ben i.e. in badhbh, ocus net cath; ocus olca diblinuib ; inde
dicitur benert fort ;’? 1.e. “ Neit nomen viri; Nemhon was his woman
(wife) ; venomous were the pair; de was the woman, i.e. the badhbh,
and net is battle; and both were evil; inde dicitur benect fort (‘ evil
upon thee’).”’ Another gloss in the same collection, on the word
gudomain, bears on the subject under consideration. It is as follows :—
Gudomain, 1. fennoga no bansigaidhe; ut est glaidhomuin goa, 1. na |
demuin goacha, na morrigna ; no go conach demain iat na bansigarde, go
connach demain iffrinn vat acht demain aeoir na fendoga; no eamnat
Ee
4295
anglaedha no sinnaigh, ocus eamnait angotha na fendoga, i.e. ‘‘ gudomain,
l.e. scald-crows, or fairy women; ut est gladhomuin goa, the false ©
demons, the mor-rigna; or itis false that the bansigaidhe are not demons;
itis false that the fendoga (scald-crows) are not hellish but aéry demons:
the foxes double their cries, but the fenndga double their sounds.’”? To
understand this curious gloss it is necessary to add that in a previous
one the word glacdomwin is explained as signifying sinnadg, or mate tire
(foxes or wolves), because in barking they double the sound ; glaidomuin
being understood by the glossarist as glad-emain, i.e. ‘‘double call,”
from glad, ‘‘call,’’ and;emain, ‘‘double ;”’ while the crow only doubles
the sound, guth-emain, ‘‘ double sound.”
Let us take leave of these etymological quibbles, and examine the
historical character of the badb, as pourtrayed in the materials still re-
maining to us.
As mostly all the supernatural beings alluded to in Irish fairy lore
are referred to the Tuatha-de-Danaans, the older copies of the Lebar
Gabhala, or “ Book of Occupation,” that preserved in the ‘‘ Book of Lein-
ster,” for instance, specifies Badb, Macha, and Anand, or Ana (from the
latter of whom are named the mountains called da cich Anand, or the
Paps, in Kerry), as the daughters of Ernmas, one of the chiefs of that
mythical colony. Badb ocus Macha ocus Anand, diatat cicht Anand i-
Luachur, tri ingena Ernbats, na ban tuathige ; ** Badb, and Macha, and
Anand, from whom the ‘ paps of Anand’ in Luachair are [ called ], the
three daughters of Ernbas, the sinister women.”* In an accompanying
versification of the same statement the name of Ana, however, is repre-
sented by that of Morrigu or Morrigan :—
“« Badb is Macha mét indbais
Morrigan fotla felbais,
Indlema ind aga ernbars,
Ingena ana Ernnais.’’ +
“* Badb and Macha, rich the store,.
Morrigan who dispenses valour,
Compassers of death by the sword,
Noble daughters of Hrnmas.”
It is important to observe that Morrigan is here identified with
Anand, or Ana (for Anand is the gen. form) ; and in Cormac’s Glossary
Ana is described as ‘‘ Mater deorum Hibernensium; robu maith din
roshiathadsi na dee (de cujus nomine da cich Anainne var Luachair
nominantur ut fertur ;” i. e., “Mater deorum Hibernensium ;’’ well she
used to nourish the gods (de cujus nomine the ‘ two paps of Ana? in
west Luachair are named.”) Under the word Buanand the statement
is more briefly repeated. The historian Keating enumerates Badd,
* “ Book of Leinster,” ful. 5, a 2.. 7 Ubssstoles on b 2.
RS re URES CRE SON eS
426
Macha, and Morrigan as the three goddesses of the Tuatha-de-Da-
naans; but he is silent as to their attributes. It would seem, however,
that he understood Badb to be the proper name of one fairy, and not a
title for the great fairy queens.
In the Irish tales of war and battle, the Badd is always represented
as foreshadowing, by its cries, the extent of the carnage about to take
place on the death of some eminent personage. Thus in the ancient
battle-story, called Bruidhen Da Choga, the impending death of Cormac
Condloinges, the son of Conor Mac Nessa, is foretold in these words :-—
“« Badb belderg gairfid fon tech ;
Bo collain bet co sirtech.”’
‘* The red-mouthed badd will cry around the house,
For bodies it will be solicitous.”’
And again—
“« Grecfaidit badba bane.”
“¢ Pale badbs shall shriek.’’
And further on we read—
“ Ardosisbe badb bronach + marbthana imchit mbruige Macha no in
Dagda.”
In the very ancient tale called Zochmare Feirbe, or the “‘ Courtship
of Ferb,’’ a large fragment of which is preserved in the ‘* Book of Lein-
ster,”? the Druid Ollgaeth, prophesying the death of Mani, the son
of Queen Medbh, through the treachery of King Conor Mac Nessa,
says—
? “« Brisfid badb,
Bid brig borb
Tolg for Medb,
Llar écht
Ar for sliuag
Trivag in delim.
‘¢ Badb will break ;
Fierce power will be
Hurled at Medbh;
Many deeds
Slaughter upon the host—
Alas ! the uproar.”
‘‘ Book of Leinster,” fol. 189 b 1.
In the account of the battle of Cnucha (or Castleknock, near
Dublin), celebrated as the battle in which the father of Finn Mac Cumh-
aill is said to have perished, the Druid Cunallis, foretelling the
slaughter, says:—‘‘ Bradh badhba os bruinnibh na bfear.” ‘ Badbhs
will be over the breasts of the men.”
427
In the description of the battle of Magh-Tuiredh, it is stated that
| just as the great conflict was about to begin, the ‘‘ dadbds, and dled-
lochtana, and idiots shouted so that they were heard in clefts, and in
cascades, and in the cavities of the earth;” ‘‘70 gairsed badba ocus bled-
lochtana ocus amaite, go clos anallaib, ocus a nesarb, ocus a fothollaid in
talman.”’
MS. Trin. Coll. Dublin, H, 2, 17, fol. 97, a.
In the battle of Magh-Rath it is the ‘‘grey-haired Morrigu”’
(scald-crow) that shouts victory over the head of Domhnall, son of Ain-
mire, as Dubhdiadh sings (O’ Donovan’s ed., p. 198) :—
“ Ful os a chind ag ergmigh
Caillech lom, luath ag leemnig ;
Os cennarb a narm sa seiath,
Ls 1 in Morrigu monghath.”
“‘ Over his head is shrieking
A lean hag, quickly hopping
Over the points of their weapons and shields—
She is the grey-haired Morrigu.”’
But in the enumeration of the birds and demons that assembled to
gloat over the slaughter about to ensue from the clash of the combatants
_ at the battle of Clontarf, the badd is assigned the first place. The de-
| scription is truly terrible, and affords a painful picture of the popular su-
perstition of the time. ‘‘Ho erzg, em, badb discir, dian, denmnetach, dasacht-
ach, dur, duabsech, detcengtach, cruad, croda, cosaitech, co bat te screchad
_ ar luamain os a cennaib. fo etrgetar am bananarg ocus boccanaig ocus
geliti glinnt ocus amati adgaill, ocus siabra, ocus seneoin, ocus demna
| admilti aeoir ocus firmaminti, ocus siabarsluag debil demnach, co mbatar
a comgresacht ocus 4 commorad aig ocus wrgaili leo.”
‘There arose a wild, impetuous, precipitate, mad, inexorable,
furious, dark, lacerating, merciless, combative, contentious badb, which
was shrieking and fluttering over their heads. And there arose also
the satyrs, and sprites, and the maniacs of the valley, and the witches,
and goblins, and owls, and destroying demons of the air and firmament,
_ and the demoniac phantom host: and they were inciting and sustaining
| yalour and battle with them.’”’—‘ Cogadh Gaidhel re Gallaibh,” Todd’s
ed., p. 174.
So also in the account of the battle fought between the men of
Leinster and Ossory, in the year 870, contained in the Brussels
“ Fragments of Irish Annals,” the appearance of the badb is followed
_ by a great massacre:—‘‘ As mér tra an towrm ocus an fothrom baoi eturra
an uair sin, ocus ra togaibh badbh cenn eturra, ocus baci marbhadh mor
eturra san cdn;’’ i.e. ‘‘ great indeed was the din and tumult that pre-
vailed between them at this time, and badbh appeared among them, and
there was a great massacre between them to and fro.”’
428
But the Badbs could do more than scream and flutter. Thus we
read in the first battle of Magh-Tuiredh, that when the Tuatha-de-
Danaan had removed to the fastnesses of Connacht, to Slabh-Belga-
dain, or Cenn-Duibh-Slebhe, Badb, Macha, and Morrigu exerted their
magical powers to keep the Firbolgs in ignorance of the westward
movement. The text is from H. 2.17, T.C.D., p. 98, col. 2. ‘Zs
annsin do chuaidh Badhbh ocus Macha ocus Morrighu gu cnoe gabala na
ngiall, ocus gu tulacg techtairechta na trom sluag, gu Temrarg, ocus do fe-
radar cetha dolfe draigechta, ocus cithnela cotaigecha crach, ocus frasa
tromaidble tened, ocus dortad donnfala do shiltin asin aeor i cennaib na
curad, ocus nir legset scarad na scailed do feraib Bolg co cenn tri la
ocus tri nadche.” ‘* Then, Badb, and Macha, and Morrigu went to the
hill of hostage-taking, the tulach which heavy hosts frequented, to
Temhair (Tara), and they shed druidically-formed showers, and fog-
sustaining cloud-showers, and poured down from the air, about the heads
of the warriors, enormous masses of fire, and streams of red blood; and
they did not permit the Firbolgs to scatter or separate for the space of
three days and three nights.” It is stated, however, that the Firbolg
druids ultimately overcame the sorcery.
We are not told in what form they fulfilled their mission, whether
in the shape of women or under the guise of crows—most probably the
latter. The comparative mythologist will find here a curious correspon-
dence between some of the attributes of the Celtic badb and those of the
Valkyria of German Romance. .
And in the battle of Magh-Tuiredh they are represented as assist-
ing the Tuatha-de-Danaans. Thus, in the account of one day’s conflict
we read—‘‘ Js 1ad taisig ro ergedar re Tuathaib de Danaan isin lo sin 4.
Ogma ocus Midir ocus Bodb derg ocus Dianchecht, ocus Aengaba na hir-
uaithe. Rachmaitne lib, ar na ingena 0. Badb ocus Macha, ocus Morigan
ocus Danaan ;” 1. e. ‘“‘ The chieftains who assisted the Tutha-de-Danaans
on that day were Ogma, and Midir, and Bodb Derg, and Diancecht, and
Aengabha of Norway. ‘We will go with you,’ said the daughters,
viz., Badb, and Macha, and Morrigan, and Danaan (or Anann).” H. 2.
Lie peo, cols2:
Lilia lira Helena ta as
—s ese Ke CO Kali
—_ —r —-
=>. SS <
oe —
—
——
They are also reported as having taken part in the last battle of ’ a
Magh-Tuiredh, 1. e. the battle of the Northern Magh-Tuiredh, or Magh-
Tuiredh of the Fomorians, where Nuada of the Silver Hand, and the
Badb Macha, are stated to have fallen by the hand of Balar Bailcbem-
nech, or Balar the Stout-striking.
“‘Nuade Argatlam tra do rochur « cath dedenach Maighe Tuiredh,
ocus Macha ingen Ernmais, do lam Balair balebemnig.”—*“ Book of Lein-
ster,” fol. 5, a 2.
Another instance of the warlike prowess of these fairies is related in i
a curious mythological tract preserved in the Books of Lismore and S ao
Fermoy. I refer to the Hallow-eve dialogue between the fairy Roth- | fi
niab and Finghen Mac Luchta, in which the fairy enumerates the . | :
several mystical virtues attaching to that pagan festival, and amongst |"
others the following, referring to an incident arising from the battle of |
429
the Northern Magh-Tuiredh, or “ Magh-Tuiredh of the Fomorians.”’
* Ocus cidh buadh aile for Fingen. Ni ansam, for in ben. Ata ann
cethrar atrullaiset ria Tuathaib de Danann a cath Muigi tuiredh, cor-
rabatar oc coll etha ocus blechta ocus messa ocus murthorad, .1. fer di ba
slemnarth Margi [tha i. Redg aainmside ; fer dib a sléib Sméil 2. Grenu a
anmsidé; fer ale a ndromanaid Breg 1. Bréa a ainm; fer aile dib hi
erichaib Cruachna .t. Tinel a ainmsidé. Indocht rosruithéa a hErinn i.
im Morrigan ecus Badb side Femin, ocus Midir Brig leith, ocus Mac ind
6¢, cona beth foglai Fomoir for hErinn cu brath.”
‘¢« And what other virtue?’ asked Finghen. ‘Not difficult to tell,’
said the woman. There were four persons who fled before the Tuatha-
de-Danaans from the battle of Magh-Tuiredh, so that they were ruining
corn, and milk, and fruit crops, and sea produce; viz., one of them
in Slemna-Maighe-Itha, whose name was Redg ; one of them in Sliabh-
Smoil, whose name was Grenu; another man of them in Dromanna-
Bregh, whose name was Bréa; and another of them in the territories of
Cruachan, whose name was Tinel. This night [1.e. on a similar night]
they were expelled from Eriu by the Morrigan, and the Badd of
Sidh-Femhin, and by Midir of Brigh-leith, and Mac-ind-oig, so that
Fomorian depredators should never more be over Eriu.’’—* Book of
Fermoy,” 24, b 2.
In the grand old Irish epic of the Tain Bo Cuailnge the Badd plays
| a very important part. MVemand confounds armies, so that friendly
bands fall in mutual slaughter; whilst Macha is pictured as a fury
that riots and revels among the slain. But certainly the grandest figure
is that of Morrigan, whose presence intensifies the hero, nerves his arm
for the cast, and guides the course of the unerring lance. As in this epic
the first place in valour and prowess is given to Cuchullain, the Hector
_ of the Gaeidhel, it is natural to expect that he should be represented as
_ the special favourite of the supernatural powers. And soit is: we are
told that the Tuatha-de-Danaan endowed him with great attributes. In
that passage of the Tain where Cuchullain is described as jumping into
his chariot to proceed to fight Firdia Mac Demain, the narrative says
_ (“ Book of Leinster,” fol. 57, b 2)—‘‘ ra gairestar imme boccanatg, ocus
bananarg, ocus gents glinnt, ocus Demna aeoir, dag da bertis Tuatha
de Danann a ngasciud immisium combad moti a grain, ocus a ecla, ocus
auruad, ocus a uriaman in cach cath ocus in cach cathror, in cach comlund
_ocus in cach comruc 1 teaged ;’”’ *‘ the satyrs, and sprites, and maniacs of the
valleys, and demons of the air shouted about him, for the Tuatha-de-
_Danaan were wont to impart their valour to him in order that he might
be more feared, more dreaded, more savage, more terrible, in every battle,
/ in every battle-field, in every combat and conflict into which he went.”
So, when the forces of Queen Medbh arrive at Magh-Tregha, in the
present county of Longford, on the way to Cuailnge, Nemand appears
amongst them. ‘' Dosfobair tra ind Nemain .t. in badb lasodain, ocus nip-
sisin adarg bd samam dorb la budris in fatharg .1. Dubtharg, triana chotlud.
_foscerdat inna buidne focedorr, ocus focherd dirna mor dint slogh conlud
Medbh dia chose.” ‘‘ Then the Nemann, i.e. the Badb, attacked them,
ae.)
430
and that was not the most comfortable night with them, from the
uproar of the giant, 1.e. Dubtach, through his sleep. The bands were
immediately startled, and the army confounded, until Medbh went to
check the confusion.””—Lebar na hUidhre, fol. 46, a. 1.
And in another passage, in the episode called Breslech Maighe Mumr-
themhne, where a terrible description is given of Cuchullain’s fury at
seeing the hostile armies of the south and west encamped within the
borders of Uladh, we are told (‘‘ Book of Leinster,” fol. 54, a 2, and
b 1):—
“ Atchonnaire seom uad gristactnem na narm nglan orda os chind
chetri noll choiced nErend refuiniud nell na nona. Do fainig ferg ocus
luinnt mor icanaiscin re ilar a bidbad, re immad a namad. Rogab a da
shleig, ocus a sciath, ocus a chlaideb. Crothais a sciath, ocus cressaigis a
shlega, ocus bertnaigis a chlaidem, ocus do bert rem curad as a bragit coro-
recratar bananaig ocus boccanatg, ocus geniti glinni, ocus demna aeowr, re
uathgrain na gare dosbervatar ar ard, co ro mesc ind Neamain, .t. in
badb forsint slog. Dollotar in armgrith cethre choiced hErend im rennaib
a sleg ocus a narm fadessin, conerbaltatar ced laech dib d uathbas ocus chri-
demnas ar lar in dunaid ocus in longphowrt in natdchisin.”
‘¢ He saw from him the ardent sparkling of the bright golden wea-
pons over the heads of the four great provinces of Eriu, before the fall
of the cloud of evening. Great fury and indignation seized him on
seeing them, at the number of his opponents and the multitude of his
enemies. He seized his two spears, and his shield and his sword. He
shook his shield, balanced his spears, and brandished his sword, and
uttered from his throat a warrior’s shout, so that sprites, and satyrs,
and maniacs of the valley, and demons of the air responded, terror-
stricken by the shout which he had raised on high. And the Nemann, i.e.
the Badb, confused the army; and the four provinces of Eriu dashed
themselves against the points of their own spears and weapons, so that
one hundred warriors died of fear and trembling in the middle of the
fort and encampment that night.”’
Of the effects of this fear inspired by the Badb was the geltacht or
lunacy, which, according to the popular notion, affected the body
no less than the mind, and, in fact, made them so light that they flew
through the air like birds. A curious illustration of this idea is af-
forded by the history of Suibhne, son of Colman Cuar, king of Dal-
Araidhe, who became panic-stricken at the battle of Magh-Rath, and
performed extraordinary feats of agility. Another remarkable instance
will be found in the Fenian Romance called Cath-Finntragha (battle
of Ventry Harbour), where Bolcan, a king of France, is stated to have
been seized with geltacht at the sight of Oscur, son of Oisin, so that he —
jumped into the air, alighting in the beautiful valley called Glenn-na-
ngealt (or ‘“‘the glen of the Lunatics’), twenty miles to the east of
Ventry Harbour, whither, in the opinion of the past generation, all |
the lunatics of the country would go, if unrestrained, to feed on the |
cure-imparting herbs that grow there.
431
Again, in the battle of Almha (or the Hill of Allen, near Kildare),
fought in the year 722, between Murchadh, king of Leinster, and
Ferghal, monarch of Hriu, where ‘the red-mouthed, sharp-beaked
badb croaked over the head of Ferghal” (“‘ro lao badb belderg biorach
colach um cenn Fergaile”’), we are told that nine persons became thus
affected. The Four Masters (4. p. 718) represent them as “ fleeing
in panic and lunacy” (do lotar hi faindeal ocus ¢ ngealtacht). Other
annalists describe them in similar terms. Mageoghegan, in his trans-
lation of the “* Annals of Clonmacnoise,” says ‘‘ they flyed in the air as
if they were winged fowle.’’ O’Donovan (in notes to the entries in his
edition of the Four Masters, and Fragments of Annals) charges Mageo-
ghegan with misrepresenting the popular idea; but Mageoghegan repre-
sented it correctly.
A further statement in the same battle of Ventry Harbour furnishes
additional evidence as to the currency of this notion. The writer asserts
that all wondered how those who saw the landing of the invaders’
army, and heard their shouts, could avoid going with the wind and with
geltacht (lunacy).
In the Chron. Scotorum the panic-stricken at the battle of Allen
are called ‘‘ volatiles,” or gealta. May we not seek, in this vulgar
notion, the origin of the word “‘ flighty,’’ as applied to persons of eccen-
tric mind?
But although, as we have seen, the assistance given to Cuchullain
by the Weman was both frequent and important, the intervention
of Morrigan in his behalf is more constant. Nay, he appears tobe the
object of her special care. She is represented as meeting him some-
times in the form of a woman, but generally in the shape of a bird—
most probably acrow. Although apparently his tutelary goddess, the
Morrigan seems to have been made the instrument, through the decree
of a cruel fate, of his premature death. The way was thus:—
In the hills of Cuailnge, near the Fews Mountains, dwelt a
famous bull, called the Donn Cuailnge (or Brown [bull] of Cuailnge),
a beast so huge that thrice fifty youths disported themselves on his
back together. A certain fairy, living in the cave of Cruachan, in
the county of Roscommon, had a cow, which she bestowed on her
mortal husband Nera, and which the J/orrigan carried off to the great
Donn Cuailnge, and the calf that issued from this intimacy was fated to
be the cause of the Tain bo Cuailnge. The event is told in the tale
called Tain Be Aingen, one of the prefatory stories to the great epic,
which speaks thus of the Morrzgan. ‘‘ Berid in Morrigan iarum boin a
mic sium cen bart seom ina cotlad, condarodart in Donn Cuailgne tar +
Cuailgne. Do thaet cona boin doridise anair. Nostaertend Cucullain +
Mag Murthemne oc tuiecht tairis, ar ba do dea Conculaind ce teit ban
as a thir manib urdatre les. ‘
Da tharthe Cucullain in Morrigan cona ns Gor, ocus nsbere. ni ber thar im
mimerce, ol Cuchullain,’’ i.e. ‘‘The Morrigan afterwards carried off his
[ Nera’s] son’s cow whilst he was asleep, so that the Donn Cuailnge
Pee PROC. Olu. X. 3M
Te aha Sey DA ee
BAAN SICA A
os
-
ES
oR
\ 4
a,
casi
ae
/
432
consorted with her in the east in Cuailnge. She went westwards again
with the cow. Cuchallain met them in Magh Muirthemhne traversing 1t ;
for it was of Cuchullain’s gesa that even a woman should leave his
territory. unless: he:wisheds2 3 70302. 32 Sie. ea eee
Cuchullain overtook the orrigan, and he said, ‘The cow shall not
be carried off.’ But the Worrigan, whom Cuchullain probably did not
recognise in the form of a woman, succeeds in restoring the cow to her
owner.
All the while, however, Morrigan seems to watch over the interests
of the Ultonians. Thus when, after the death of Lethan at the hands
of Cuchullain, Medbh endeavoured, by a rapid and bold movement, to
surround and take possession of the Donn Cuailgne, we find Morrigan,
or Morrigu, acquainting the Donn Cuailgne with the danger of his
position, and advising him to retire into the impenetrable fastnesses of
the Fews—
‘“ Ts he in la cetna tanic in Dond Cuailnge co erich Margin, ocus covca
samseisce immi; ts e in ia cetna tanic in Morrigu, ingen Ernmais a sidaib
[cn deilb euin | combor for in chorthit Temair Chualnge rc brith rabucd don
Dund Chualnge ria fercib hErend, ocus rogab ac a acallaim, ocus marth,
a thruaig, a duind Cuailnge ar in Morrigu, deni fatchius darg ardotroset
fir hErenn, ocus not berat dochum a longphotrt mani dena faitchius ; ocus
ro gab wc breith rabuid do samlaid, ocus dosbert na briathra sa ar aird.”
‘It was on that very day the Donn Cuailnge came to Crich- Margin, and
fifty heifers about him. It was the same day Morrigu, the daughter of
Ernmas, from the Sidhe, came [ in the form of a bird—Lebor na h Uidhre |,
and perched on the pillar stone in Temair of Cuailnge, giving notice to
the Donn Cuailnge before the men of Eriu; and she proceeded to speak
to him, and said, ‘ Well, thou poor thing, thou Donn Cuailnge; take
care, for the men of Eriu are approaching thee, and they will take thee
to their fortress if thou dost not watch.’ And she went on warning
him in this wise, and uttered these words aloud.” . . . . [Here
follows a short poem to the same effect]. ‘‘ Book of Leinster,” fol. 50,
al.
Immediately after the foregoing incident, the narrative, as preserved
in Lebor na hUidhre, represents Cuchullain and Morrigan as playing at
cross purposes. I have suggested that Cuchullain did not appear to
recognise the JZorrigan when he met her in the form of a woman
in the scene quoted from the Tain Be Aingen. He seems similarly
ignorant of her identity on other occasions, when she is said to have
presented herself before him in female shape. Let us take, for example,
the episode entitled ‘‘ Imacallaim na MMorigna fri Coincullain”—
‘‘ Dialogue of the Morrigan with Cuchullain,” which precedes his fight | ;
with Loch, son of Ernonis.
“* Conacca Cu in nocben chuci conetuch cach datha impe, ocus delb ro
derscaigthe fuirrr. Ce tarsiu or Cu. Ingen Buain ind rig, or si; do
deochadh cuchutsa; rotcharus ar thawrscelaib, ocus tucus mo seotu lim,
ocus mo indili. Ni marth, em, ind inbudd tonnanac, nach is ole ar mblath
438
omm gortt. Nihaurusa damsa dan acomrac ri banseail cein nombeo isind
nith so. Bad im chobarse dartsiu .1. do gensa congnom (latt) oc sudvu.
Ni ar thoin mna dana gabussa inso. Bi ansu daitsiu or st, in tan do-
ragsa ar do chend oc comrac fris na firu ; doragsa wrricht escongan fot
chossaab assind ath co taithis. Dochu lim, on, oldas ingen rig ; notgebsa,
or se, im ladair commebsat t’asnar, ocus bia fond anim sin co ro secha brath
bennachtan fort. Timoresa in cethri forsind ath do dochumsa irricht soide
glaisse. Leicfesa cloich daitsiu as in tailm co commart do suil it cind, ocus
bia fond anim co ro secha brath bennachtan fort. To rach dait irricht
samarsce male derce rvasind eit, comensat forsna lathu, ocus fors na hathu,
ocus fors na linniu, ocus numarrcechasa ar do chend. Tolecubsa cloich dett-
siu, or se, commema do fergara fot, ocus bia fo ind anim sin co ro secha
brath bennachtan fort. Lasodain tett uad.”’
“Cu saw the young woman dressed in garments of every hue, and
of most distinguished form, approaching him. ‘ Who art thou?’ asked
Cu. ‘The daughter of King Buan,’ said she; ‘I have come to thee;
I have loved thee for thy renown, and have brought with me my jewels
and my cattle.’ ‘Not good is the time thou hast come,’ said he. ‘It
is not easy for me to associate with a woman whilst I may be engaged
in this conflict.’ ‘I shall be of assistance to thee therein,’ replied she.
‘Not by woman’s aid have I assumed my place here,’ responded Cu-
chullain. ‘It will be hard for thee,’ said she, ‘ when I go against
thee whilst encountering men. I will go in the form of an eel under
thy feet in the ford, so that thou shalt fall.’ ‘More likely, indeed,
than a king’s daughter; but I will grasp thee between my fingers,’
said he, ‘so that thy ribs shall break, and thou shalt endure that blemish
for ever.’ ‘I will collect the cattle upon the ford towards thee, in
_ the shape of a river-hound,’ said she. ‘I will hurl a stone at thee
from the sling,’ said he, ‘ which will break thine eye in thy head; and
thou shalt be under that blemish for ever.’ ‘I will go against thee in
the form of a red hornless heifer before the herd, and they shall defile
the pools, and fords, and linns, and thou shalt not find we before thee.’
‘IT will fling a stone at thee,’ said he, ‘which will break thy leg under
thee; and thou shalt be under that blemish for ever.’ With that she
departed from him.’
In some MSS. (the Yellow Book of Lecan, for example) the dia-
logue just read forms the principal feature in a romantic tale called
Tain Bo Regamhna, which, like the Tain Be Aingen, is one of the
_ prefatory stories to the great Cattle Spoil. Like the Tain Be Aingen,
also, it introduces the Morrigan in the character of a messenger of
the Fate that had decreed the death of Cuchullain when the issue of
the Donn Cuailnge and the Connacht cow should have attained a certain
age. But the Tain Bo Regamhna is further important as connecting
the Morrigan with Cuchullain, in the relation of his protector. The tale,
which is too long to quote im extenso, represents Cuchullain as one morn-
ing meeting the Morrigan in the form of a red-haired woman, driving a
cow through the plain of Murthemne, as related in Tain Be Aingen.
at
434
Cuchullain, in his quality of guardian of the border district, tries to
prevent her from proceeding ; and aftera great deal of argument, during
which Cuchullain seems not to know his opponent, the woman and
cow disappear, and Cuchullain observes birds on a tree, the badb and
her cow, apparently. Cuchullain, as soon as he becomes aware that he
had been contending with a supernatural being, confident in his own
might, boasts that, if he had known the character of his opponent, they
would not have separated as they did; whereupon the following exchange
of sentiments takes place :—
‘Cid andarignisiu, ol st, rodbia olc de. Ni cuma dam ol Cuchullain.
Cumcim eicin ol in ben; is ac [do | diten do baissiu, atusa ocus biad, ol st.
Do fucus in nibotnsea a sith Cruachan, condarodart in Dub Cuailnge
lin t Cuailnge 1. tarh Dairi mie Fiachna. TIsed arred biasu imbeathaid
corop dartaig in laegh fil imbroind na bo so, ocus ise consaithbe Tain Bo
Cuailnge.”
““*« What hast thou done?’ asked she; ‘evil will ensue to thee
therefrom.’ ‘I care not,’ said Cuchullain. ‘But I do,’ said the wo-
man (i.e. the bzrd or badb); it is protecting thee I was, am, and will
be,’ said she. ‘I brought this cow from Sidh-Cruachna, so that the
Dubh Cuailnge, i.e. Daire Mac Fiachna’s bull, met her in Cuailnge.
The length of time you have to live is until the calf that is in this
cow’s body will be a yearling; and it is it that shall lead to
the Tain Bo Cuailnge.’’”? Lebor Buidhe Lecain, col. 648. Then the
Morrigan threatens to act to Cuchullain in the way detailed in the dia-
logue quoted in page 433; and, as the tale concludes, ‘‘the badd
afterwards goes away’”’ (‘‘luid ass in badb iarum’’ ).
The Morrigan puts her threats into execution during Cuchullain’s
fight with Loch, son of Enonis. The narrative in Lebor na hUidhre
describes the encounter in the following manner :—
“Oro chomraicset carom ind fir for sind ath, ocus o rogabsat oc
gliaid ocus oc wmesorcain and, ocus 0 ro gab cach dib for truastad a chéli
focheird in escongon triol (.2. trt curu) im chossa Conculaind combi faen
fotarsnu isind ath ina ligu. Danautat (.1. buailis) Loch cosin chlaidiub
combu chroderg int ath dia fuilriud . . . . Lasodain atraig, ocus
benaid in nescongain comebdatar a hasnai indi, ocus comboing in cethri
dars na sluaga sair ar ecin, combertatar a puple innan adarcaib lasa
torandcless darigénsat in da lathgdile isind ath. Tanautat som ind sod
mactire do uairg na bi fair siar. Léicid som cloich as a tatlm co mebaid
a suilinacind. Teite wrricht samaisce mdile derge muitte rias na buaib
forsna linnt ocus na hathu. Is and asbert som ni airciu (.t. ni rochim)
andthu la linnt. Lewcidsom cloich dont samaise mail déirg comemaid a
gergara fo.” Lebor na hUidhre, fol. 37, a. l.
‘When the men met afterwards in the ford, and when they com-
menced fighting, and mutually contending, and when each man-began
to strike the other, the escongon (eel) made a triple twist round
439
Cuchullain’s legs, so that he was lying down prostrate across in the
ford. Loch struck him with his sword, and the ford was gory-red
from his blood. . . . Thereupon he arose and struck the eel, so
that her ribs broke in her. And the cattle rushed violently past the
host, eastwards, carrying the tents on their horns, at the sound made
by the two warriors in the ford. He (Cuchullain) drove to the west
the wolf-hound that collected the cows against him; and cast a stone
out of his sling at it, which broke its eye in its head. Then she (J/or-
rigan) went in the shape of a hornless red heifer, and advanced before
the cows into the linns and fords; when he said—‘I see not the fords
with the pools.? He cast a stone at the red hornless heifer, and broke
her leg.” It is added that ‘‘it was then truly that Cuchullain did to
the Morrigan the three things which he had promised her in the Tain
Bo Regamna;” (és andsin tra do géni Cucullainn frisin Morrigain a tréde
do rairngert di hi tain bo Regamna).
The next meeting between Cuchullain and the badb Morrigan is
very curious. It is thus related in the Book of Leinster (fol. 54,
eo.)
Andsin tanic in Morrigan ingen Ernmais a sidaib irricht sentainne
corrabi ic blegu b6 tre sine na fiadnaisse. Ls 1mm tainic si sin ar bith a
forithen de Choinchullaind ; dag ni gonad Cuchullainn nech ara térnad
combeth cuit do fein na legus. Conattech Cuchullain blegon fuirri var nu
dechrad dittaid. Do brethasi blegon sini do. Rop slan a neim damsa fo.
Ba sian a lethrose na rigna. Conattech som blegon sini fuirri, do brethsi
do, ineim rop slan inti doridnacht. Conarttecht som in tres ndig, ocus
dobrethasi blegon sine dd. Bendacht dee ocus andee fort a ingen (batar
éandee int aes cumachta, ocus andee int aes trebaire) ; ocus ba slan
ind rigan.’
“‘Then the Morrigan, daughter of Ernmas, came from the Sidhe,
in the form of an old woman, and was milking a three-teated cow in his
presence. The reason she came was, in order to be helped by Cuchullain ;
for no one whom Cuchullain wounded could recover unless he himself had
some share inthe cure. Cuchullain asked her for milk, being troubled
with thirst. She gave him the milk of one teat. ‘May I be safe from
poison therefor.’ The queen’s eye was cured. He asked her again for
the milk of a teat. She gaveit to him. ‘ May the giver be safe from
poison.’ He asked for the third drink, and she gave him the milk of
ateat. ‘The blessing of gods and men be on thee, woman’ (the people
of power were their gods, and the wise people were their andée—non-
divine); and the queen was cured.”’
When the time approached in which Cuchullain should succumb
to the decree of fate, as previously announced to him by Morrigan, the
impending loss of her favourite hero appears to have affected her with
sorrow. The night before the fatal day on which his head and spoils
were borne off in triumph by Ere Mac Cairpre, Morrigan, we are told,
_ disarranged his chariot, to delay his departure for the fated meeting.
Thus we read in the ‘‘ Arded Conchullainn,” or ‘‘ Tragedy of
‘ Cuchullain,” contained in the Book of Leinster (fol. 77, a1), that
436
when he approached his horse, the Liath Macha, in the last morning of
his existence, this faithful companion of his many victories ‘“ thrice
turned his left side’? towards his master, as an augury of the doom so
soon to await him; and he found that ‘‘ the Morrigan had broken the
chariot the night previous, for she liked not that Cuchullain should go
to the battle, as she knew that he would not again reach Emain
Macha.”’
“ Teite Cuchullainn adochum [in Leith Macha\, ocus ro impa int ech
a chle friss fothrt, ocus roscail in Morrigan in carpat issind aidchi remi,
ar nir bo ail le a dul Coneulainn dochum in chatha, ar rofitir noco ricfad
Emain Macha afrithis.”
Then follows a curious poetical dialogue between Cuchullain and
the Liath Macha, or ‘‘ grey horse of Macha,”’ when the former reminds
his steed of the time when the badd accompanied them in their martial
feats at Emain Macha, or Emania.
The grief of the Liath Macha and the arts of Morrigan were of no
avail; Cuchullain would go to the field of battle, impelled by the un-
seen power which ruled his destiny. But before he approaches the foe
he meets with three female idiots, blind of the left eye, cooking a
charmed dog on spits made of the rowan tree—creatures of hateful
aspect and wicked purpose.
In the old battle-piece called Bruidhin-da-choga these ‘‘ ban-tuath-
caecha,” or women blind of the left eye, are introduced as messengers of
fate; and in the still older, and most ancient tract, called Brucdhin-
Daderga, where the agent is a man, similarly blind, he is said to be the
emissary of Bodb Derg, son of the Dagda, the great fairy chief of
Munster, whose name seems cognate with that of badb (genit. basdb),
and forms its genit. (b07db) like it. The following extract from the
last-named tale will not be out of place :—
“© At Connare and fer tuath chaech co sul milledhaigh. Cend muicer
lais for tenid ossi o¢ sir eugem . . .’ “ Narthuath caech sain,
muccad Boidb a sid Arfemin. Nach fled oca rahe riam dodrortad fuil
oce.”’
‘‘T saw there a man blind of the left eye, with a destructive eye.
He had a pig’s head on the fire, and it shouted continually . . a
‘‘That is Narthuath the blind, the swineherd of Bodd from Sidh-
Arfemhin. Blood has been shed at every feast where he has been.”
Lebor na hUidhre.
To return :-—
Cuchullain’s strength must be annihilated, or the Fates will have
decreed in vain ; and this can only be done through his partaking of the
horrid dish, made of the flesh of his half-namesake cu (a dog), which
he resolves to do rather than tarnish his chivalrous reputation by refus-
ing the request of the witches, although aware of the tragical results
about to ensue. The strength of the hero is paralyzed by the contact
with the unclean food handed to him from the witch’s left hand; and
|
437
Cuchullain rushes headlong to his doom. But still the Morrigan does
not abandon him, although apparently quite powerless to assist him ;
for as he comes near to the enemy, ‘‘a bird of valour’ is seen flying
about over the chief in his chariot (en blaith, i.e. lon gaile, etarluam-
nach uasa erra oen charpait). And after he has received his death wound
she perches beside him a while, before winging her flight to the fairy
palace beside the Suir, from which she came. The following is the
description of Cuchullain’s proceedings after receiving his mortal wound,
extracted from the ‘“‘ Book of Leinster,” fol. 78, a 2 :—
‘“‘ Do dechwd iarum crich mor ond loch (Loch Lamraith im Magh
Muirthemne) srar, ocus rucad a rose art, ocus téit dochum coirthi cloiche
file isin mang cotarat a choimchriss immi, narablad na suidiu, nach ina
higu, conbad ina sessam atbalad. Is iarsin do dechatar na fir immacuairt,
ocus nt rolamsatar dul a dochum. Andarleo ropo beo. Is mebol duib, ol
Ere mac Cairpre, cen cend ind fhir do thabhairt lib in digail chind
m atarsa rucad leis co ro adnacht fri airsce Echdach Niafer. Rucad a
chend assaide co fil 1 sid Nenta var nusciu. . . Larsin tra do dechaid
in Liath Macha co Coinculaind dia imchoimeét in céin rob6i a anim and,
oeus ro matr in lon laith ass a étan. Is varum bert in Liath Macha na
tre derg ruathar immi ma cuairt, co torchair 1. leis cona fiaclaib, ocus xxx
cach crut do assed romarb dont sluag. Conid de ata nitathe buadremmend
ind leith Macha var marbad Conculainn. Conid rarsin dollucd ind ennach
Jor a gualaind. Nur bo gnath in corthe ut fo enarb ar Ere mac Carpre.”’
“ He (Cuchullain) then went westwards, a good distance from the
lake (Loch Lamraith in Magh Muirthemne), and looked back at it.
And he went to a pillar stone which is in the plain, and placed his side
against it, that he might not die sitting, or lying, but that he might die
standing. After this the men went all about him, but dared not ap-
proach him, for they thought he was alive. ‘It is a shame for you,’
said Hre Mac Cairpre, ‘not to bring that man’s head in retaliation for my
father’s head, which was borne off by him, and buried against Airsce
Kichdach Niafer. His head was taken from thence, so that it is in Sidh-
Ree POMP EP Et SM th es pe Gu nieyl eo) a thy Salil iM
Afterwards, moreover, the Liath Macha went to Cuchullain, to guard
him whilst his spirit lived in him, and whilst the lon laith (bird of va-
lour ?) continued out from his face. Then the Liath Macha executed the
three red routs about him, when fifty men fell by his teeth, and thirty
by each shoe, all of the enemy’s host ; and hence the proverb—‘ Not more
furious was the victorious rout of the Liath Macha, after the killing
of Cuchullain.’ Thereupon the bird went, and perched near his shoul-
der.”’ ‘That pillar stone was not usually the resort of birds,’ said Ere
Mac Cairbre, who supposed the Morrigan to be a mere carrion crow
awaiting the feast prepared by his hand. Then they advance, and cut
off Cuchullain’s head, and the JJorrigan disappears from the scene.
IT have not met with any statement identifying the bird of valour
with the scare-crow, or, indeed, with any bird in particular, although
the principal heroes in the Irish battle pieces, from Cuchullain to
438
Murchadh, son of Brian, have each his ‘‘ bird of valour” flying over
him in the thick of the fight. In the account of the battle of Magh-
Rath, we are told that Congal Claen, excited to fury and madness by
the exhortations of one of his servants, in the banqueting hall at Tara,
‘stood up, assumed his bravery, his heroic fury rose, and his ‘ bird of
valour’ fluttered over him, and he distinguished not friend from foe at
the time.” (Magh-Rath, p. 33.) So, when Murchadh, son of Brian,
after the repulse of the Dal-Cais by the Danes at the battle of Clon-
tarf, prepares to assail the enemy, it is said that ‘‘he was seized with a
boiling terrible anger, an excessive elevation and greatness of spirit and
mind. A bird of valour and championship rose in him and fluttered
over his head and on his breath.’”’ But this lon laith, en gaile, or bird
of valour, which hovered about Cuchullain, not only excited his mind
to fury, as is represented, but also produced a strange bodily transfor-
mation, from which he obtained the sobriquet of the Riastartha or trans-
formed. Thus, in a passage in the tale from which I have so often
quoted already, where King Ailill deems it advisable to beg Cuchullain’s
permission for the Connacht army to retire from a position of danger,
the following account of the effects of this paroxysm of fury is given:
“ Denard comarli for Arlill. Gudid Concullain im for lecud asind
mnudsa ar ni ragaid ar ecin tairis uatr rodleblaing a lon lath, ar ba bes
dosom intan no linged a lon lath ind imreditis a trargtht iarma ocus a
escada remt ocus mul a orcan for a lurgnib, ocus in dala suil inachend,
ocus arali fria chend anechtar; do cotsed fer chend for a beolu. Nach
findae bid fair ba hathithir delea scvach, ocus banna fola for cach finnu.
t aithgnead coemu na cairdiu, cumma no slarded riam ocus tarma. Is
desin dober fir n Olnecmacht in risartarthu do animm doCoinculainn.”’ Labor
na h’Uidhre, fol. 34, b. 1.
«“«Take counsel together,’ said Ailill; ‘entreat Cuchullain that he
may permit you to leave this place, since you cannot pass by him for-
cibly, because his Jon lath has sprung. For it was usually the case
with him when his Jon lath started in him, that his feet turned back-
wards and his hands forwards, and the calves of his legs were transferred —
to his shins, and one of his eyes sank deep into his head, whilst the
other was protruded, and a man’s head would fitin his mouth. Every
hair on his head was sharper than the thorns of whitethorn, and a drop
of blood stood on each hair. He would know neither friends nor
relations, and he slew equally backwards and forwards. Hence it
was that the Feara-Olnegmacht (men of Connacht) applied the name
of ‘ Riastartha’ to Cuchullain.” |
In the Irish mythological tracts a well-marked distinction is ob-
servable between the attributes of the scald-crow and those of the
raven ; the scald-crow, or cornix, being represented in the written as in
the spoken traditions of the country, not alone as a bird of omen, but —
as an agent in the fulfilment of what is in dono (7m dan), or decreed for
a person, whilst the raven is simply regarded as a bird of prey, which —
nee 4 A
ea
&
439
follows the warrior merely for the sake of enjoying its gory feast. Just
as the German myths describe Odin and Zio as accompanied by ravens
and wolves, which attend them to the battle-field, and prey upon the
slain, so the Irish poets, in their laudations of particular heroes, boasted
of the numbers of ravens and wolves fed by their spears. Odin, espe-
cially, had two ravens, wise and cunning, which sat upon his shoulders,
and whispered into his ears, like Mahomet’s pigeon, all that they had
heard and seen.* In this latter respect the raven of German mythology
stands in the same relation to Odin that the raven of Greek mythology
does to Apollo.
The Scandinavians, like their German relatives, considered the
raven in a sacred light.
The Anglo-Saxon chronicle at the year 878 records the capture from
the Norse of a banner called the Raven, of which a more particular
account is given in Asser’s Life of Alfred, at the same year. After describ-
ing the defeat of the Pagan Norse before Kynwith castle, in Devonshire,
the writer adds, ‘‘ and there they (the West Saxons) gained very large
booty, and amongst other things the banner called the Raven; for they
say that the three sisters of Hingwar and Hubba, daughters of Lodbrok,
wove that flag and got it ready in one day. They say, moreover, that
in every battle, wherever that flag went before them, if they were to
gain the victory, a live crow would appear flying on the middle of the
flag; but if they were doomed to be defeated it would hang down
motionless; and this was often proved to be so.” Earl Sigurd also is
said to have had a raven banner at the battle of Clontarf, which his
mother had woven for him with magical skill (Todd’s ‘‘ Danish Wars,”
Introd., p. clxxxii, note’). This idea of the raven banner is probably
connected with the tradition given in the Volsunga Saga, which repre-
sents Odin as sending the Valkyria, in the form of a crow, on a mission
to Friga, to entreat that the wife of King Reris might become fruitful;t
and the prayer being heard, a son (Sigmund) was born, whose son Si-
gurd married Brunhilt, a Valkyria, and had a daughter Auslauk, also a
Valkyria, who was called Kraka, or the crow, and who was the wife of
Ragnar Lodbrok, and mother of Ivar Beinlaus.
The name of the Morrigan is found connected with many of
the fulachts, or kitchen middens, particularly the larger ones, which
are called ‘‘ Fulacht-na-Morrigna,” the ‘‘ Morrigan’s hearth,” whilst
the smaller ones are named ‘‘ Fulacht-Fian.’”’ One of these great fu-
_ lachts at Tara would cook three kinds of food at the same time. Some
account of it will be found in Petrie’s ‘‘ Antiquities of Tara,” pp. 213-
14 (where, however, Petrie should have considered it rather a cauldron
than aspit). Inthe tract called the Agallamh Beg, or ‘‘ Little Dialogue,”
contained in the ‘‘Book of Lismore,’? mention is made of another
Fulacht-na-Morrigna which existed near the fairy mound of Sidh-
Airfemhin, in the present county of Tipperary, and is thus referred to
* Grimm. ‘‘ Deutsche Mythologie,” p. 134.
t+ Vid. ‘‘ Fornaldar Sogur,” Copenhagen, 1829, pp. 117-18.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. oN
440
in a conversation between Cailte Mac Ronain and his companion Fin-
chadh :—
“ Ba hiat fein do rinde both doibh ind otdchi sin, ocus do rinded
andeonadh leo, ocus teid Carlte ocus Findchadh do indlad a lamha cum wnt
srotha. Inad fulachta so ar Lindchadh, ocus 1s cian 0 do rinded. Ts fir
ar Catlte, ocus fulacht na Morrighna so, ocus nt denta gan uisce.”
‘‘Tt was they who made a hut for themselves that night; and endeonad
(cooking places) were made by them. And Cailte and Finchadh went
to the stream to wash their hands. ‘ Here is the site of a fulacht,’ said
Finchadh. ‘True,’ said Cailte; ‘and this is a fulacht-na-morrighna
which is not to be made without water’ ’’ (i. e. there should be a supply
of water near at hand).
The name of the Morrigan enters not a little into the composition
of Irish topographical names. In the present county of Louth there is
a district anciently known by the name of Gort-na-Morrigna, or the
‘¢ Morrigan’s Field,’’ which her husband, the Dagda, had given to her.—
“Book of Fermoy,”’ fol. 125, a 2.
The “ Book of Lismore”’ (fol. 196, b. 1) mentions a Crich-na-Mor-
rigna as somewhere in the present county of Wicklow. Among the re-
markable monuments of the Brugh on the Boyne were Mur-na-Morrigna
(the mound of the Morrigan) ; two hills called the Cirr and Cuirrel (or
comb and brush) of the Dagda’s wife, which Dr. Petrie has inadver-
tently transformed into two proper names; and Da cich na Morrigna,
or the ‘‘ Morrigan’s two paps” in Kerry, not far from which is a large
fort, bearing the suggestive name of Lis-baba.
The name of Morrigan is also probably contained in that of Tirree-
worrigan, in the county of Armagh.
XLVII.—On AnctentT SEPULCHRAL MonUMENTS FOUND IN THE County
Gatway. By M. Brogan.
[Read February 8, 1869. ]
Wuaen travelling through the country on official duty, I frequently
meet with antiquarian remains, some of which may not have as yet been
brought under the notice of the Academy. Being recently employed on
inspection duty in the county of Clare, my attention was attracted by
what I at first conceived to be immense cromleacs, or druidical altars; but
which I concluded, on closer inspection, to be sepulchral monuments of
some of those stalwart heroes of the olden time who had been ‘ dead
and turned to clay’”’ long ere the Milesian adventurers left the sunny
shores of Spain to seek and win a new home in the green island of In-
nisfail.
The precise locality of these antiquarian remains is a little south of
the public road leading from Gort to Feakle, and about midway between
these two towns, in the townland of Dromandoora. The situation is
441
very romantic, being on the northern declivity of the Clare hills, over-
looking the deep valley which separates Clare from Galway, and which
embosoms two beautiful lakes—Lough Graney (Lake of the Sun), and
Lough Cooter, with its wooded shores, and islets, and magnificent
castle, whose lofty towers and battlements proudly rise over the stately
woods by which they are surrounded, and fling their shadows o’er the
pellucid lake, ‘‘ whose tiny wavelets murmur at its base.”
They consist of two sepulchral monuments, distant about a furlong
from each other, with two figures inscribed on the adjacent rocks, which
in many places present tolerably smooth exposed surfaces. The monu-
ment at the greatest elevation on the slope of the hills, though not in
the most perfect state of preservation, is the largest. It is called by the
people of the locality ‘‘ Leabadh Diarmaid’’ (Diarmud’s Bed), while the
smaller and more perfect one is called ‘‘ Leabadh Granu.” I may remark,
en passant, that there 1s a very remarkable sepulchral monument at
Coolmore, about three miles north of Ballyshannon, county of Donegal,
to which local tradition has assigned the name of ‘‘ Diarmud and
Granu’s Bed.” ‘The rock inscriptions, of which I append tolerably
correct copies (Pl. X XIX.), are—
ist. An elaborately and artistically designed figure, somewhat
resembling the caduceus of Mercury (No. 3).
2nd. The impression or outline of the sole of a sandal. I suppose it
to represent a sandal; as, if it were intended to represent the naked foot,
there would certainly be some attempt, however rude, to represent the
formation of the toes. The foot must have been rather small, probably
that of a youth or of a female, as the carving represented it as only 10
inches in length, by 44 inches at the widest part, and 24 inches at the
narrowest part (No. 2).
My reasons for assuming that the two first-mentioned remains are
sepulchral, and not cromleacs erected for sacrificial purposes, are—
Ist. The name accorded to them by local tradition.
2nd. The covering slabs being placed almost horizontally, without
the inclination of the covering slabs observable in structures intended
for sacrificial purposes; and,
3rd. The extreme roughness and irregularity of the upper surface
of the covering slabs, formed of the coarse conglomerate rock of the
locality. This is most observable in the smaller and more perfect mo-
nument, which is covered by a single slab, tolerably smooth on the
inner side, but extremely uneven on the outer side, without the slightest
mark to indicate that it was ever designed or used for any purpose but
that of effectively securing the receptacle underneath. The larger one,
of which I give a rude drawing, was covered by at least two large slabs,
the end one of which still remains in its original position. The other
has been broken into fragments, some of which have been removed ; but
one large one yet remains, leaning against and overtopping the support-
442
ing stones, several of which have also disappeared, as shown in the
ground plan (No. 1).
I have been informed that there are some other monuments of a
similar description scattered over the district; but I did not find it
convenient to visit or examine them; neither could I ascertain that
there are any interesting local traditions or legends connected with them.
The peasantry of the district can give no account of them further than the
name handed down from one generation to another, and which is pro-
bably correct. They do not seem to take any interestin them; and only
it fortunately happens that they do not occupy any valuable ground,
being erected on rocky ground, wholly unfitted for the purposes of cul-
tivation, they would probably have been long since removed. As an
instance of the indifference and inattention that exists as to these anti-
quarian relics of the olden time, even amongst the more intelligent por-
tion of the people, I may refer to a circumstance that occurred to me
last summer.
Having visited some schools in the county of Fermanagh, I drove to
the Kesh Railway station, on the shores of Lower Lough Erne, for the
purpose of proceeding to Ballyshannon. Being rather early for the
train, I inquired if there was anything worth seeing in the neighbour-
hood. The answer was, ‘‘ Nothing, except the lake.” Happening to
look down the line, I observed in a field, a little west of the station, and
‘on the northern side of the railway, one of those pillar-stones on which
Ogham inscriptions are frequently found. I went down to examine it,
and found my conjecture perfectly correct; for near one of its edges,
though nearly obliterated by the action of the weather, I could plainly
observe the long vertical line, with the short horizontal lines at right
angles to it on each side; but, not being an adept in deciphering such
inscriptions, I could make nothing of it. On my return, I asked the
station-master, the police, and some intelligent inhabitants of the village,
if they had ever heard anything particular in connexion with this stone.
They all answered, ‘‘ Nothing whatever—only they supposed it was a
rubbing-stone set up for the accommodation of the cattle.” If so, it was
rather a Cyclopean one ; but the fact that a much smaller and easier-
erected one would serve their supposed object equally well never
appeared to occur to their minds.
This ignorance and indifference is liable to be attended by very
injurious effects, in the wanton destruction of those memorials of a
former age, and of a race now passed away, as the people cannot be sup-
posed to venerate and preserve things of which they do not understand
the origin or historic interest. I have often observed with the deepest
pain the total disregard, and even wanton destruction, to which things
that should be objects of national care are allowed to be subjected, and
the base uses to which their materials are applied. It is only a few
years since I observed a portion of the ancient stone cross of Dunna-
maggin, county of Kilkenny, lying in the dirt at the door of a labourer’s
hovel. I trust that some one, with a due veneration for such relics,
443
may have since rescued it from its dishonoured position. It is no un-
common thing to see the stones of some venerable abbey or old feudal
castle, where no pious hand is stretched forth to stay the desecration,
employed by some boorish farmer to build a byre or a pigstye.
I trust that the labours of the Academy may have the effect of
establishing a more creditable and satisfactory state of things for the
future.
XLVIII.—On tue Rivers or IRELAND, WITH THE DERIVATIONS OF THEIR
Names. By Owen Connetran, LL. D., Professor of Celtic Lan-
guages in Queen’s College, Cork.
[Read February 8, 1869.]
Tue names of the oldest rivers in this country have been collected
from the Books of Lecan and Ballymote, from O’Clery’s copy of the
Book of Conquests, and from the Annals of Ireland.
There are only four rivers described in the Book of Dinnseanchus,
and the derivations of their names are legendary; but the writers of
that curious work have given a second derivation of two of them from
natural causes. These four rivers are the Barrow, Boyne, Shannon, and
the Raven River in the west of Kerry. The legend of the Shannon is
given in full, literally translated; and it may be remarked, that there
are some words in the original Irish which are not to be found in our
printed Irish Dictionaries. The names of lakes, however, in the Dinn-
seanchus, are numerous.
The writers of the Book of Conquests endeavour to determine the
different periods at which these old rivers were first discovered, or
began to flow over the land; and they aseribe many of these circum-
stances to the times of the earliest colonies that came into Ireland.
The greater part of the Book of Conquests is considered by some to be
the oldest written composition in the Irish language. It is the History
of Ireland from the remotest times to the 12th century of the Christian
era, and there are several very old copies of it still extant.
As in all other countries in this world, these names are all signi-
ficant. The most of them are very apparent and simple in their
meanings. We have the Abainn mép and Cbainn beags, or the great
and small rivers. There is also the slaiy1, or small stream; and they
descend in the scale to the ploodn—that is, a narrow, purling rivulet,
nearly covered over with the herbage growing on its brink, and the
name signifies the water-pipe. |
We also have the Black and White Rivers, the blue, the brown,
the yellow—in fact, all the hues in the rainbow are represented by
the colour of their waters.
Several of them are named from their rapid currents, and their
distinctive noise, such as the roaring, loud-sounding, echoing, moaning,
murmuring, babbling, and harmonious-sounding rivers.
444
The trees of the woods and forests through which many of them
flowed are specified; such as the Alder, Ash, Elm, Hazel, Oak,
Willow ; and it would appear that the Yew was to be found in all parts
of Ireland as an indigenous tree. It may be remarked that silver and
copper are also indicated.
The English names of these rivers are first given, alphabetically
arranged, and their Irish names in brackets.
BM.
Aretin [Cipgiooluing |.—Arglin River, a tributary of the Black-
water, into which it falls below Kilworth, in the county of Cork. Mr.
Long informs me that the name in Irish, as written in the Book of
Lismore, is Gipsiooluins, which is compounded of aipsioo, silver,
and luing to leap, and would therefore signify the leaping, silvéry
river, from the clearness of its water.
ARicIpEEN [Cipgioin |.—The Raver Arigideen discharges itself into
the bay of Courtmacsherry, in the county of Cork. Seward states that
the name signifies the silver river or stream. The name is formed of
aipgioo, silver, and fn, a diminutive particle, and therefore would
signify the small silvery stream. Mr. Long is of opinion that it got
this name from the white or selvery trout with which the river
abounds, and which run in large shoals in its waters.
AsroE | Gapp Ruaid].—Asroe, at Ballyshannon, on the foremen-
tioned river [1.e. the River Erne |, is derived as follows in O’Clery’s Book
of Conquests, p. 3:—Ro baloead Ced puad ceaourp in Capp Ruano,
ocup Ip cécpad combad uada po sab Capp Ruaid ainmniugad, ocup
Sich Oeoha op up an eappa, *‘ Aedh the red-haired was formerly
drowned in Eass Ruaidh, and it is an opinion that it was from him
Eass Ruaidh received a nomination, and the Sith [1.e. the mound or
tumulus]| of Aedh is over the margin of the cataract.”
The Irish people call it eap puad, or the red cataract, and in
using the genitive they say bnaodin an eapa puaid, the salmon of
the red cataract; and I was informed by a veritable authority, that
when the sun goes to the west, and shines on the cataract, the water -
assumes a reddish colour, which seems to arise from a red weed
growing on the rock inside the waterfall.
Avonmore [ abainn mép ].--The Avonmore River, in Irish, Abainn
mop, or the great river, now called the River Blackwater, in the
county of Cork, fallsinto the sea at Youghal. ‘There are several rivers
in various parts of Ireland called abainn mép. The name Youghal,
in Irish eocaill, is derived from eo, the Yew, and caill, a wood, mean-
ing the Yew-tree wood.
Ptolemy calls the Avonmore Dabrona, or Dubrona, which un-
doubtedly was taken from the original Celtic name of this river, and
it implied the black flowing water, from oub, black, and bpaon,
flowing water, the name by which the river is still known.
Awsre [CAbainn beag |.—Awbeg, according to Seward, is a river
445
in the county of Cork, which is derived from abainn, a river, and
beas, small. :
Awin Buy [Abainn Omd].—Awin Buy, as given by Seward, is a
river in the barony of Kinalea, county of Cork. In Irish it is written
abainn, a river, and buide, yellow = the Yellow-coloured River.
There is another river of this name, which rises in the parish of
Kilmacteig, barony of Leiney, and county of Sligo. It flows by the
town of Coolaney, and uniting with the Avonmore from Temple House
Lake, and the Union Wood River near Collooney, they fall into the
great strand of Hothwile, over the cataract called eap vana, from
which the town of Ballysadare derives its name of baile eapa ovana,
or the town of the oak cataract, from two large oak trees, one on each
side of the waterfall, according to tradition.
Awin Gorm [Cbainn Sonpm]|.—The Awin Gorm is given by
Seward as in the barony of Leiney, county of Sligo. The correct
spelling of it in Irish is Cbainn So0pm, which every one who speaks
the language understands to signify the Blue River.
Awin Urs [Cbainn lubaip |.—Awen Ure is the name of a river
in the barony of Roscommon, county of Roscommon. The name is
derived from abainn, a river, and 1ubap, the yew tree = the Yew
River.
B.
Banpow [bannoan |].—The River Bandon rises near Dunmanway,
and falls into the harbour of Kinsale, in the county of Cork, flowing a
distance of about twenty-four miles. In the Annals the Irish name is
written bannoan; but in the original MS. it is given baiioan (the
horizontal stroke being a mistake). The name may be derived from
ban, clear, and abainn, river, which would correspond with the clear
and transparent water of the River Bandon, from which the town of
Bandon takes its name. It may also be derived from bdn, white, and
dn, water.
Bann [banna]|.—The River Bann, in Irish banna, is one of the
very old rivers found in Ireland by Partholan, as stated in the Book of
Conquests, by O’Clery, p. 15, and in Lecan, p. 273. It rises in the
county Down, passes through Lough Neagh, from which it escapes at
Toome Bridge; flows between the counties of Down and Antrim, and
falls into the sea below Coleraine. Onthe map of that part of Ireland
Lough Neagh is represented surrounded with beds of chalk, and the
River Bann passing through the chalky bed of the lake, the name
may be derived from bdn, pale or white, and abainn, river—the
White River. he word banna also means a boundary, and was that
between two districts, as stated in the Book of Conquests.
Barrow [beapba].—The River Barrow, according to Seward,
flows by the Queen’s County, and county of Kildare, through the
county of Carlow; is joined by the Nore before it arrives at New Ross,
in the county of Wexford, and falls into the sea at Waterford Haven.
446
The Irish name is beapba, as written in the Book of Conquests, and
in the Annals; but in the Book of Dinnseanchus, in the Book of Bally-
mote, fol. 192, b. a., the name is written beapba, without the latter
b being aspirated or pointed; and the second derivation given of it
in that work is as follows:—beapba .1, beap no bin ocup ba .1. balb
1. uipce balb, Bearba, i.e. bear, or bir (i.e. water), and 6a, i. e.
dumb—namely, ‘‘ dumb water,’’ which means the silent-flowing river,
and is very applicable to the deep and sluggish Barrow.
Borne | bomn |.— The River Boyne, so minutely described by Sir Wil-
lam Wilde in his work entitled ‘‘ The Beauties of the Boyne,’’ rises in
the county of Kildare, and discharges itself into the Irish Sea. In the
Book of Dinnseanchus, originally compiled, it is said, in the 7th cen-
tury, the name of the river is accounted for as being that of a woman ;
but there is also a second derivation given in it, which is as follows :—
No ita bo ainm incppota ocur Finn-abann pliab guaipe ocup dia
compas mole ip ainm boann. Or So is the name of the stream,
and Finn-abann (or the White River) of Sliabh Guaire (a mountain in
the county Cavan), and from their uniting together is the name Boann
derived. But perhaps the true derivation is from b6, a cow, and
- abainn, a river, contracted into boann, and signifying the Cow River,
from the large number of cows grazing on the rich lands along the
banks of the Boyne. There is a very old legend about the Boyne
in our Irish MSS. It is to the effect that a Druid in that locality had a
b6 pinn, or white cow, which was stolen from him, &c., and that
from her the river got its name, i.e. by contracting b6 pinn into
boinn.
BrosnacH [bpopnaca].—In the Book of Conquests, and in the
Annals, it is stated that in the reign of Hremon the nine bpopnacha
burst forth, and began to flow. Only two of these rivers are now
traceable. One of them flows through the King’s County, and falls
into the Shannon, between the King’s County and the county of Tip-
perary. The name signifies the Brushwood Rivers. Mr. Long informs
me that there is a river bearing this name in the county of Kerry,
which falls into the River Feale ; and the land through which it flows
being for the most part mountainous, he is of opinion that no other
but stunted trees or brushwood would naturally grow there.
Bunanapan [Pioodn].—The small River Lvodan gives name to
the fair town of Bunanadan, in the barony of Leiney, county of Sligo.
The word pioddn means a pipe, and bun an Pioddm, the Irish name
of the town, signifies the mouth of the rivulet representing a water-
ipe.
- Libre [bun-oobapdin ],—Bundoran, a watering-place in the
barony of Tirhugh, in the county of Donegal, is derived from bun, the
mouth of a river, and oobapdin compounded of dobap, water, and Gn,
a diminutive particle, and thus signifying the mouth of the small
river, or Small Water.
447
Bouracu.—The River Burach is a mountain stream in the parish of
Skreen, county of Sligo, which discharges itself into a small creek of
the sea to the east of Aughros Head. There are no trout in it,
because in summer it is fred up, and in winter the floods rush Fara
its channel suddenly, like a wave. In Irish it is called abainn na
bupaige, which signifies the river of sudden swelling or flood.
Busu [buaip |.—The River Bush, in the barony of Dunluce, county
of Antrim. According to the Book of Conquests by O’Clery, and in
the Book of Leacan, it fowed between the ancient territories of Dal-
Araide and Dal-Riada, and was one of those discovered by Partholan
on his arrival in this country, which would go to show that it has
been considered to bea very old river. In Irish it is written buap,
Gen. buaipe, Dat. buaip, and the name may signify the Rapid-flowing
River, the word buadap, victory or triumph, being the modern form
of it.
C.
CamowEN [Cam abainn].—Camowen River, in the county of
Tyrone, according to Seward. The name Camowen is compounded of
cam, crooked, and abainn, a river, and signifies the Winding River.
There is a small trout river near Lough Gur, and not far from Brough,
in the county of Limerick, called the Cam65, compounded of cam,
crooked, and 65, a diminutive particle, and therefore it signifies the
small winding river.
Crappy [Claooaé].—The River Claodach, in the county of Cork,
falls into the Blackwater on the south side, near the railway viaduct,
above the town of Mallow. It is written, Nom. Claooac, Gen. Clao-
oaige, Dat. Claooaig, and is derived from the word claodad, sub-
duing, conquering, overpowering; and the name, therefore, signifies
the rapid-flowing river, that overpowers every obstacle in its way, and
is thus described in the fore-mentioned poem :—[See Roughty River | :
Cnainn ip cloéa 0a pcollad ap an §5Claoouts,
Trees and stones torn in pieces by the Claodach.
I am told there is another river of this name that falls into the River
Lee.
Crapy [Claoaig ].—The Rover Clady, in the district of Gweedore,
on the estate of Lord George Hill, in the county of Donegal, issues
out of a chain of three lakes, four miles long, and, flowing deeply by the
celebrated Gweedore Hotel, falls into the gaeté oobain, or the
ereek of Dobhar, from which the district is called Gweedore. It is
stated that this Dobhar was a chief who lived on one of the islands on
the coast of Donegal. The River Clady flows a distance of about four
miles from the lakes to Bunbeg (the small mouth of the river), over
several cascades, and in winter its current is so forcible and over-
whelming, that, like its namesake in the county of Cork, everything is
torn in pieces by the torrent of the Clady River. By the people the
two rivers are pronounced Cladagh, and Clady, in both localities.
R. I. A. PROC.—YVOL. X. 30
448
CormupE [Coimove |.—In the Book of Conquests mention is made
of the three Coimoe. The name Comoe may signify the accompa-
nylng rivers, but it does not appear that they have been identified by
our topographers.
Corcair.—The River Carcair rises in the parish of Doneraile, in
the county of Cork, and falls into the abainn beas, or small river, a
tributary of the Shannon. The word capcaip means a prison; and as
this stream sinks into a cavity in a limestone rock, and rises again at
some distance in its course, the name signifies the Imprisoned River.
Cow River [CAbainn oa loilgec].—The river called Gbainn oa
loilgec, or the River of the two Milch Cows, rises in the parish of
Killeenaduma, and falls into Lough Cutra, near the town of Gort, in
the county of Galway. See Annals, a.p. 1598.
CronacH.—Cronach River, according to Seward, is situate in the
barony of Athlone, county of Roscommon. The name is derived from
cpdn, copper, or brown colour, and signifies the coppery, or brownish
coloured river.
1D;
Dee [O1a].—The River Dee, which, according to Seward, is in
the barony of Ardee, county of Louth. In an Irish work, entitled
Tdin b6 Cuailgne, it is stated that a Connaught champion named
Feanoia was slain in single combat by the celebrated warrior
Cuculain, at a ford on this river, about the beginning of the Christian
Era; and from this Peapoia the ford was called Ct-pipoia, or the
ford of /irdia, which in after times was changed to Atherdee; and
hence the origin of the name of this river, i.e. by pronouncing or
changing 01a, in Pipoia, into Dee. Its more ancient name was Nit
according to the Annals, the eruption of which happened in a.m. 4169.
The word nit means a battle, and therefore the name signifies the
Battle River.
Deet [Oaoil].—The Rivers Deel. There is one of them that
rises in Lough Deel, in the barony of Raphoe, county of Donegal, and
falls into the Foyle, near Lifford. Another River Deel, in the county
of Limerick, falls into the Shannon, below Askeaton. In Irish the
name is written oaoil, which in the Gen. is daoile, as uipse na
oaoile, the water of the Deel. The word means a /eech, and there-
fore they signify the Leech Rivers.
Dere [Oceans }|.—The River Derg has its source in Lough Derg, in
the barony of Tirhugh, county of Donegal, and unites with the
Mourne River. In Irish the name is written deapé, i.e. red, and the
name therefore signifies the River of the reddish-coloured water. See
a curious account of Lough Derg, in a paper on Fermanagh, in my
edition of the Annals of the Four Masters.
Dovper [ Ootaip].—The River Dodder, which flows by Bothar-
na-Bruighne, Rathfarnham, and Miltown, falls into the River Liffey at
Ringsend, near Dublin. The name in Irish is dotaip,, which simply
means the River.
— eS Se
449
Duvs [Opobaoip].—The River Drus, or Droos, falls into the
Bay of Donegal. The Irish name, as written in the Book of Conquests,
is opobaoip, which makes opobaoipe in the Gen., as bun opobaoire,
the name by which the mouth of this river has been called. The
name signifies the Muddy River. Itis called Drobaicus in the Book
of Armagh, and was blessed by St. Patrick, on which account it
abounds in fish.
Durr [Oub].—The River Duff, in the barony of Carbury, county
of Sligo, falls into the Bay of Donegal. The name in Irish is oub,
black, signifying the Black River. It makes ouibe in the Genitive, as
bun ouibe, which is the name given to the mouth of this river. It is
called Niger in the Book of Armagh, and is the boundary between
Sligo and Donegal.
Dour.—The Dur, a small river which falls into an inlet of the sea
on the coast of Kerry, is called by Ptolemy Ostia flumen Dur; and
the name or word otip, simply means the water, 1. e. the River.
E.
Easxey [lapeais|.—The River Easkey, in the barony of Tireragh,
and county of Sligo, issues out of Lough Easkey and falls into the
sea below the town of Easkey, to which it gives its name. It is an
excellent trout and salmon river, and in Jrish is called Abainn na
hiapeais, which means the fishful river, derived from 1ape, a fish.
It is stated by the fishermen of that country, that although the
salmon swim up to within a few perches of the lake, they never enter
it, although there is nothing to hinder them. And the reason they
give for this is, that St. Patrick, on his return from Tirawley into
Tireragh, and while stepping over the narrow neck of the river at this
place, a salmon jumped up and tripped him, and he enjoined that no
salmon should ever come up so far again.
Erve [Samdoip |.—The Rover Hrne issues out of Lough Erne, and
flows over the waterfall at Ballyshannon, and into the Bay of Donegal.
In O’Clery’s Book of Conquests, p. 15, the Irish original name of this
river is Samaoip, as Samaoip pon acca Spp Ruad, Samaoir on which
is Ess Ruadh, and it gives this as one of the nine rivers discovered by
Partholan. In the copy of the same work in the Book of Leacan, fol. 273,
the name is written Saim(p, and in that of the Book of Ballymote
Samaip; and they all derive it from the name of an island below the
_eataract, on which Partholan had his residence; and the island, it
states, got its name from that of a lapdog belonging to Partholan’s wife,
which Partholan killed with a slap of his hand in a fit of anger, &c.
The name, however, may be derived from feamaip or ramain,
as written in the Book of Ballymote, which means the trefoil, white
clover, Trifolium repens; and thus the name would signify the river
with the trefoil or clover growing in abundance on its banks = the
Seamrog or Clover River.
450
The River Erne takes its name from Lough Erne, which, it is stated
in the Book of Conquests, got the name from an ancient tribe called the
Canna, or Erneans, who were drowned there by the eruption of the
lake. |
F.
Farner [Peapn |.—Farney Bridge River, near Cashel, in the county
of Tipperary. This river derived its name from the word feapn, 1. e.
the Alder tree.
Favewan [Patan].—The Faughan River, in the barony of Tyr-
keeran, in the county of Derry. This name is derived from fatan,
which means the coltsfoot, i.e. Yusrllago farfara, which grows on
the banks of sandy rivers, such as the River Dodder, on the banks of
which the great coltsfoot grows abundantly.
Fratez [Péite |.—The River Peale, according to the Book of Con-
quests, issues out of Loé Luigdeach, or the Lake of Lughaidh, son
of Ith, now called Corrane Lough, in the barony of Iveragh, county
of Kerry, and falls into the estuary of the Shannon. The Irish name
is dbainn Peile, or the River of Pial, daughter of Milidh, and wife
of Lugaid, son of Ith, who died while bathing in the river, and from
her the river was named. The word pial means bountiful, and the
river is remarkable for its abundance of excellent trout.
Frrovs.—The River Fergus, in the barony of Islands, in the
county of Clare. feapsup is a man’s name, and is one of the oldest
in Irish history. It has been derived from fpeap, aman, and sup,
strength.
Fineras [Pinnglap|.—The Finglas River, in the neighbourhood
of Dublin, the name of which in Irish is Pinnglaip, compounded of
Finn, clear, and slaip, which signifies a small river.
Finn [| Pionn |.—The three Finns, it is stated, began to flow in the
reign of Ipial Paich, son of Eremon. They are supposed to be the
present River Finn, with two of its tributaries, im the county of
Donegal, The name is written Fionn in the original Irish, and means
the clear-watered river. The River Finn rises in Loé Pionn, i.e. the
white or transparent lake, from which the river takes its name, and
unites with the Mourne at Lifford Bridge, called in Irish Onoicead
na Finne, or the bridge of the Finn River.
Frxesx [leape |.—In the reign of Fiacha Labhrainne, a.m. 3751, °
the following three rivers first began to flow—viz., the Flesk, Maine,
and Lubhran. The River Filesk, in Irish, Cleape, Gen. Pleipce, as
Cbainn na pleipce, the river of the Flesk. According to Seward,
there are two rivers of this name in the county of Kerry; one of them
flows into the River Mang, the other into the Lake of Killarney. The
word means a rod, moisture, and the name may signify the river of the
rods, or the inundating river.
Fusya.—In the reign of Cichmial, grandson of Heremon, the
eruption of these three black rivers happened, namely : Fubna,
hae
en Pee
Be eile See ee ae ee ee
451
Topando, and Callano—Lecan, f. 289. It is stated at f. 290, b.a., of
the same, that Mag Fubna, in Airgialla, was one of the plains
cleared of wood by Conmael, grandson of Eber. In a note in the
Annals, the Fubna is supposed to be the Una River, in Tyrone. There
is no word in our printed dictionaries that explains this name, but
it signifies the moaning or murmuring river. The Topann signifies
the noisy river, but the topographers have not made out its locality—
except it be the Zouro fiver, near Youghal. The Callann is the
River Callan, in the county of Armagh. The word means loud talk,
noise, or calling, and, perhaps, the name signifies the echoing river.
G.
Guirorr.—The 6leoin is the Irish name of a river which rises in
the parish of Kilglass, in the county of Sligo, and falls into the Bay of
Killala. The word gle6paé is still a living word in the same country,
and means a continued harmonious sound; and, accordingly, the name
signifies the harmonious-sounding river.
lif
Inny [€itne].—The River Inny flows into Lough Ree, in the
county of Westmeath. The Irish name is €itne, and, according to
the Book of Conquests, its eruption happened in the time of Heremon.
Its original name was Olaip1 beanamat, as stated in the Annals, and
it derived its second name from €itne, the wife of Concuban Mac
Neapa, King of Ulster, in the first century. The word signifies a kernel,
figuratively an endearing name for a lady, meaning “‘as pure as the
kernel of a nut.”
bg
Lacan [Leacac |.—The Lackah River, in the barony of Kilma-
erenan, county Donegal. In Irish it would be written leacaé, flaggy,
and thus it signifies the flaggy river.
Lacan [Lagdn]|.—The Lagan River, in the county Down, rises
in the Lagananny Mountain, a spur of the Mourne Mountains, passes
through the town of Dromore, and divides the counties of Down and
Antrim between Lisburn and Belfast, where it falls into Belfast
Lough. The name is derived from the word lagdn, a shallow valley
or hollow plain, through which the river flows. There are several low
districts which bear this name in various parts of Ireland—such as the
Lagan of Tireragh, and the Lagan of Tyrawley, in the counties of Sligo
and Mayo.
Lavne [learhain].—The Rover Laune, near Killarney, in the
county of Kerry. In Ivish it is written learhain, and signifies the
Elm tree River. The word given by O’Reilly in his Dictionary is
leamnan, the Elm tree, which in the Genitive makes leamdin ; and it
is evident that the name of the river is governed by the word abainn,
a river, which is understood. It is stated in the Annals that the
452
eruption of this river happened in the reign of Siorna Saeghlach,
A. M. 4169.
Laprann [ULabpann ].—The River Labnann, in the Gen. Lab-
painne, from which King Fiacha got the cognomen of Labpainne, is
supposed to be the Cashen River, in the county Kerry. It signifies
the babbling, echoing, or noisy river, derived from Labain, to talk,
and Cbainn, a river.
Lea [liat].—The Lea River, in the county of Kerry, falls into
Tralee Bay. ‘‘ Being supplied by several mountain streams, it is
pretty considerable in time of great floods.”.—Seward. The name
may be derived from lia, a flood, and may signify the inundating
river; or, from liat, grey, which, in the time of floods, would mean
the greyish-coloured river.
Leanan [Uenainn].— The Leanan River rises out of a small lough,
called Garton, in the parish of Gartan, in the barony of Kilmacrenan,
county of Donegal, and, after taking a circuitous course, flows by Ballyare
House, the pretty seat of Lord George Hill, and falls into Lough
Swilly at the town of Ramelton. The Irish name is Ucnainn, as
written in the Annals of the Four Masters, a. p. 1497, which may be
derived from Ucn, a marsh, and (bainn, a river, and therefore would
signify the marshy river. The brownish colour of its water would
indicate that it flows through bogs or marshes. The name of the
Bittern, in Irish, is bumedn-léana, which literally means the
trumpeter of the marsh.
Thave been favoured by an esteemed friend with another derivation
of the name. There is an old tradition among the people of that country,
that when St. Columba was a boy he was playing one day on the bank
of Lough Garton; and having come to the end of the lake, he said to it,
Lean mé, follow me, and forthwith a stream flowed out of the lough,
and followed him some distance; and hence the origin of the name
teandn, which in this sense would signify the Follower. It shows that
the old people believed that the parents of the saint lived near Lough
Garton.
Les [Uao1].—The River Lee issues from Guagane Barra, and flows
through the city of Cork. It is another of those very old rivers found
by Parthalon on his arrival in this country. In O’Clery’s Book of
Conquests it is called Laoi hi Mumain, Laoi in Munster; but, in the
Book of Leacan, 278, b.a., the name is written Lae. Like that of the
Liffey, I believe its meaning is lost. Ptolemy calls it Lwvvws—what-
ever that means—probably intended for Fluvius. The nearest word in
our dictionaries to the name is laog, a calf; and, according to this,
it would signify the Calf River, just as the Boyne means the Cow
River.
Lirrey [lipi].—The River Liffey, according to several writers,
rises in the county of Wicklow, and flows through the counties of Kil-
dare and Dublin. In O’Clery’s Book of Conquests the name is written
Cbann Upe eicip uib neill agup Laigne, the River Life between
Hy Niall and Leinster—that is, between the province or kingdom of
453
Meath and the province of Leinster. In the Book of Leacan, f. 273,
b.a., it gives Ruipeach .1. Gbano lipi, the Ruireach, i.e. the River
Inft. This also is one of the rivers found by Partholan in Ireland.
The name Ruipeaé is formed from puipe, a chief, prince, king, or
monarch; and hence the name signifies the chief or noble river—that
is, one of the chief rivers of Ireland. As to the name Uipe there is
not a word in O’Reilly’s Dictionary beginning with the syllable
lip, and we must therefore form the opinion that the meaning of
the name is lost, unless we may suppose that puipeaé is an explana
tion of it, i. e. a gloss upon the very old name.
[ Lirrey ].—1 am just now told by a great philologist that this
word should be written luipi or luibi, 1.e. herbage, which would be
very applicable to the rich meadow lands along the River Liffey.
Perhaps the medical herbalists gathered their herbs on its banks, and
called it the Herb River.
M
Marne [Mang ].—The River Mame, in Irish Mang, Gen. Mainse,
flows through the barony of Troughanacmy, county of Kerry, and
passes through the bridge of Castlemaine. The word means deceit,
and the name may signify the treacherous river, on account of its
sudden floods. :
Mourne [Modopn].—The Mourne River unites with the Finn,
and both flow into the Foyle River. In O’Clery’s copy of the
Book of Conquests the Irish name is Moohopn a Tip Cosain, the
Modhorn in Tyrone. In Lecan it is written Monoopn, and in the
Annals Modaipn; and this was the ancient name of the River
Foyle, flowing between the present counties of Tyrone and Donegal.
In the Book of Conquests it is given as one of the Partholanian rivers.
I often heard the word movapta used, as applied to the muddy water
of a river in the time of floods, which appellation probably was applica-
ble to the ancient river in Tip Co5ain, now Tyrone.
Moy [Muai6].—The River Moy is one of those found in Ireland
by Parthalon on his arrival. It rises at the foot of Knocknashea in
the barony of Leney, county of Sligo, and for a long distance divides
the counties of Mayo and Sligo, and falls into the Bay of Killala. In
Irish the name is written muaid, i.e., sound; and from the large
number of small cataracts on it, the name signifies the loud-sounding
river.
N.
Nanny Water [Cinge].—The Nanny Water flows between the
baronies of Upper and Lower Duleek, in the county of Meath. The
Irish name is Ciinge, or an Cinge, the Ainge, which has been angli-
eized Nanny, on the same plan with that of Newry—that is, by making
the n of the Article an the primary letter of the name Nanny. The
Trish name signifies the Treacherous River, probably on account of its
sudden floods. ,
454
Nort [Goip].—The ore, in Irish Goip, Gen. Goipe, and may
signify the Yew River. In the Book of Leacan, fol. 286, b.b., it is
written beoip, which is the word for beer, from which it might be
inferred that the water of the river was of a beer colour, or brownish.
Keating writes it peoip, which would mean the Grassy River.
|
ParnisK [Fionn uipse].—Phinisk River, -in the county of Water-
ford, empties itself into the Blackwater to the north of Drumana,
according to Seward. Its name is derived from fpionn, clear, and
uipse, water. He gives another river called the Fem, situate in the
barony of Imokilly, county Cork, which is similarly derived. In the
year 1820 I heard it related by several old Irish scholars, then in
Dubiin, that the Earl of Chesterfield took the idea of erecting the
Phoenix pillar, from the Irish name of a spring well in the centre of
the Phoenix Park, called Fionn uipge, which was anglicized Lent
similar to the name of the foregoing river.
R.
Rave, Water [Ppesabail].—The Ravel Water, in the county of
Antrim, joins the Dungonnel River, and their united waters fall into
the Maine Water. The Irish name is Ppegabail, which may signify
the Branch River, from gabal, a branch. It is one ofthe Heremonian
rivers. According to Lecan, fol. 290, b.a., Mas Oagabal, or plain of
the two branches or forks, cleared by Conmael, son of Eber, lay in
Oirgialla.
Roge [Rodba].—The Riwer Rode flows by a very circuitous course
in the south of the Co. Mayo, and, discharging itself into Lough Mask,
it ceases to be any further ariver, as the surplus waters of that lake are
conveyed by a subterraneous passage into Lough Corrib. The names
of the Irish rivers are almost all of the feminine gender, and it is
curious that this should be masculine, or rather of the neuter gender,
as baile an Rodba, the town of the Robe River, now Ballinrobe, in
the county of Mayo. The meaning of the word is subdued, lost, or
failed, signifying the river that was stopped, or failed, in its direct
course to the sea. :
Ross [Rop].—The Riwer Ross, in the barony of Clare, county of
Galway. The word Ross, in Trish por, means a promontory, as the
Rosses on the coast of Donegal. In the interior of the country it
signifies a wood or forest, as Ror Comain, the wood of Saint Coman, ~
who lived in the 8th century, and from that wood the present county —
of Roscommon derives its name. 3
Roveuty [Ruaécac]—The Roughty River, in the barony of Glena- 7
rought, in the county of Kerry, falls into the River Kemare, abainn ~
cinn Mapa, i.e., the river at the head of the sea. The Irish name of —
the River Roughty is Ruaécac, which means destructive, probably
on account of its great mountain floods. In an elegiac poem, composed
for Cormac Mac Carthy, of the county of Cork, who died in the year :
455
1704, the poet represents the rivers in Munster as lamenting his death,
some of them moaning, roaring, &c., and of this river he says:
Oo mé an Ruaécaé nuad ra plérbo1b
The Ruachtach ran red over the mountains.
Ryz-Warer [Rishe].—The Rye- Water River, in the barony of
Salt, county of Kildare. It is stated in the Book of Conquests, that
among the numerous rivers that began to flow in the reign of Here-
mon were the naoi Righe Laigh(n, or the Nine Righes of Leinster,
and evidently the Rye-Water is one of them. It is derived from
pighe, royal, and hence it signifies the Royal River.
S.
SHannon [Sinann].—The iver Shannon, according to some
writers, rises near Manorhamilton, in the county of Leitrim, while
others assert that its source is ‘‘at the foot of the towering Cuilceach
mountain, in the county of Cavan.” The Irish name is Nom. Sinano
and Sionann, Gen. Sionna and Sinainne, Dat. Sinainn. The deri-
vation of the name, according to the Leabap Oimnp{nchoip, or Book
of Oimnpeanéup, is as follows: the original text is from the Book of
Leacan, fol. 240, a.b., compared with that in Ballymote, fol. 204,
a. a. :
Sinano canup po hainmnigfo. nin. Sinano insfn tooain
tuchapslan mic lin chim caippnsip1 00 vecalo co cibnaio
Chonola puil pon muip oia Poipcpin. CTibpa pin Po caro ciuil
ocur imaip na hsp ocup nai cuill cpimaill ocup anaenuain
bnuccup a meap ocup a mblach ocur a nowlli ocup anaenuain
chuicio poppm cibparo co cocbaio pisgbpoin oo bolecaib con-
capoa Ppuipni co cocnalo na bpaoana in mfp conad he rug na
cno chuipcheap puar ina mbolcaib copcapoaib Co mbpuinoio.
ull. ppota fic ap ocup ampoao appichips. Curio 1a4nam Sinann
old falol5 inmaip an m cheapca nmi fulm ache poip luro Lapin
[puch conig1 no mna fele 1. Op ele ocup pechip mmcohup
Pomp! ocup cpaisir in cobap ocur po lean co hupu na haba
Cappchaen imapnaen iappuroi co capla a Tapppaen pulm ocup
po blaip bap incipm cheanocapalo unde Sinann ocup Lind mna
pele ocup Cappéain oicuntup.
TRANSLATION.
The Shannon, why so called? Answer. Sinann, the daughter of
Lodan of bright renown, the son of [Manannan Mac] Lir of Zar Taorrn-
geri [Land of Promise] that went to Conla’s Well, which is under
the sea, to perfect her acquirements. That is a fountain around which
are Muses and Sciences of Knowledge, and there are nine nutty hazel
trees there, which set forth their fruit, and their blossoms, and their
leaves at the one time; and it is at one time they drop down upon the
BR. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3 P
456
well, and [by their fall] they raise a succession of purple bubbles on
it [the well]. The salmon then [come forth from the rivers and]
chew the fruit, and it is the juice of the nuts that is sent up [in the
well] that produces the purple spots on their bellies; and seven streams
of knowledge flow forth from it [the fountain, and as the poem states
Sinann was the seventh stream |, and they [the salmon] return back
again [to the rivers]. Sinann then went to seek the [fruit of | know-
ledge, for she was not deficient in any thing else but perfect knowledge
[i.e., science]; and the stream [of knowledge] ran before her, and the
well ebbed, and she followed [the stream | to the brink of the River Tarr-
chaen [which means the place where she was upset by the confluence of
the two streams|. When she had come there, her Zarr Faen[i. e. belly
uppermost or upsetting] came upon her, and she tasted death in the
confluence, and hence Sinann, and Linn Mna Fele, and Tarrchain di-
cuntur.”
Perhaps a more simple derivation of the Sinann may be accept-
able—viz., from Sin, old, and abainn, river—the Old River.
Sxirt [ Scipcac ].—In the reign of Sionna Mace Oen, a.m. 4169,
the eruption of the three following rivers happened :—the Sciptac, or
Skirt, in Leinster, which may signify the Slhppery, i.e. Shimy Ruver ;
the Ooailc, compounded of 00, a negative or intensive particle, and alc,
a precipice or high bank, in Cmoé Rorp, in the south of the county of
Monaghan, and the Nich in the county of Louth, now the River of
Ardee. See Dee River.
Staine [Sldine].—The River Slaine is a small stream which falls
into the Boyne, near Slane, on the north side of the river. It is stated
that it first began to flow a.m. 4169, in the reign of Siopna paoglac,
or Siorna the long-lived; and is, therefore, one of our oldest rivers.
The name signifies the Healthy River, derived from pldn, healthy.
Siieo | Sugeach |.—Sligeach is the name of the River Sligo, and
signifies the Shelly River, from plige, ashell. It is stated that this
is one of the rivers found by Partholan on his arrival in this country,
about 3800 years after the Flood. It flows out of Loc 6ile, or the
Lake of Gile, who was the daughter of Mananndn Mac Up, thegreat
Irish navigator, and it falls into the Bay of Sligo.
‘Szusu-Brarn [Spub bpaim] is the name of a river in the west of _
Kerry. It is mentioned in the Book of Conquests, in the Dinnsean-
chus, and in Keating’s History of Ireland, and to the following effect :—
The great champion Cuchullin, about the beginning of the first cen-
tury, happening to be on the peaks of Boirche, near the source of the
River Bann, he saw a great flight of black birds coming on the sea to
the north ; and on their landing upon the shore, he pursues them, and by
a feat called cait béim killed one of them with his sling in every dis-
trict he passed through, until the last great bpan fell in the west of
Kerry. And the Dinnseanchus states that a stream of blood flowed
from this monster bird, in which Cuchullin washed his hands, and then _
named the stream Spub Opain, which signifies the Raven River. On |
his return from the west, he carried off Blathnaid from Cataip Conpaol,
457
who made a sign to him by pouring milk into a stream, which after
that was called pionnglaipe, i.e. the White Stream, anglicized Finglas.
Suck | Suc].—The River Suck, in Irish Suc, which makes Suca in
the gen. singular and nom. plural; for we are informed that there were
three Suca, which sprang up between the lands of Galway and Roscom-
mon in the time of Eremon. The 7hree Sucs are the one which bears the
name at present with its two tributaries—the Sheffin and the River of
Clonbrock, in the county of Galway, and in their united form they fall
into the Shannon at Shannon Bridge. In a MS. in the Library of the
Royal Irish Academy, C. 28, p. 1, the word Succaz, which is evi-
dently from the same root with Suc or Suca, is explained by a gloss
thus : — Succac .1. tneun no pogluaipce, succat, i. e. powerful or
quick in motion. The word cpeun, powerful or forcible, would be ap-
plicable to this river with its impetuous and swift-flowing current.
_ Sure (Siuip].—The Suir, the Wore, and the Barrow. The Suir,
in Irish Siuip, Gen. pruipe, is one of the rivers that began to flow in
the reign of Irial, son of Eremon, a.m. 3520. The name of this
river means a sister ; and probably from this the three rivers here given
have been called by several writers The Three Sisters. This river
rises in the Devil’s Bit Mountain, and unites with the Barrow at
Comap na ccm nuipcce, or the Meeting of the Three Waters, about a
mile below Waterford.
Switty [Suileach ].—The River Swilly falls into Lough Swilly at
Letterkenny, in the county of Donegal. In the Annals the name of this
river is written Abainn Suiteach, which signifies the Willowy River,
from puil, the willow or sally tree, and is the name of the letter S
in the Irish alphabet. In the parish of Gartan, and not far from this
river, is a lake called Loé beataé, which means the Birch Lake.
Ak
Toracn [Toptac].—The River Toragh, in Irish Toptac, ‘which
unites with the River Blackwater near Youghal, signifies the fruitful or
productive river, probably from the large quantity of fish found in its
waters.
U.
Urysion [Uimnnpion ].—In the time of Eremon the Three Uinn-
riona, or Uinsions, began to flow in the present barony of Tirerroll, in
the county of Sigo. The word uimnpion is the name of the Ash tree,
which in modern Irish is written puinpion and fuinnfpeds, and no
doubt but those rivers were named from the Ash tree woods which grew
along their banks. These rivers, itis said, are not now traceable, except
one of them be the river which runs along the Union Wood, in Irish
Coill na h-Unsion, to the east of Collooney, in which the Ash naturally
grows in abundance. There is a river called the River Uinnsion in the
barony of Fermoy, county of Cork, and I am informed by Mr. Long
that the Ash grows abundantly in the valley along its banks as an ind1-
genous tree.
458
Urrin {lubap Abamn].—Urrin, a river in the barony of Scara-
walsh, in the Co. Wexford. The name is derived from 1ubap (the Yew).
and abainn (river). The town of Newry derives its name from a large
yew tree, which stood at the head of the strand there in the time of St.
Patrick, and was called luban ¢inn Tpagsa, 1. e. the Yew at the head of
the strand. At a later time it was simply called Gn lubap (the Yew),
and in anglicizing it the n of the article became the primary letter of the
name—thus, V-Awry, and it has been called by several writers The
Newry. The word 1uban (a Yew tree), has been derived by an old
glossographer from e6 (semper), and bapp (a top), signifying the ever-
green top. The former word e6 has been also used to denote the Yew
tree, and hence Mag-e6 (the Plain of the Yews), from which the county
of Mayo has got its name.
XLIX.—Own an AnctEnt Cup anp BroocHes, FOUND NEAK ARDAGH, IN
THE County or Limerick. By the Right Hon. the Kart or Dun-
RAVEN.
[ Abstract. |
[Read February 22, 1869. ]}
Taz Earl of Dunraven read a paper on a very ancient and remarkable
cup, and several brooches, discovered in September, 1868, in a rath
close to the village of Ardagh, in the county of Limerick. They were
found by aman digging potatoes within the rath. The cup is seven
inches in height, and nine and a half inches in diameter ; it is composed of
an alloy of silver, and ornamented with gold work of interlaced and
various other designs of the highest period of Celtic art, and also with
enamels of beautiful character and finish. Round the bowl was an
inscription, composed of the names of the twelve Apostles. The form
of the letters is that found only in the earliest Irish MSS.—for
example, the Book of Durrow, sixth century, the Book of Kells, the
Book of Dimma, the Durham Book, &c. &c., all prior to the 9th
century. There can be little doubt that this cup was a chalice. Two-
handled chalices were in use before the 11th or 12th century. They
were of two kinds—those which were used for the Communion of the
minor clergy and the laity, and those which were only employed
for ornament, being hung between ‘the pillars of churches or before
the altar. Several examples of both kinds are mentioned in the
paper. With respect to the age of this precious relic of early Irish
art, judging by the inscription, it would appear to be prior to the 9th
century; but the workmanship is of the highest period of that art,
which, according to Dr. Petrie, culminated about the 11th century.
The 10th century may, therefore, be taken as the probable period in
which this most beautiful cup was executed. ,
Within the chalice were found a small cup, a chalice of bronze, and
four brooches. The cup is five and a half inches in diameter, and is
459
quite plain. The brooches or fibule are composed of an alloy of
silver. One of them is of remarkable size, being thirteen and a half
inches in length, and six inches in breadth. The front is gilt, and
covered with various interlaced patterns, and is one of the finest
examples of its class remaining in Ireland.
L.—Own a Mopirtcatron or Reenavrr’s ConpEensine Hyeromerter,
WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE PsycHROMETER. By M. Donovan,
M. R. I. A., Member of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.
[Read April 12, 1869. |
Tue dulness produced on the outside of a glass vessel by pouring
water into it much colder than itself has given origin to a number of
instruments intended to present that result with facility and precision,
as a means of ascertaining the quantity of aqueous vapour contained,
at any particular moment, in a certain volume of air—of determining
the temperature at which it would begin to precipitate, and of disco-
vering what quantity of water the atmosphere could still hold in
addition to that which it already contains.
Amongst these, Daniell’s Hygrometer held a conspicuous place: it
was, however, far from being a satisfactory instrument. Its imperfec-
tions have been fully stated by Regnault. (‘‘Annales de Chimie,” xv.,
5 jb O4,).
a ee these imperfections, M. Regnault contrived a Hygrome-
ter on the principle of condensation, which he found to act satisfacto-
rily. The following is his account of it:—An exceedingly thin and
highly polished hollow silver cylinder, the diameter of which is 0-787
inch, and its length 1°77 inch, is accurately fitted, by grinding, to a
glass tube, open at both ends. The upper end of this tube is closed
with a cork, which is traversed through its axis by the stem of a very
sensible and correct Thermometer. The bulb, or rather the cylindrical
reservoir, of the Thermometer occupies the axis of the silver cylinder,
or thimble as Regnault calls it. A very slender air tube of glass, open
at both ends, passes through another hole in the same cork, and
descends nearly to the bottom of the thimble. The upper part of the
containing glass tube has a small lateral tubulature, which communi-
cates, by a slender leaden tube, with a distant aspirator filled with
water. When the instrument is to be used, ether is poured into
the thimble until it rise a little way above the bulb of the Thermome-
ter. The water of the aspirator is then allowed to flow: air passes
through the air tube, and issues out of its lower end through the ether,
which is thus vaporized, and produces cold. This cooling process is
to be cautiously continued until the temperature be found at which a
faint cloudiness can be maintained on the silver thimble by the con-
densation of atmospheric moisture.
460
As it is necessary to know the temperature of the air at that
moment, in order to determine the fraction of saturation, Regnault
places another Thermometer in a second silver thimble and glass tube
lke the first, but unconnected with the aspirator, and not containing
ether. Both thimbles being placed near each other on a proper stand,
and being equally polished, the constrast presented by one, as soon as
the dew begins to be formed on it, renders the deposition evident.
With regard to the advantages of this Hygrometer, M. Regnault
observes, that the temperature of the ether must be uniform on account
of the continual passage of air bubbles; the very thin silver thimble
must be of the same temperature; the observer may be at a great
distance, viewing the process through a small telescope, and hence
exhalations are avoided.
Notwithstanding the advantages of this Hygrometer, it is not
without some inconvenience, which, to be fully appreciated, must be
experienced during its management. The cork, which admits the
stem of the Thermometer and the air tube, being only ?-inch diame-
ter, and perforated by two holes, is much weakened, and is thus ren-
dered difficult to be withdrawn without being broken, along with the
Thermometer, so often as experiments may require. The junctures
must be secured with cement, and re-cemented as often as it is neces-
sary to renew the spoiled residue of ether. Any leakage would defeat
the object. All this implies risk to so delicate an apparatus, as well
as much trouble in its management.
There is another inconvenience which Regnault himself points
out—namely, the bulk of the aspirator, and the necessity of procuring
water enough to supply it, which might be difficult in an open coun-
try on an expedition of research. He observes, however, that the
aspirator may be dispensed with, if a mouthpiece and stop-cock be
affixed to the leaden tube. The operator thus breathes (souffle) through
the ether, and thus produces cold; but, considering the anesthetic
effect of the ethereal vapour, the inspiration by this method might
have disagreeable consequences, and the expiration would blow out
the ether.
I have mentioned these inconveniences as my apology for venturing
to propose a modification of an instrument coming from so high an
authority. I now proceed to a description of it. On a circular brass
foot is erected a brass pillar, twelve inches in height, carrying on its
top a horizontal piece, at the under surface of which is screwed a
brass socket pointing downwards. Into this socket is cemented a
depending vertical glass tube, open at both ends, seven inches in length.
The outside diameter of this tube must be such that it will fit into
a silver cylinder made as thin as possible; into this cylinder the tube
enters about half an inch, and: is firmly fixed there by gluing. The
silver cylinder, closed at the bottom, will contain ether without the
possibility of escape in any other manner than in vapour through the
top of the tube, when the pressure of the air is withdrawn. The
461
cylinder is 2;% inches in length, and half an inch in diameter. It is
polished to the highest lustre. Within the glass tube is a Thermometer,
the mercurial reservoir of which is cylindrical, and about the same
length as the silver cylinder. When the Thermometer is in its place,
and ether poured in, the mercurial reservoir—which for the future I
shall call its bulb—is immersed. The graduated scale is fixed outside
the glass tube, which contains the stem of the Thermometer, and the
indications of the mercurial thread can easily be read through the
tube. with precision. The scale is graduated to every half-degree
between 15° and 110°, and quarter-degrees or less can be easily read off.
The Thermometer is cemented at top to a brass cap, carrying an ad-
justing screw, which permits the precise adaptation of the mercurial
thread within to the freezing point marked on the scale without—an
adaptation the more necessary, as the Thermometer sometimes requires
to be taken out and cleansed from an oily matter deposited by the
ether during its evaporation.
The brass socket, which sustains the glass tube and included Ther-
mometer, has an air passage drilled through its axis, and continued
through the horizontal piece down through the axis of the pillar to
the edge of the circular brass foot, where it ends in a stop-cock; to
this may occasionally be attached a flexible metal tube, * of the
smallest bore, six or eight feet long, to the other end of which is
occasionally connected a small exhausting syringe; the piston should
work rather freely, as much exhaustion is not necessary; the valve
should be of sheep’s bladder.
The effect of this arrangement is, that by working the piston the
glass tube containing the thermometer is more or less exhausted; the
ether bubbles up, and evaporates rapidly or slowly as required; the
silver cylinder, after a while, suddenly becomes dull with condensed
atmospheric aqueous vapour, and the Thermometer within indicates the
temperature at which the first dulness had taken place. This is the
dew point, under certain restrictions, to be described hereafter.
In the bottom of the silver cylinder is soldered a very slender
recurved silver tube, the bore of which is not quite one-twentieth of an
inch ; it communicates with the interior of the silver cylinder, not only
at the bottom, but by three minute equidistant holes, where it passes
up, and is soldered to the side of the ferule; it continues along the back
of the thermometric scale, and terminates at the top in aslightly tapering,
almost cylindrical funnel. Through this the ether is introduced, which
then runs down into the cylinder beneath, fills it, and rises about half
an inch into the glass tube, on which the cylinder is cemented. ‘he
above-mentioned cylindrical funnel serves another very important pur-
pose that will be described hereafter.
“ * Indian rubber, although more convenient, would be soon destroyed.
462
The slender silver tube not only admits ether to the cylinder, but
permits air to pass through the four minute holes in streams of small
bubbles, which, as in Regnault’s Hygrometer, keep the ether in conti-
nued agitation, and therefore in an uniform temperature. The air vapo-
rizes ether at each hole; both are drawn off by the exhaustion when the
syringe is made to act, and cold is produced sufficient at all seasons to
cause the deposition of atmospheric moisture, or even to freeze it on the
silver cylinder.
It might be supposed, perhaps, that one aperture at the bottom of
the cylinder, as in Regnault’s instrument, might supply air in such a
manner as to produce equalization of temperature. JI found it other-—
wise. Cold is chiefly generated at the point where air is transmitted ;
the abstraction of heat takes place chiefly at the expense of the silver,
and the ether is cooled as a secondary process. Accordingly, when I
employed a cylinder with one opening in the bottom to admit air, the
cloud appeared on the bottom long before it could be discovered on
any other part; but when I procured a cylinder perforated with three
additional holes, the cloud appeared on all parts at once. The holes
must be made by means of the finest sewing needle, made into a drill ;
should they be larger than such a drill will make, the vacuum will be
supplied with air from the uppermost holes alone, and there only will the
condensation of vapour take place for some time.
On closely observing the formation of dew on a condensing Hy-
grometer, made by Negretti and Zambra according to the published
instructions of M. Regnault, I found that this very result occurred ; the
obscuration took place at the bottom of the silver thimble, where the
common air permeates the ether in a single stream; and not until the
included thermometer had lowered two degrees more was the whole
thimble clouded. It would, therefore, be always a question which, the
initial or the final, was the true dew point.
Hitherto, to avoid confusion, I have described but one Thermometer ;
but in Regnault’s instrument there is a second, fixed within an inch of
the first, and parallel to it. The bulb of this Theromometer is, like the
other, enclosed in a silver cylinder; but it contains no ether. One of
its uses is to show, by contrast, when the other becomes dull with con-
densed vapour, and also to indicate the temperature of the air at the
time of making the experiment. In my modification of the instrument
I use a second Thermometer similarly placed with the same objects,
but also with an additional one. This second Therometer is merely
screened in front by a half silver cylinder—that is, a cylinder divided in
the direction of its axis. This half cylinder is fixed to an arm, remoy-
able to one side when not in use. I employ this second Thermometer
for a purpose that adds greatly to the utility of the instrument. The
Psychrometer, or wet-bulb Thermometer, is much in use on account not
only of giving the dew point by an easy calculation, but of its affording
a certain amount of information by mere inspection. My second Ther-
mometer acts in the capacity of a Psychrometer. Its long cylindrical
463
reservoir of mercury is covered with a light casing of the finest cambric,
sewed on in a single roll. The cambric is kept continually wet by a
small glass fountain, which preserves a constant level of distilled water,
and discharges it on the cambric, very little faster than it evaporates,
by means of a woollen thread reaching from the fountain to the cambric ;
any redundant drops are received in a little glass basin below. Thus
we have a Psychrometer always ready for observation, the wet bulb
showing the depression, and the dry bulb, in its silver cylinder, affording
the other element required for calculating the fraction of saturation,
When the instrument is to be thus employed, the half silver cylinder,
not being required, is to be removed to one side. Both silver surfaces
should be kept as highly polished as possible; the wet point of a finger,
with a very small portion of rouge (peroxide of iron), gently rubbed on
the surface until dry, will leave it brilliant. When not in use, both should
be kept continually covered with chamois-leather cases, any condensed
moisture having been previously wiped off.*
The parts of the instrument are so placed with regard to each other,
that, being comprised within a small compass, the whole may be covered
by a French shade as a protection against dust and corrosion; but
the French shade contributes to purposes of greater importance. M.
Regnault observes—‘‘ When observations are made in the open air, it
becomes evident how much the hygrometric state varies from one instant
to another, in consequence of incessant changes of temperature. When
the Hygrometer is maintained at the dew-point, the silver is observed to
tarnish, and resume its lustre, according as the lightest breath comes
from one side or the other.”’ I may add that, on this account, it is often
difficult or impracticable to discover what the dew-point 1s which truly
represents the condition of the atmosphere. I have repeatedly encoun-
tered this difficulty. On one occasion it had been raining incessantly
for seven hours; on working the exhausting syringe for a short time,
the silver would suddenly become white all over, and in a few moments
after it would become perfectly bright, although the mercury had been
kept stationary all the time. It is on account of the continual changes
which take place in the atmosphere that the indications of the Hygro-
meter are so uncertain and difficult to be ascertained in the open air—
the proper place for observation. The passage of clouds, or even their
vapours over the sun, will cause a perceptible rise or fall of temperature,
according to the density of the cloud; and the changes will be easily
discoverable by the varying effect of the syringe on the silver cylinder.
The French shade, if used in the following manner, will obviate
the effects of these currents and damp breezes, The French shade be-
ing removed, let the syringe be cautiously used until the silver cylinder
become dull. After a few moments, its lustre will be recovered, even
though its:' Thermometer be kept stationary by a few short strokes of
the piston; for the mercury is parting with the residue of the heat
* Figs. 1, 2 in Plate XXX. give a correct idea of the whole instrument.
R.I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3Q
464
which it had not given off during the first action of the syringe. Let
the French shade be now put on, and let the syringe be cautiously
worked again until the silver be rendered dull; one or two short strokes
may suffice. Theincluded Thermometer will at this moment indicate
the dew-point. So speedy is the abstraction of heat permitted to be
by the long slender shape of its mercurial reservoir, that the second
dulness may generally be relied on as indicative of the final reduction
to the temperature of the dew-point.
When the French shade is thus used, care must be taken that the
air contained in it be at the same temperature and hygrometric condi-
tion as the air in which the experiment is made. The best way is to keep
the French shade standing inverted, for a few minutes previously, near
the Hygrometer.
Other advantages attend these arrangements:—The French shade
prevents the commixture of aqueous exhalations from the breath and
person of the operator with the air under trial. The operator may be
as close as is necessary to the Hygrometer; he is relieved from the em-
barrassment of observing the descent of the mercury, and the formation
of the first cloudiness on the silver at the same moment that he is occu-
pied in regulating the stopcock of the aspirator, and doing all this at
such a distance as to require the aid of a small telescope. In this mode
of proceeding the telescope, the aspirator, its support, and the vessel of
water are rendered unnecessary.
Many experiments have convinced me that the occasional aid almost
momentary adoption of the French shade has no effect in complicating
the results; that it merely obviates the uncertainty arising from sudden
gusts of wind, carrying variable quantities of vapour, and prevents the
breath and exhalation of the operator from coming into immediate con-
tact with the silver indicator, although, by mixing with the ambient
air, 1t must ultimately do so; but not until it has been brought to the
temperature of the vaporized ether by passing through it.
The grand difficulty in using all Hygrometers on the condensing
principle is that of ascertaining with precision the moment when the
first cloud appears on the polished silver or glass; practice will over-
come it. A choice of situation with regard to the direction of the light
is important. Although I have applied the word cloud to the change
induced on the silver cylinder by condensation of the aqueous vapour
on it, there really ought to be no actual obscuration of the polish; the
Thermometer would then be below the dew-point. The change should
not amount to more than an alteration in the hue of the silver, to be
observed best by comparison with the halfcylinder. The polish of both
should be exquisite.
For the purpose of meteorological researeh, the apparatus, as
hitherto described, would be difficult to manage, if not impracticable.
To meet the exigencies of an open country, a mountain district, or the
depths of a mine, the arrangements must be different. For these pur-
poses, the part of the Hygrometer which contains the enclosed Thermo-
meter and silver cylinder must be unscrewed from the stand, the
469
remaining parts being not then required. The apparatus is furnished
with two or three yards of vulcanized India rubber tube of the smallest
bore, one end of which perforates a cork nicely fitted to the slightly
tapering silver funnel through which ether is supplied to the silver
cylinder ; to the other end is attached a small stopcock, connected with
a large flaccid bladder, or air bag, such as is commonly used for gases.
The Hygrometer, thus fitted up, now constitutes an independent instru-
ment, which may be used as follows :—Some ether (lightest) being
poured in through the funnel, the cork holding the tube is to be inserted,
and the instrument fixed in any convenient situation; the observer,
stationed at a distance of several feet, places the inflated bladder under
his arm or foot, and, moderately pressing it, regulates the passage of
the air by the stopcock ; and through a small telecope watches the effect
until the first cloud appear on the silver. The telescope renders the
degrees of the Thermometer, and the height of the mercurial column,
distinct to even the eighth* of a degree; but the distance of the observer
must be limited to that at which the first invasion of the tarnish on the
silver can be perceived: for my own part, with a telescope, I could
barely perceive the incipient cloud at the distance of eleven fect, in a
most favourable light.
The action of the bladder is precisely the same as that of the
aspirator or syringe; it is easily inflated, when the stopcock is removed,
by a few expirations of breath.
Regnault was able to make several determinations of dew-point
with his Hygrometer, in which ‘‘ he obtained results perfectly identical
in succesive determinations. The experiments were made in a large
ampitheatre, of which the temperature and hygrometric condition changed
very slowly.”’ In my trials I could obtain but few identical results
within an hour; many of them were made in the months of February
and March, 1869, memorable for rain and storms; in the open air,
during a calm, the indications scarcely varied half a degree in successive
experiments during an hour. Indeed, under equal circumstances, it is
difficult to see why there should be any variation; at the proper tem-
perature, moisture will precipitate from the air, and bright silver will
become dull without fail. The only source of uncertainty is the visual
capability of the observer at the proper distance.
We come now to consider the use and application of the Psychro-
meter, or wet bulb Thermometer. The chief point to be attended to,
in order to determine the dew-point and fraction of saturation, is the
true depression of the mercury effected by the evaporation of water
from what may be called the bulb. Ifthe instrument be used by
merely wetting the cambric envelope, and leaving it to spontaneous
* Reonault reads off his Thermometer to one-tenth of a degree; but that is centi-
grade, The centigrade is to Fahrenheit as 1°°8 is to 1°.
466
evaporation in still air, the maximum depression will not be attained.
To produce the maximum effect, the bulb and its envelope must be ex-
posed to a brisk current. When there is no natural current, an artificial
one must be created, suchas by a bellows, a fanner, or by swinging the
bulb. Such a proceeding will reduce the mercury to the lowest degree
that is possible by the action of theair. Even in the open air, unless
the breeze be strong, artificial aid of this kind must be employed. As
already observed, there is often great difficulty in coming to a just con-
clusion, in consequence of the rapid changes which the air experiences
in temperature and hygrometric condition. It is to the case of the
open air that the difficulty applies; for the experiment may be easily
and correctly made when an artificial current is created. But in every
ease, even in a brisk breeze, it will be prudent to assist the evaporation
by the fanner, so that the utmost depression may be certainly obtained.
The kind of fanner is far from being immaterial; for not only must
evaporation from the bulb take place, but the resulting aqueous vapour
must be removed from the immediate vicinity of the evaporating surface.
This will be best effected by the use of a large fanner. I found a strong
pasteboard, eight inches square, with a firm handle fixed to one side,
to answer best; it should be used by quick extensive swinging strokes,
for such will generally sink the mercury half a degree lower than rapid
short strokes. If a bellows be used, the nozzle must be kept about fifteen
inches from the bulb; if very near, the blast will cause a slight elevation
of the mercury, instead of areduction, as was long ago observed by
Cassini and de la Hire (‘‘ Memoirs of the Royal Acad., Paris,” 1710).
I conceive that the want of agreement, noticed by Dr. Apjohn, be-
tween the observed and calculated dew-points, in some of his experiments
(‘‘Trans. of the Royal Irish Academy,” vol. xvii., p. 291) is not attribut-
able to the coefficient having been assumed too great, but that the depres-
sions were too small; for he omitted to promote evaporation from the
wet bulb by artificial means; yet such expedients are necessary to the
attainment of the correct elasticity of the aqueous vapour.
Having thus described the two instruments which I have combined
into one, it remains to make some observations on the question whether
the Psychrometer is capable of affording true results by the adaptation
of certain calculations to its indications. Many years since, Professor
Apjohn communicated to the Royal Irish Academy a formula for finding
the dew-point by the wet bulb Thermometer, and described many
experiments which showed that the calculated dew-points agreed in a
striking manner with those obtained by experiment. The following is
his formula :—
f= f= md + at
in which f” is the tension of steam at the dew-point ; f’, its tension at
the temperature of the wet bulb ; d, the depression, or difference between
467
the temperature of the air and wet bulb; yp, the existing; and 30, the
mean pressure; m is a coefficient depending on the specific heat of
air and the caloric of elasticity of its included vapour, its arithmetical
value being ‘01149, or the equivalent vulgar fraction 7, Which he
afterwards says he is ‘‘ disposed to consider as more correctly repre-
sented by the fraction ,4,,” but has not been able fully to satisfy him-
self (‘‘ Phil. Mag.” vii., 472). In constructing the following Tables, I
have used the fraction ,, as coefficient.
The other formula is that of Professor August, of Berlin, modified
by Regnault (‘‘ Pogeendorf Annal.,” vol. v., 2 series, p. 69) :
0. 429 (¢ - ¢#)
Bee CSG tA.
h,
in which z is the elastic force of aqueous vapour actually in the air; f
and f’ are the elastic forces of the saturated vapour of water for the
temperatures ¢ and 7’; ¢ is the temperature of the air and dry bulb; ?,
the temperature of the wet bulb; A, the height of the barometer;
610—7’ is the latent heat of the vapour of the water; the coefficient
0°429 requires occasional variation, as will be seen hereafter.
The following Table contains a few fractions of saturation calculated
by Apjohn’s formula, from his test experiments, using z4, as the coefficient ;
in deducing them I have employed the elasticities of vapour given in
Regnault’s Tables, as interpreted and corrected for the latitude of Dublin
by the Rev. R. V. Dixon. I have placed beside them the fractions of
saturation, calculated by the modified formula of August, the French
temperatures and pressures being converted into English equivalents :—
Taste I.
|
‘Fraction of Satura-
tion by Apjohn’s
Formula, derived
Fraction of Satura-
tion by August’s
|
|
| Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb,
g
o
a
4 Barometer. 5 ;_ | Formula, modified o
Fahr. Fahr. from Test Experi- 2 : B
ments. Coefficient | by Regnault’s, c=
8 Coefficient *429. a
8.
° fo)
78 62 °2 30°30 *395 383 0°012
SOND 67 30°15 "274 ral 7003
68 60 °3 30°42
72 62 30°51
77 65 30°51
69 | 58°6 | 30°30
72 | 60 | 30°30
92 69 | 30°42
(te)
CO
Or
aj
—
Or
o3
oO
©
(=p
SIS] 2) S&S SO] &) &)
bo
Or
—
SS) oo e So © ©)
ARR BO ee
ING
S
QS Sooo 2 OS &
SS
—_—
—
468
These fractions coincide as nearly as could be expected, and some of
them in a remarkable manner ; and are, so far, calculated to inspire con-
fidence in both the formule compared. But it 1s necessary to test
them under other circumstances of temperature and moisture.
Regnault, in order to test the formula of August modified by him-
self, made many experiments in which the aqueous vapour was ab-
sorbed from a certain volume of atmospheric air, and weighed, the
moisture of another portion of the same air being calculated, by the ap-
plication of the formula to the indications of the Psychrometer. He has
constructed a Table in which the fractions of saturation derived from
both sources are given. The following Table contains anumber of his
determinations, converted into English temperatures, pressures, and
elasticities; and beside each I have placed the fraction of saturation,
derived from the same data, by means of Apjohn’s formula, with coef-
ficient 88.
Tasre I].
| ; Fraction of Satura-| Fraction of Satura-
Dry Bulb, | Wet Bulb, |p, ometer,| Fraction of Satura-| tion by Apjohn’s | tion by August's
Fahr. Fahr. ’/ tion by Weighing. | Formula. Coef- | modified Formula.
ficient 88. Coefficient °429.
° °
65°25 51°15 29°70 0°344 03°48 0°337
64°54 52°98 Zaps) > 7 0-438 0-448 0°438
64°50 54°51 29°57 0°496 0°517 0°507
64°18 46°88 29 2 0-193 (PPA 0°197
62°02 50-1 29°94 0°377 0°408 0°396
59°48 49-14 30°02 0°420 0°457 0°417
57°33 45°61 30°10 0-362 0°366 0°256
55°72 47°96 29°78 0-506 0°555 0°551
55°61 48:90 29°50 0-597 0°613 0° 609
54°57 45°70 30°10 0-466 0 °484 0°474
48-90 42°12 ZO 0°545 0-559 0-554
44°89 41°52 29°48 0-731 0°753 0°750
In the above Table the fractions of saturation obtained by Apjohn’s
and by August’s modified formule agree tolerably well with the weights
ascertained by Regnault. Both formule give fractions a little higher.
But the following Table will show that the two formule disagree ma-
terially with the weights in the case of low temperatures and very
humid atmospheres :—
469
Taste III.
|
Fraction of Satura-|Fraction of Satura-
Dry Bulb, | Wet Bulb, Fraction of Satura-| tion by Apjohn’s byAugust’s mo-
ahr. ‘ahr. | Barometer.) tion by Weighing. | Formula. Coef- dified Formula.
ficient 88. Coefficient °429. |
° °
49°37 48°00 30°16 0°8734 0°8712 0°904 |
47°42 46°21 30°32 0°8533 0°8457 0°891
47°00 44°17 29°45 0 °7436 0°8013 Ono, |
45 86 42°98 30°39 0 -8406 0°7905 0°859
45°53 43°19 29°45 0°7659 0 °8304 0°826
45°07 43°72 30°41 0°8503 0-8990 0°896
44°34 40°41 29°74 0°6193 0°7082 0° 694
44°78 44°51 30°39 0°9626 0 -9857 OS D78
42°44 41°74 30°24 0 °8314 0°9440 0-943
42°17 40°03 29°87 0°7576 0°8311 0 828
42°15 40°17 29°66 0°8035 0°8410 0°84t
34°47 34°05 29-89 0°9877 0-9600 0-959
33°53 32°52 29°74 0°8183 0°9020 0°904
In these cases also the formule of Apjohn and August agree pretty
nearly; but both give fractions of saturation very different from those
obtained by Regnault’s process of weighing the aqueous vapour of the
atmosphere. The result of this process, used by Regnault as a test of
the efficiency of August’s formula, would no doubt be decisive if that
result could be obtained by a momentary observation, and at the same
moment in which the observations of the wet bulb were made, which is
impracticable on account of the length of time required for the trans-
mission of a sufficiency of the air operated on through the drying tubes.
Regnault himself elsewhere says this method ‘ does not give the quan-
tity of humidity which exists in the air at a determinate moment.” In
an experiment of his, the passage of the air through the drying tube
occupied an hour and a half: great changes may occur in that period.
We find from the preceding facts and considerations that the formulze
proposed by Apjohn and August for ascertaining the dew-point and
fraction of saturation by the wet bulb Thermometer do not lead to a
coincident result, and that Regnault’s weighing process disagrees in
general with both formule, and is not to be viewed as a test of either.
So far as absolute precision 1s concerned, we may say that, of the three
methods, not any one is supported by the testimony of either of the
other two. It is to be regretted that under these circumstances Reg-
nault did not adduce the evidence of his own ‘‘ condenser,” which tells
its story at once without calculation or the introduction of uncertain
quantities, although it is subject to errors arising from the difficulty of
accurate observation. ‘The only observations quoted by him, made with
his condensing Hygrometer, are those of M. Izarin, which are to the
full as discordant as any of the rest.
470
I have made a great number of experiments with my modification
of the condensing Hygrometer, for the purpose of contrasting the dew-
points observed by it with those determined by the wet bulb Thermo-
meter. The following Table contains a selection of them, many being
rejected on account of obvious mismanagement, mistakes, or doubts :—
Tasre LY.
Temperature Temperature Dew Point, Dew Point
of (0) calculated Co- y
the Air. Wet Bulb. efficient 88. Condenser.
fo) fo) fo) °
52°28 45°5 37°5 37°76
60°10 55°5 D2 S22
63°53 57°5 53°2 53 °2
59°5 D275 46°56 46°5
60°25 55°5 52°25 52:0
61°2 58 56-1 56°95
66 58 52°36 52
63 57°5 55 53
66°5 DEF 52°38 52°5
64°5 58 53°56 035
62°5 55°75 50°75 50°5
07°75 54°5 52 POH)
64 57:0 52°15 AOS:
60°5 50°85 51°8 52°25
59 54 50°1 52°25
57°5 54°75 53-1 52°75
60°25 56 53 53
63 56°5 51°75 52
51% 50°2 49 49°5
52°5 50°75 49°3 49°3
52 50°5 49 3 49°d
IL ess) 50°5 49°6 49°5
60°75 59°5 42°83 42
The condensing Hygrometer, founded as it is on an universally
admitted principle, is no doubt, when carefully made, skilfully ma-
nipulated, and correctly observed, a reliable instrument for obtaining
accurate information of the hygrometric condition of the atmosphere.
The material employed as the indicator of atmospheric moisture by
Le Roy, Dalton, and Daniell was glass, an hygroscopic substance
in its own nature, and used as such in the Hygrometer of Hoch-
heimer. But glass complicates, although in a very slight degree,
the evidence of the instrument, by bringing chemical affinity into
operation, and so far resisting evaporation, which, in this case, ought to
be the only agent concerned. Polished silver is a much more perfect
indicator than glass. It was first used half a century since by the
author of the article ‘‘ Hygrometry,”’ in the ‘“‘ Edinburgh Encyclopedia,”
and afterwards by Regnault and others. The advantages of Regnault’s
471
arrangement are, that it is less troublesome, by not requiring calculation,
reference to tables, or the aid of a barometer, and that it is more sensible
to small changes.
I conceive that my modification of Regnault’s instrument is not
without advantages: it is more conveniently and generally applicable
to its uses, more conducive to determinations under difficult or doubtful
circumstances; it obviates the contingency of deteriorated results arising
from the proximity of the experimenter, and it effects these objects with
less consumption of ether—an expensive article in the British Isles.
The essential parts, being small and compact, are fitted for the pocket
on expeditions of research. It does not profess the extreme sensibility
of Regnault’s, with which its inventor can observe to the twentieth
part of a centigrade degree; nor can I see much use in such sensibility,
when used in an atmosphere which fluctuates every moment within a
few yards of the instrument—so much so that, when a moist breeze is
passing, the dew point cannot be ascertained at all: perhaps the eighths
of a degree (discernible on my scale) is sufficient for any attainable
object.
The Psychrometer, when intended for continuous action, should be
so arranged that the cambric, being thoroughly wet, shall not let fall
more than one drop in eight orten minutes. The rate may be regulated
by raising or lowering the glass fountain in the slide ring, or by taking
a strand or two from the woollen thread which acts asa syphon. For
observing the frequent variations of the hygrometric state of the atmo-
sphere, this self-acting Psychrometer is very convenient. In proportion
as the two Thermometers (one of them being wet) approach the same
degree of their respective scales, we learn that the atmosphere becomes
more moist; and if they arrived at the same degree, the fact would
indicate that the atmosphere was, for that temperature, saturated with
moisture. But this is a rare occurrence, if it ever happen: it never has
occurred during my experience of several years. On one occasion, it
had been raining for eighteen hours, sometimes heavily; at midnight
I examined the instrument, which had been placed in the open air,
outside a closed window: the dry bulb was 44-75, the wet bulb 44° 3’.
The fraction of saturation was therefore 981, and this was the nearest
approach to saturation that ever fell under my observation. The same
observation has been made by De Luc: he says: ‘“‘ The case of extreme
moisture existing in the open transparent air in the day, even in time
of rain, is extremely rare: I observed it (he says) only once, the
temperature being 39°.” (‘‘ Phil. Trans.,’”’ 1791).
I conceive that the mode above described has a great advantage
over the common method of allowing a projecting tuft of the cambric to
dip into a vessel of water placed underneath; for the temperature of
the cambrie is affected by its continuous connexion with the water
beneath ; but the water, in passing through the woollen thread, is cooled
by evaporation to the same temperature as the Thermometer itself, and
by the same means.
R. I. A. PROC.—YVOL. X. 3k
472
The difference of the indications of the two Thermometers expresses,
numerically, the degree of atmospheric dryness at the moment to which
it refers, and thus presents a scale the zero of which is saturation, the
maximum being unascertainable.
LI. —MercarirHic REMAINS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF THE Basses PYRE-
NEES. By Lorp Tatzot pE Matanipe, President R. I. A.
[Read April 26, 1869. ]
Durine my stay at Pau, I made the acquaintance of the Vicomte de
Villemarqué, a distinguished antiquary of Brittany, who has given much
attention to what they call Celtic antiquities. He informed me that
within a short distance there were some remarkable monuments of this
period—indeed, the only ones he was aware of south of the province of
Poitou. We accordingly arranged for an expedition to visit them, and
we were fortunate enough to secure as a’ companion General Sir Vincent
Kyre, to whose ready pencil I am indebted for the accompanying sketches.
I regret extremely that owing to circumstances we were not enabled to
give as much time to the investigation of these monuments as I could
wish. ‘There was a good deal of snow on the ground, and I did not
make any measurements, relying upon obtaining this information in
detail from another source, in which I have been disappointed.
After passing the picturesque and woody sub-Pyrenean region, we
emerged or the Val d’Ossau which leads to Eaux Bonnes, and stopped
at Bielle. This is the site of a Roman town, and mosaics of that period
have been discovered there.
However, neglecting them, we left the beaten road, and penetrated
into the flanks of the main chain of the Pyrenees. The scenery was
very fine, commanding as we did the beautiful Val d’Ossau, and enveloped
by an amphitheatre of mountains. Between three or four miles from
Bielle, we got into the snow, and found ourselves in a circular valley,
with a stream running down, a humble chapel, and a plateau surrounded
by a circle of chestnut trees, in the midst of which was the most
remarkable of the circles which came under our observation. The spot
is called, in the dialect of Bearn, Hondaas de las Hadas, or Spring of the
Fairies (see Pl. xxxi.). In the month of May I understand that there are
great festivities among the peasantry, who dance and amuse themselves
underthe trees. It is considered a blessed spot, and no evil spirit ventures
to disturb their innocent enjoyments. The spring has a still holier
character ; it is under the protection of the Virgin Mary, and its waters
were held to be a sovereign remedy against the rinderpest when it first
invaded the South of Europe, about the middle of the last century. The
chapel was then erected, and I believe the patron saint is considered to
have exerted a prophylactic influence during the prevalence of the late
Peste bovine.
i ———
473
But to come to some details of the druidical circles. They are very
small, the largest not measuring above four or five feet in diameter,
There are a very considerable number of them, between thirteen and
twenty. Some are perfect, others in a dilapidated state. The stones of
which they are formed are evidently of the locality, and none are of large
dimensions. They are very rude, and there is no appearance of cutting
or dressing. There are also no signs of inscriptions, or designs of any
description. We fancied that we could trace one, if not two, large
circles enclosing the whole; but it was exceedingly difficult to come to
any accurate opinion on the subject, owing to the state of the ground,
which was covered with snow. I trust that some competent antiquary,
with time at his disposal, will give a more detailed and satisfactory
description.
Turning to the right, and ascending a hill of slight elevation, we
came to a kind of terrace overlooking the winding Gave d’Ossau. There
were no trees, but a good deal of gorse, box, and the other usual Pyrenean
underwood. Here, after a little investigation, we discovered the
object of our search. In a nearly straight line, following the course
of the terrace, we found about a dozen similar circles. They were of
about the same dimensions, but the stones were rather larger (see Pl.
xxxil.). It probably had been less disturbed than the other, owing to the
superstitious dread which we heard prevails in the neighbourhood with
respect to them. They are supposed to be haunted by the loupgarou,
and no peasant would venture to approach them after dark.
These are the only circles which we heard of; but I have little
doubt that, if the sides of this extensive chain of mountains were closely
examined, many more would be discovered. The whole of this country
doubtless was occupied by the Iberian race, of which the Basques are
the remnant; and yet, strange to say, I have not been able to ascertain
that any undoubted monuments of that widespread family have been
discovered in the South of France.
On our return, we went through Arudy to Buzy, on the road to
Oloron, and near that town visited a very interesting cromlech, or
dolmen, as they are called in France. It is not a large one, but
in a good state of preservation. This is probably owing to its having
been originally buried in a stone mound. The tradition is, that some
thirty or forty years ago there was a band of robbers who haunted a
neighbouring wood, and they, holding the popular idea that such
monuments always contained treasures, took the pains of removing the
heap of stones, when the cromlech, and I believe no treasure, appeared.
It is not often that archeology is indebted to men of their calling for
such valuable discoveries. ‘The accompanying drawings give a perfect
idea of the Buzy cromlech (see Pl. xxxiii.).
474
LIT. — Nores on SpantsH ARCHHOLOGY—PARTICULARLY ITS PREHIS8-
toric Remains. By Lord Tatsor pe Maranrpz, President,
Tati oN
[Read April 26th, 1869. ]
Sparn is a country full of interest, and has been very imperfectly ex-
plored. Its richesin an Agricultural, Metallurgical, and Geological
point of view, are tolerably well known. The great masters of the
painting schools of Seville, Badajoz, Granada, and Valencia have a world-
wide reputation. Its sacred edifices, especially the cathedrals of Burgos,
Toledo, Cordoba, and Seville, have been long studied by the architects
of all nations. It is not, however, so well known what a rich mine of
Archeological wealth existsin the Peninsula. It is true that the ruins
of the Roman cities which once existed have long attracted observa-
tion; the aqueducts of Alcantara, Segovia, and Tarragona, the amphi-
theatre of Italica, and the ancient city of Merida, have been the pride of
Spaniards. Their Museums also contain fine collections of ancient coins,
belonging to the Iberian, Carthaginian, Roman, Gothic, and Mussulman
periods. There are but few local Museums ; those of Seville, Gra-
nada, and Tarragona are the most remarkable that 1 have visited. I
must also mention that there is now being formed a National Museum of
Antiquities at Madrid. It is under the direction of one of the most
distinguished Archeeologists of Spain, El Sefor Don José Amador de los
Rios, and contains a magnificent collection of Roman, Arab, Medizeval,
and prehistoric remains. It has also a very large ethnographic col-
lection, as well as a collection of ancient Spanish coins, attached to it.
The Academia de Historia, has a fine library, and some Mahometan
inscriptions, besides a magnificent silver Janz, called the Disco Teodosiano.
It was found at Merida, and isin a fine state of preservation. It is orna-
mented with figures in relief, representing the Emperor Theodosius and
his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, sitting on thrones, with other
allegorical figures, and an inscription proving that it had been pro-
duced in commemoration of the Quinguennales of the elder emperor. I
know of nothing like it in any Museum in Europe. [t will doubtless
be ultimately deposited in the National Archeological Museum.
I shall not allude further to the Moorish antiquities, which are very
remarkable, and have attracted much attention in Spain. This country
possesses several accomplished Arabic scholars, among whom El Senor
Pasqual de Gayangos is facile princeps.
To come to the subject which I have principally in view, Pre-
historic Archeology, I was agreeably disappointed in finding that,
although I believe out of Spain little is known of the most ancient
monuments contained in it, at the present moment nothing interests
the learned in that country so much as the late discoveries in the Swiss
Lakes and the caverns of the Dordogne. They are also giving great
attention to the study of Celtic remains in Ireland, Brittany, and other
parts of Europe; and, what is most important, there are many intelligent
antiquaries who are busy in researches through the different provinces
of their own country, and making excavations, &. I may mention
a kee en we
475
among the most distinguished Senorés Don Manuel de Gongora y Mar-
tinez, Don Hernandez of Tarragona, Don Jose Villamil, Don Fran-
cisco Tubino, and Don Antonio Benavides, the President of the Aca-
demia de Historia. Don Manuel de Gongora has just published a
very remarkable work on this subject, from which I shall, before
the conclusion of my Paper, make a few extracts. I also feel bound
to express my acknowledgments to Don Francisco Tubino, who
first indicated to me some of the sites where prehistoric remains
were to be found. It 1s remarkable that, whilst we are accustomed to
consider the Spaniards as very backward in most branches of intel-
lectual inquiry, it is the only country that I know of in which a respect
for Archeology is endeavoured to be planted in the rising generation
by elementary works. I have brought for inspection a little volume
printed at Barcelona, which I may call an Archeological Primer, by Don
Jose de Marjanés, for the use of their national schools. It is entitled
‘* Nociones de Arqueologia Espafiola.”
It appears that caves used as human habitations, cromlechs, logan
stones, megalithic structures, and cyclopean walls are found in many
parts of Spain. In the latter I shall instance the remarkable Iberian
walls of Tarragona, and the Castello de [bros, near Baeza. As to what
are generally called Celtic monuments, they seem to be generallyscattered
through the country, particularly through the mountains of Andalusia,
the Sierra Morena, the Cantabrian chain, Catalonia, and even Portugal.
Rude vases of pottery, implements of stone, axes, arrow heads, &c., are
very common, as well as celts, lance heads, palstaves and other imple-
ments of bronze. In all their museums there are some of them, and I
have brought a few for inspection. In the Museo Nacional Arqueologico
of Madrid there isa large collection. There are also some very curious
figures, which certainly belong toa very remote period, and have puzzled
sorely the antiquaries (see Pl. xxxiv.). They are called the Toros de Gui-
sando, and sometimes J/arranos. They are very rude representations of
animals, rudely cut out of granite blocks. By some they are supposed to
be bulls; by others, bears or wild boars. They are called of Guisando
because they were first discovered in a deserted tract between Avila and
the Escorial, called Guisando. But there are several sets of them. The
sketch which I exhibit is taken from a photograph of some procured in
a courtyard of one of the ancient palaces at Avila.
Celts and palstaves are of very common occurrence ; and what is
most remarkable is that finding them with two loops is not con-
sidered any unusual occurrence.* In the Armeria real de Madrid
there are two fine palstaves, both with two loops; they are said to
have been discovered in the north of Spain. They have also been found
in Portugal. I saw a very fine one at Granada. You possess one in
your Museum, which I believe was found in Ireland, and there has been
one found in Anglesey.
* Pl. xxxv., figures 1 and 2, show a celt of this kind; fig. 3 is another; fig. 4 is a
stone weapon. ‘The object represented by fig. 1 is from Asturias. See also p. 479.
476
I shall not allude to the discoveries made in the rock of Gibraltar,
as they have been so well described by Doctor Busk and others. I may,
however, mention that they belong to a recent geological formation,
and have been accompanied with remains of man. I exhibit a stone
taken from St. Michael’s Cave.
Mr. Evans (‘ Transactions of the Ethnological Society,” vol. vii.)
describes some interesting discoveries in Portugal. The Museum of the
library of Evora contains some interesting arms of stone, which he calls
club celts, and a gouge also of stone.
Some hatchets of amphibolic green schist found in a cromlech at Alco-
gulo, and a stone muller for corn in another cromlech in the same locality.
A hatchet found at Castello de Vidé, Alentejo.
In the cave called Casa da Maura, near the village Serra-de El Ré,
there are two deposits, both connected with human remains.
(«). The lower deposit consisted of flint flakes, a fragment of a
sort of lance head of bone, and other fragments.
(8). The upper deposit contained, mixed with human bones, hatchets
of polished stones, knives, arrow heads, and other instruments of flint,
bone, and stagshorn; fragments of rude pottery, black, with white grains
of sand or calcareous spar, together with bones and teeth of animals,
pebbles, flint and limestone flakes; small fragments of stone hatchets,
and flat pieces of schist, with designs upon them, which may have been
used as amulets; charcoal; numerous shells of Helix nemoralis and as-
persa, and some pierced valves of pectunculus, much worn ; also a lance
head of bronze.
CASTILLEJO DE GUZMAN.
On the right bank of the Guadalquivir, on a low range of hills,
one of which contains a Roman camp, at a distance of about three miles
from Seville, is the noble farm and country residence of the Condé
Castillejo de Guzman; and in a vineyard is the so-called Cueva de la
Pastora, consisting of a long gallery or underground passage leading: to
a small circular chamber. It is constructed of undressed stones, with-
out any mortar; the side walls of small ones, the covering stones of
larger dimensions. It resembles in every respect the Picts’ houses of
Ireland and Scotland, and might be said to be a miniature New Grange.
There are at two intervals large stones for the support of jambs of
a doorway. The length of the gallery is twenty-seven metres, about
eighty-eight feet. Itis barely three feet wide, and its greatest height not
above six feet. The doorways are situated, the front at about thirty-six
feet from the entrance; the second, at about fifty-two feet further, close
to the entrance of the circular chamber. This room is surrounded by
a wall, consisting of two distinct bands of masonry, the lower one
of small stones, the upper of large overlapping stones, which cover it in.
Don Francisco Tubino, to whom Spanish Archeology owes so much,
and who first called my attention to it, in his luminous report on this
discovery, mentions that he observed in the interstices of the stones
in the circular chamber groups of fossil shells of the oyster kind.
Signor Professor Villanova pronounces them to be the Ostrea sacellus
PE ee, te
477
or caudata of the miocene formation. I cannot say that I observed
any.
CUEVA DE MENGAL.
This remarkable monument is situated in the immediate vicinity of
the ancient City of Antequera, in the Province of Malaga.
I shall not dilate on the many objects of interest which this pictu-
resque town still affords, although its magnificent collection of Moorish
armour was destroyed, or dispersed, during the French occupation.
It is on the site of a Roman town, and is full of Roman in-
scriptions, &c.
The cueva has been known for a considerable time, but has not long
attracted the attention of antiquaries. In 1847, Don Rafael Mitjona
published an essay upon it, with some illustrations, which I have
borrowed for the present occasion. I have also given his measurements;
but I will not trouble you with his theories, or discuss the question
whether we owe this monument to the Celts or the Tarduli.
It is covered with a small mound; but the ground has been so
much cleared away, that not only is the entrance easily accessible, but
ample light has been admitted. It is very grand and imposing. I
believe there are similar monuments in Brittany and Touraine; but I
have not had yet the advantage of visiting them.
It extends from east to west. The entrance is at the east; in
length it is eighty-six and a halfSpanish feet, and the greatest width is
twenty-two feet; the height is from ten to ten and a half feet. These
are Spanish feet; but the difference between an English and a Spanish
foot 1s insignificant.*
The immense size of the stones is its most important feature. The
side walls are more than three feet thick, and consist of ten stones on
each side, and one stone closes it at the end. It is covered in by five
colossal slabs, which are partly supported by the lateral walls, and
partly by three great pillars. The following are the dimensions of the
covering stones, in the order as we enter the apartment :—
Width. Length. Thickness. Cubic Feet.
il, eH 18a) 4 Pty y 215152
o 142 21 4 1,218
3. 122 26 4 1,300
4. 16 a 43 1,944
5. 23 27 42 2,794
The stone is a limestone of the neighbourhood, and has no appear-
ance of regular dressing, nor is there any mortar used. On one of the
stones near the entrance I noticed three crosses in this form :—
a+
* Fig. 1, Pl. xxxvi., is a view of the exterior of this cave; fig. 2 is a section, and
fig. 3 a ground plan of it. Pl. xxxvii. represents the interior of the cave.
%
478
DILAR.
A hunter, sporting at a place called Dilar, about two Spanish
leagues from Granada, seventeen years ago, on the verge of the Sierra
Nevada, came on some tumuli; one of them was resorted to by- rabbits,
and, on attempting to dislodge them, he discovered a sepulchral cham-
ber. This discovery was supposcd to indicate a mine. A company was
formed ; the whole tumulus was excavated, and what stones were not
useful to an adjoining manufactory of baize were destroyed. Fortu-
nately an artist of the name of Don Martino Rico appreciated their
value, and made a sketch of their original state.
I visited the spot some months since; and I regret that, with the ex-
ception of two large stones, which seem to have formed the entrance,
there is nothing remaining 7m se¢tu (see Pl. xxxviil.). Their dimensions
are—height, 245 inches, and their front width is 317 inches. There is
an opening in the door of 195 inches. I also saw the stones which had
been removed from thence, which have been used for flagging at the
manufactory of Don Pedro Rogés. Their dimensions are—
= Inches. Inches.
1. 242 length, by 131 breadth.
2 62a 194g:
In the immediate vicinity of this unfortunate tumulus there are
two other tumuli, which have not been disturbed, and I trust are ~
reserved for investigation in less troublous times.
Having exhausted the more remarkable monuments which I have
visited, I shall conclude with some extracts from a remarkable work of
Sefior Don Manuel de Gongora y Martinez, entitled ‘“‘ Antiquedades
-Prehistoricos de Andalucia.’
Cave of Albunol, near Motril, in the Province of Granada, vulgarly
called Cueva de los Murcielagos, or Bat’s Cave.
It is situated on the side of a steep ravine, which is approached by
a steep path (see Pl. xxxix. A, fig. 1). It is limestone rock.
In this cave there were found at letter (B.) in the accompanying
sketch (Pl. xxxix.), three skeletons. The skull of one had a diadem
of pure gold (fig. 2, Pl. xxxix.) of twenty-four carats, weighing twenty-
five adarmias, about one drachm, and of the intrinsic value of sixty
dollars. .
At C. (PL xxxix.) three more skeletons, the skull of one stuck be-
tween two large stones, and beside it a cap of esparto, with fresh marks
on it, apparently of blood.
At D. (Pl. xxxix.) twelve skeleton bodies were discovered, surround- —
ing the body of a female, admirably preserved, clothed in a garment of
skin, open on the left side, and kept together in the middle by two
straps interlaced. It had a necklace of esparto, from whose rings hung
marine shells, except the central one, which had a boar’s tusk fashioned
at the extremity, ear-rings of a black stone, without any opening, and
probably fixed by a ring.
479
The skeleton of the diadem was clothed in a fine short tunic of
esparto, the others in a like though of somewhat coarser material,
caps of the same, some with the cone folded back, others of a semi-
circular form; sandals-of esparto, some of them elaborately worked.
Close to the skeletons there were flint knives, hatchets, and other
instruments, arrows, with flint points, fixed to rough sticks, with
a very tenacious bitumen; rude but sharp arms of silex, some of them
kept in purses of esparto; vessels of clay; a large piece of skin; very
thick knives, and pickaxes of bone; spoons of wood, with a large low
bowl, with very short handles, and a hole for suspension.
At K., Pl. xxxix., upwards of fifty bodies, all with sandals, and
dresses of esparto, arms of stone, and a bone polisher.
Each of the three skeletons at C. had a basket of esparto, varying
in size from six to fifteen inches, two of them full of a kind of black
arenaceous earth, probably food carbonized by time, and a variety of
small baskets, with locks of hair, flowers, poppyheads, and univalv-
shells. ‘The skeletons were covered with flesh, reduced to the condi-
tion of mummies, and the dresses and baskets retained their original
colours.
These vases were very rude, but some of them with ornamental bor-
ders. They had spouts, handles, &c., some of them were sun-dried,
others baked.
This cave was discovered in 1831; but was immediately taken pos-
session of by miners, who turned everything topsy-turvy in search of
metals; and, not finding any, they did much damage by their careless
manner of scraping off the saltpetre which had accumulated on the walls
of the cavern. However, Sefior Don Gongora succeeded in securing
specimens of all the objects discovered, mostly on the spot.
The gold diadem is still in existence, in the possession of Don
Condrés de Unzor.
In the same work there is description of some very remarkable
cromlechs in the Catiada de Hoyon, between Granada and Alcala la real.
See particularly Dolmen del Hoyon.
a Dolmen del Herradero.
“a Dolmen de la Canada del Herradero.
I beg also to call public attention to the following monuments, also
illustrated in the same valuable work :—
Four Dolmens at Mugadar del Conejo.
Dolmen de las Eriales, near which were found arms of bronze, and
clay vessels.
Dolmen de la cuesta de los Chaparros.
Three Dolmens of El Hoyo de las Cuevas del Congriel. In one of these
there was found an arrow head, with three points, of whichI have
given a sketch, Pl. xxxv., fig. 4. I have also given a sketch of a copper
axe head, with two rings, found in the Sierra de Baza, Pl. xxxv., fig. 3.
R.1. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 38
480
CUEVA DEL GATO.
Within a few miles of the city of Ronda, by the lower road to
Gibraltar, in the beautiful Val de Angostura, is a chasm in the moun-
tains which form its northern boundary, through which there rushes a
brawling stream to join the river below. Its sides are covered with a
luxurious brushwoed, and the most gorgeous wild plants.
Just below its opening there is a small cave, which is sometimes re-
sorted to by the shepherds of the district. This, probably, was the
abode of some of the wild tribes which peopled this country in prime-
val times. I exhibit a stone celt which was found there by a friend
of mine the same day that I visited it.
LITI.—On an AGREEMENT, IN IRISH, BETWEEN GERALD, Ninto Hart
or KinpaRE, AND THE Mac RANNALLS; EXECUTED aT Maynoots, No-
VEMBER 5, 15380, AND SEALED WITH THE SEAL OF THE COLLEGE OF
Maynootu. By C. W. Russert, D.D.
[Read May 24, 1869.]
Amone the grounds upon which the authenticity of a historical docu-
ment may be impeached, there is none so formidable as the suspicion
of an anachronism. Had the ancient and highly interesting in-
strument which I have the honour to submit this evening to the con-
sideration of the Academy chanced to remain unnoticed for four or
five centuries longer, it is far from improbable that its genuineness
might come to be called into question on the ground of a palpable misdate.
The College of Maynooth has occupied so large a share of public atten-
tion during the present century, and the date and circumstances of its
origin have been so frequently discussed, that few facts in the modern
history of our country are more firmly established and more unques-
tioningly accepted than that of its foundation by Mr. Pitt in 1795. So
entirely have the many controversies regarding Maynooth College, in and
out of Parliament, occupied the public mind with the existing institution,
as to shut out, not merely the memory, but even the idea of another ear-
lier foundation of the same name. And thus it may readily be believed
that a future antiquarian of, perhaps, the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth
century, to whose judgment the alleged agreement between the Mac
Rannall* and the Earl of Kildare,in 1530 ,might be submitted, would,
on discovering that this document purported to be sealed with the seal
of the College of Maynooth, at once pronounce it to be an unskilful.
forgery, that College not having been founded till nearly three hundred
years after the professed date of the agreement.
* The Irish orthography of the name is Magradhnaill ; but I have thought it con-
venient, except in the Irish Deed and the translation of it, to follow the generally
received spelling—Mac Rannall.
481
It is hardly necessary for me, nevertheless, to say that this conclusion
would be entirely erroneous. The deed, as well as the attestation, is
undoubtedly genuine. By a somewhat remarkable historical coinci-
dence, the Maynooth College of which the world has heard so much for
the past seventy-five years, occupies the site of an older but more short-
lived institution of the same name, the latter, however, being dedicated,
not to St. Patrick, but to the Blessed Virgin Mary.
The College of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Maynooth was established,
in pursuance of the disposition of Gerald, eighth Earl of Kildare, who
assigned the manor of Rathbeggan and the lands of Kiltele and Carbres-
town, in Meath, for its endowment, by his son Gerald, the ninth Earl.
This nobleman, having in 1518 obtained the sanction of the Archbishop
of Dublin, built the College in immediate contiguity to the Castle of
Maynooth ; and appointed and endowed a master, five fellows, priests,
two clerks, and three boys, with the obligation of offering prayers for
the prosperity of the Kings of England and of the Earls of Kildare and
their family, while living, and for the eternal repose of their souls
after death. The nomination of the master, sub-master, and boys, was
reserved to the Earl, with the condition of the master’s and sub-master’s
receiving institution from the Archbishop. The roll of fellows was to
be filled up by election, in which the master should enjoy a double
vote. All these ordinances received the sanction of the Archbishop,
and were confirmed by Royal letters patent, dated October 12, 1518 ;
and it is worthy of note, in illustration of the Mac Rannall Deed, that
the collegiate body was, by virtue of these letters, constituted a cor-
poration, with the privilege of a common seal.
IT shall not trace further the details of the history of the College,
which the Earl subsequently endowed more amply, rebuilding at the
same time, to be used, as its chapel, the ancient Church of St. Mary,
which had been attached to the castle from the middle of the thirteenth
century, and which, having been more than once rebuilt since that
time, is at present the parish church of Maynooth. I shall only add
that, although the College shared the fate of other religious houses in
1538, and was formally surrendered to the Crown by the provost in
October and January, 1540-1,* yet it was in the full enjoyment of its
new privileges in 1530, the date of the agreement with which I am now
concerned. Unhappily, the College seal, originally affixed to the deed,
has disappeared, although the slip of parchment by which it was
attached still remains; and I have sought in vain, in every other quarter
which seemed to afford any promise, for another impression of an original
which, for the modern College as well as for the representatives of the
noble founder of St. Mary’s, would possess the very highest interest.
Independently, however, of its relation to the College of St. Mary
of Maynooth, the deed—which, through the kind permission of the
noble owner, his Grace the Duke of Leinster, I am enabled to lay before
=
* An account of the property of the Cellege of St. Mary is given in Queen Eliza-
beth’s Rent-Roll (1553), the whole being at that time the property of the Crown. See
Mason’s ‘ History of the Cathedral of St. Patrick,” p. 62.
482
the meeting—possesses a very great historical interest. Owing to a
variety of causes, among which a chief place is assigned by Hardiman*
to the desire on the part of English grantors of land in Ireland to destroy
all evidence of previous right and possession on the part of natives,
the number of deeds, covenants, assignments, and other legal docu-
ments, in the Irish language, is exceedingly small. In the learned Essay
on the subject read by him before the Academy, and published in its
‘‘ Transactions,” he was able to refer to but thirty-nine such instruments,
all, or nearly all, relating to the territory of Thomond or North Mun-
ster; nor am J aware that since Hardiman’s time the additions to this
class of documents have been very considerable. The mere circumstance
of its language, therefore, would give to the Agreement now before me
a certain amount of interest. Butit will be seen that it possesses for its
own sake an interest entirely independent, and, I may almost venture to
say, unique. Not one of Hardiman’s deeds, although they present a great
similarity of form and language, at all resemble it in purport or in tenor.
As the original contains many contractions, I have had a literal tran-
script of it made, which, together with a translation, is here subjoined.
1S h-e fo cunpad asup cemctiup ata ecin Gepoio Mac Seap-
ailc lapla cilli-oapa agup Maspaonaill, 1. Peolim mac
Concobaip mic Wupéad, asgup Maelpuaonad mac Cosain mic
Uilliam, agup Ip mic Opa mic Uaitne, agsup Semapr mae
Maelpuaonad mic Pepsail, 00 ced agup do coil a ceile asup
maite clom Maileaclam 50 h-mbton «1. peilling ap an cap-
tun ina pull cin ag h-Ua Ruaipe agup ac Maspaonailt
oon lapla saéa bliadna asup 4 ic 5aca Samna, vo cinn a
coranta ina copalo ain sac aen oa m-bia1to pa cumacoaib
an lapla. Slana ve agur minna na h-eclaipe aip Maspaonaill
agur aip na caimib mati pin pa comall oon lanla. Seallao
agup Fipinne in lapla pp pin do comall ocoib-pen. Ip 1ac na
fiaona vo bi 00 lataip in cunnapta pin .1. in c-lapla pem
asup Uilliam bailip agup Semap boaip agup Uiluam Oruio asup
Concoban mac Culpuard. Na oaine maiée a oubnaman pemamn
oo eacoals§ m cunpad pin agur Malin o5 mac Malin h-t
Mailconaipe oo Pomb h-e ina piadnupe pem m_ cuiced
la 0o mi Noummbep a mag Nuaoas. In c-o¢cmad cme hannpr
fa pi Sacpan m inbaro pin, Anné Oomim Millepmmé cuin-
sencepimo ,cpigepimo. Ni poibe péla ag Magpadnaill agup
vo opoals Pe péla Coldipoe Muig Nuaodad ap in vemnzaiup-po.
Cpi mane oo pein ag in lapla on in oumne ana m-biaro plata
bacpap sell oon maep, «1. Concobap mac Culpuaio. Gd
Leth pin ag Magspadnaill agup ag na oaimib maiéi do pinne in
cunnnad-pa, agup a Let eli ag in lapla.t+ .
* “ Ancient Irish Deeds,” p. 3.
+ By the kind permission of his Grace the Duke of Leinster, a lithographed fac-simile
of the Deed, after an exact and beautiful copy from the accomplished pen of Mr.
O’ Longan, accompanies the present paper. See Pl. xl.
483
‘This is the covenant and indenture that is between Gerald Fitz-
gerald, Karl of Kildare, and Magradhnaill [Mac Rannall|—namely,
Phelim Mac Concobhair Mac Murchadh, and Maelruana Mac Owen Mac
William, and Ir Mac Brian Mac Owny, and James Mac Maelruana Mac
Fearghal, by will and consent of each of them and of the chief men of
clan Melachlain, collectively: to wit that a shilling for every quarter of
land which belongs [ pays rent] to O’Ruark or Magradhnaill shall be
paid to the Earl every year and every All Hallows in consideration of
the Earl’s defending and assisting them against all men subject to his
authority. The faith of God and the oaths of the Church are sworn by
Magradhnaill and the aforesaid chief men in pledge of fulfilment to
the Earl. The promise and troth of the Earl, on the other hand, are
plighted to them for his fulfilment thereof. The witnesses present
at the agreement were the Earl himself, and William Walsh, and James
Boyce, and William Tuite, and Concobhair Mac Culruadh. It was the
aforesaid chief men who dictated the agreement, and Mailin-oge Mac
Mailin O’Mailconery, wrote it in their presence, on the fifth day of the
month of November, at Maynooth. The eighth King Henry was King of
England that year, Anno Dominil530. Magradhnaill had no seal, and
he ordered the Seal of the College of Maynooth to be affixed to this
indenture. The Earl subjects to a penalty of three marks any one
who is indebted who shall refuse a pledge to the steward, to wit
Concobhair Mac Culruadh: one-half to Magradhnaill and the chief men
who made this covenant, and the other half to the Earl.”
The agreement herein set forth has no parallel among Hardiman’s
Irish Deeds. In the latter, with the exception of a few of the most
modern, the parties are exclusively native Irish, and for the most part
they relate altogether to property —deeds of sale, mortgages, wills,
marriage contracts. But the Mac Rannall Deed possesses, in addition,
an Important political and social character. It will be seen that it isa
formal agreement between the Earl Gerald on the one part, and on the
other the native Irish sept Mac Rannall, represented by Felim Mac
Connor Mac Murchadh, by Mulrony Mac Owen Mac Wilham, by Ir Mac
Brian Mac Antony (Ownie), and by James Mac Mulrony Mac Fearghal,
on their own part and that of the chiefs of Clan Melachlain ; to the effect
‘that they shall pay to the Earl, yearly at All Hallowe’en, the sum of a
shilling per carucate [ quarter | for all the land that owes rent or chiefrie
to O’ Ruark or Mac Rannall; the Earl on his part guaranteeing to them, in
consideration thereof, protection and defence against all his own retainers
and dependents. It concludes with a clause of distress, imposing a
forfeit, in case of rescue, of three marks, one-half to go to the Earl and
the other to Mac Rannall.
Of the many topics which this ancient instrument suggests, I shall
confme myself to two—First, the persons named or referred to in the
deed; and, secondly, the relations between the native and the Anglo-
Norman traces, which the agreement appears to indicate as existing
at this period.
Among the parties named in the document the only personage his-
484
torically notable is the Earl himself, Gerald, ninth of that ancient line.
His character and history, his adventurous career and melancholy end,
are too familiar to readers of Irish history to require any notice at my
hands; but I may mention that the existence of such relations between
the Geraldines and a remote western sept, like that of Mac Rannall, as
this agreement discloses, dates from an earlier period than that of the
ninth Earl Gerald, and may most probably be traced to an expedition
of his father, Gerald, eighth Earl, into Connaught in 1499, in which
he reduced several castles, and overran part of the territory of the Mac
Rannall, although no special mention is made of that sept as being en-
gaged in the rising which occasioned this expedition. The Mac Rannalls
were of the same stock with the O’Ferralls, and their possessions lay
in the ancient territory of Conmaicne, in the present county of Leitrim,
but chiefly in the territory of Muintir Eolus, the district lying between
Slieve-an-Iarain and Slieve Carbry, and coinciding with the modern
baronies of Leitrim, Mohill, and Carrigallen. O’Dugan, in his well-
known genealogical poem, refers to the seat of the Mac Rannalls in
terms of high admiration :—
Mapsnadnaill clumnctean anoip
Cin muincean aluinn Colurp.
“‘Magradhnaill is now heard
Over the delightful Muintir Eolus.”*
Like most of the Irish septs, the Mac Rannalls were divided into
several clans—as Clan Melachlain Mac Rannall, and Clan Maelruana
Mac Rannall, both which are named by the Four Masters in the entries
under 1485. The former is specially represented in this agreement, and
must have been of considerable pretensions in the sept, since I find that
in 1468, on the death of Cathal Roe, the “full chief [‘lancaoipead’ |
the clansmen of Melachlain Mac Rannall were strong enough to set up
a chief of their own choosing in opposition to Teige, the son of the
deceased chieftain.t I have searched in vain, however, not alone in
the Four Masters and in the several Calendars of Irish State Papers of
the period, but also in the pedigree of Mac Rannall in the Ulster Office, t
kindly communicated to me by the Ulster King of Arms, for the names
of any of the four parties to the agreement on the Mac Rannall side ; but
that some friendly interchange of good offices subsisted between the
Karl and the individuals of the sept, may be inferred from the fact that
the chaplain sent to Rome, in 1534, by Lord Offaly to beg abso-
lution for the murder of Archbishop Allen, was Cahir Mac Rannall.§
The name in this form began to be disused at an early date. A Roll
of 22 and 23 Henry VIII., dated October 9, 1531, already recognises the
change to the English form, Reynolds, and authorizes “Charles Rey-
nolds, otherwise Magraghnell, bachelor of laws” (manifestly the chaplain
* O’Connellan’s “‘ Four Masters,” p. 607, note.
+ ‘ Annals,” A. D. 1468.
{ ‘‘ Pedigrees,” vol. i., p. 81, and following.
§ Lord Kildare’s ‘‘ Earls of Kildare,” p. 136.
489
just referred to), to live free from all Irish service, and to enjoy the
English laws.* In the latter part of that century among the forty-one
Mac’s and twenty-six O’s, who, on October 5, 1585, surrendered their
Irish names and customs of inheritance to Sir Richard Bingham and
the Commissioners, the ‘‘Mac Granils”’ are enumerated. Notwithstand-
ing this surrender, however, we find them figuring among the Irish
force which opposed Bingham several years later, in 1590. And,
nearly forty years later, in 1629, among the grants of lands in the county
of Leitrim, by Charles I., seven distinct grants were made under the
old name to Connor Mac Murragh Mac Grannell, Tirlagh Mac Grannell,
and fiveothers, while but a single roll contains the English name of Rey-
nolds—that containing a grant of lands in the barony of Mohill, to
** Humfry Reynolds, his heirs and assigns for ever.’’} Still the change,
if slow, has been complete. The English name Reynolds has long entirely
displaced the Irish patronymic, even in its hereditary seat; and the well-
known George Nugent Reynolds, of Letterfian, in Leitrim, a notable local
celebrity in the last generation as a wit and poet, whose name attracted
considerable notice some years since on account of a claim made on his
behalf to the authorship of the ‘‘ Exile of Erin,’”’ was a descendant of the
Mac Rannalls of Muintir Eolus.
Of the parties to the covenant named on the side of the Earl I am
only able to recognise by independent notices two—William Walsh,
who, as appears from another deed cited by Lord Kildare in his
‘‘Harls of Kildare,”’{ was the Earl’s standard bearer,§ and father of
Silken Thomas’s devoted follower, Robert Walsh, who was the pro-
tector of the infant heir after the arrest of Silken Thomas and his
uncles, and whose name, together with those of his brother, Prior Walsh,
and the Cahil Mac Rannall, already referred to, is included in the Act
of Attainder ; and James Boyce, who was Governor of the Castle of May-
nooth,|| of whom an interesting letter is preserved by the Marquis
of Kildare in his‘‘ Karls of Kildare,” and whose pithy exclamation on
occasion of the retribution which awaited the treason of Parese, the
betrayer of Maynooth Castle to the Deputy, during the absence of Silken
Thomas, was, as I am reminded by my friend Mr. Gilbert, the original
of the long proverbial, and not yet entirely forgotten saying, ‘‘‘ Too
late,’ says Boyce.’ Concobhair Mac Culruadh was, as appears from
the document itself, the Earl’s steward or bailiff.
But the chief interest involved in this curious document lies in the
light which it appears to throw on the social and military condition of
a large portion of the Irish districts of the kingdom, about the middle
of the reign of Henry VIII. For it is impossible to doubt that this
covenant with the Mac Rannall sept, although now an exceptional and
perhaps unique instrument, must be regarded as one of a class, and as
the representative of a system which prevailed at the time over a large
* Morrin’s ‘‘ Calendars of Irish Rolls, Henry VIII.,’’ p. 2.
¢ Morrin’s ‘‘ Calendar of Patent Rolls, Charles I.,” pp. 441-2. t p. 189.
§ “The Castle of Maynooth,’”’ pp. 13—4, quoting Holingshed’s ‘‘ Chronicle,” 1570.
|| Lord Kildare’s ‘‘ Earls of Kildare,” p. 146.
486
part of the kingdom beyond the limits of the Pale. The late lamented
Mr. Herbert Hore, with rare appreciation of the true value for the real
purposes of history of many minute historical memorials, which to
others have little more than a personal or genealogical, or at best an
antiquarian interest, was at much pains to publish in the ‘‘ Kilkenny
Archeological Journal” a large portion of the ancient Rental of the Karl
of Kildare, which is preserved among the Harleian MSS. in the British
Museum, and the historical importance of many of the seemingly
smallest details of which he fully recognised.
Through the kindness of the Marquis of Kildare, I have heen enabled
to examine this Rental. It was begun in 1518; butit comes down as
far as 1564; and it is curious to find in it, on August 15th, 1562, not
only an entry of the very payment from the Mac Rannalls, which is
covenanted in the Agreement now before us, but also in the very same
folio, corresponding entries for the territory of “‘ Brene Iroryke,” which,
as will be remembered, is included in the terms of this Covenant.
But the Mac Rannall and O’Ruark payments are only specimens of
a host of similar tributary payments, filling a large number of folios in
the Rental. The system of which they form a part, although its exis-
tence will be understood without difficulty by those who are familiar
with the State Papers of Henry VIIL., appears in strange contrast with
the commonly received representations of the state of Ireland in the
beginning of the sixteenth century, according to which the Anglo-
Norman was strictly circumscribed within the shrunken limits of the
Pale, and the Border English with difficulty maintained themselves
against the steady advances and constantly recurring predatory incur-
sions of the native population.
‘‘ Beyond the borders of the Pale,”’ says one of the most recent and
popular English writers on Ireland under Henry VIII., Mr. Froude,*
who describes as ‘‘a narrow strip some fifty miles long and twenty broad”’
the Pale of this period,} ‘‘ the Common Law of England was of no au-
thority; the King’s writ was but a strip of parchment; and the country
was parcelled among a set of independent chiefs, who acknowledged
no sovereignty but that of strength, and levied tribute on the inhabit-
ants of the Pale as a reward for a nominal protection of their rights,
and as a compensation for abstaining from the plunder of their farms.”
In a word, the relations of the border English Palemen to their Celtic
neighbours outside the Pale, are popularly considered to have been some-
what like what Scott, in ‘‘ Rob Roy,” describes as the condition of the low-
land proprietors in their unpleasant proximity to the lawless Highland
clans, from whom they obtained a precarious security solely by the pay-
ment of the well-known and most distasteful impost of Black Mail.
Such an impost, undoubtedly, was levied off their Saxon neighbours
by many of the northern chiefs. Even after the date of the Deed
which is before us, complaints are found in the reports sent to the
* “History of England,” vol. ii., p. 247. t Ibid.
487
King from Ireland, that O’ Neill was ‘calling for his Black Rent in Meath,
and Mac Murrough and O’Carroll in Wexford and Tipperary ;’* and
among the abuses set forth for reformation, one of the foremost is ‘‘ the
black rentes and tributes by Irishmen obteyned of his Majesty’s sub-
jects.’} That the same practice was still pursued in the reign of Elizabeth,
may be inferred from another proclamation of Council; and it was re-
newed, though on a less regular footing, by the O’Hanlons and others,
during what is known asthe ‘ Tory War in Ulster’ after the Restoration.
But it will be seen that the effect of this Mac Rannall covenant
would be to reverse the picture, and to exhibit a Sassenagh Earl (if, in-
deed, Kildare, the Hibernis Hibernior, may be so called) in the character
of a levier of Black Mail from the Irish, as the price of protection from
the aggressions of the Earl’s own people. And, lest it should be supposed
that this exaction from the Mac Rannall was due to some special and ex-
ceptional circumstances, it might easily be shown, if time permitted, by
an examination of the so-styled ‘‘ Duties upon Irishmen”’ in the Rental
Book of the Earls of Kildare, that the same or similar tributary relations
were extended over a large portion of the purely Irish territory ;—a vast
number of other Irish names—as the Mac Murroghs, around Mount
Leinster ; the O’Hanlons in Forth ; the O’ Byrnes in Idrone ; the O’Tooles
in Imail; the O’Mores in Leix; the Mac Gilpatricks in Ossory; the
O’Dones in Iregan; the O’Dempseys in Glanmalira; the O’Connors in
Offaly ; the O’Molloys in Eglish; the Mac Geoghegans in Kinalea; the
O’Melaghlins in Clancolman; the Shynnachs (Sionnach) in Muintir
Tagane (Kilconry) ; the Magauleys in Cabry ; the O’ Brians in Brawny ;
the O’Ferralls in Anally ; the O’ Reillys in Brenny ; the Mac Mahons in
Oriel; and the Mac Dermodys in Moylurg|;—being all severally registered
in the Rental Book for their respective yearly payments in precisely the
same terms, and with the same formality as the ‘Mac Rannall of Moynte-
rolys.’ The natural inference is, that, although the legal instruments may
have been lost or destroyed, these several payments must have been
founded on covenants similar to that with the Mac Rannall now under
consideration. The stipulated payments are of the most various kinds,
and may serve to illustrate the social condition of the time. Some were,
like that of Mac Rannall, in money; the major part, however, were in
produce of various kinds—gerrans and capulls (horses), rudders (fat
kine), cows in calf, sheep, swine, fish, honey, butter, &c. The tribute
of the O’Dwyers of Killymeanagh, was a nest of goshawks; while the
Mac Mahons of Oriel acknowledged no payment beyond the military
service of eight sparrys, or spearmen.
It is observable, too, that in some of the districts the payment is
apportioned by measurement of land; while in others, in which, as it may
be presumed, the herds of the sept were pastured in common, it is
regulated by the number of sheep or cattle. Amongst the covenants on
which the payments in the Rental are based, are several entered into by
* “State Papers of Henry VIII.,’’ vol. iii., p. 32. iP Ibid., vol. ii., p. 163.
R.I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3T
488
the same Ninth Earl Gerald, whose covenant with the Mac Rannalls we
are considering. In most instances, however, the language, if indicated
at all, appears to have been Latin; but an agreement, slightly dif-
ferent in form, in the Irish language, is printed by Mr. Hore in the
‘* Kilkenny Archeological Journal” (vol. iv., p. 127, new series). Se-
veral of the entries in the Rental Book make it plain that the agreement
must have been with the sept, and not with individuals; and in such
cases the payment must be regarded as little short of a formal tribute
rendered as the price of protection. In many of them the condition of
‘‘ defence”’ is expressly stipulated; some of them grant to the Earl the
kanys (katnes, or fines) or half-kanys of the territory ; and in most cases
they are made “‘perpetual,” or “to the Earl and his heirs for ever.” It is
curious, too, that some are conditional—a distinction being made between
the case of the Earl’s holding the office of Lord Deputy and that of his
not holding this office ; and it is still more remarkable that the effect on
the amount of payment in one case or the other is not uniform, but tells
differently upon different covenants. In some instances it 1s stipulated
that the payment is only to be exacted while the Earl holds the office of
Deputy; and that, should he at any time cease to be Deputy, the pay-
ment shall be remitted.* In others the converse principle prevails. It
is stipulated that in case the Earl should not be Deputy, the payment
is to be reduced by one half.} ‘This distinction, at first sight perhaps
paradoxical, is intelligible enough. In the former class of covenants, the
motive on the Earl’s part would seem to be the desire of giving to the
parties, who were powerful and influential, a direct interest in labouring
that he should be continued in the office of Deputy. In the latter, the
consideration ‘‘ for defence’ is diminished, in proportion as the power
of the Earl is diminished by his ceasing to hold public office as Deputy.
I shall only add that in many instances whole clans, like the Clan
Melaghlin Mac Rannall in the Deed before us, are the parties to the
covenant—as Clan Cahill and Clan Mahon, in the Brenny; Clan Mac
Hynward, in Oriel; Clan Mac Shane, in the O’Bernys’ Country—and
that in such cases the tribute was to be levied collectively, and upon
the territory, rather than on the contracting parties as individuals.
I am well aware that this view of the relations of the Karls of Kil-
dare with the Irish will to many nowadays appear strange, and entirely
out of keeping with the historical character of the honoured race of
Geraldines, who, by their traditional patriotism,
‘as torrents moved the earth,
Have channelled deep old Ireland’s heart by constancy and worth.”
But each age and each generation judges and must be judged according
to its own lights. It can hardly be credited that the enforcement of these
‘ Duties,’’ whatever may have been their character judged by the rules
* “ Kilkenny Archeological Journal,” vol. iv., p. 110.
t Ibid., vol. iv., p. 114.
|
|
|
489
of constitutional polity, was regarded by the Irish themselves in the
sixteenth century as oppressive or unjust. It must be remembered
that the same system prevailed under the other great Anglo-Irish fami-
les—Ossory, Desmond, and De Burgo ; and that the protection thus ob-
tained, equivocal as it may seem to have been, was in many cases almost
the only available bulwark against utter misrule. This Mac Rannall
Deed, as well as the various analogous covenants, upon which the major
part of the payments of the Kildare rental were founded, will be found
to be a literal exemplification of the condition of things described in a
State Paper addressed to the King in 15384, cited by Mr. Hore, as to
the exactions of the Earls of Kildare, Ormond, and Desmond. ‘‘ For the
moyre part all the captains of the whild Irish is in subjaction, and doth
bere grate tribute to your said Erles, or els by reison of the mariage and
norising of ther children, be at ther comandments; whereby it is to
be entendyd, that, when thes Erles be reformyd, all thes Irish captaines
which is undur ther trubut and at ther comandment, must at all
tymys yeld your Grace trubut & service.”
It is hardly an exaggeration to say, that over a large proportion of
the country included within the territories of the several septs which
I have enumerated, the name and authority of the Earis of Kildare,
quite as much, if not more than those of the King of England, were,
during this period, the representatives of law and order, at least such law
and order as it seemed desirable to themselves to maintain. Nor, with
facts like these before us, can we feel much wonder at Henry VII.’s half
jesting and whole serious declaration, that ‘‘as all Ireland could not
rule the Earl, then the Karl must rule all Ireland;’ at the vehement
outburst of Wolsey* before the Council, ‘‘ The Har/—nay, the King of
Kildare !—for, when he is disposed, he re¢gns more like than rules the
land;” or at the traditional popular estimate of this memorable family,
which is embodied in Thomas Davis’s well-known ballad, already
cited—
“‘ The Geraldines !—the Geraldines!—how royally they reigned
O’er Desmond broad, and rich Kildare, and English arts disdained !
Their sword made knights, their banner waved, free was their bugle call,
By Gleann’s green slopes, and Daingeann’s tide from Barrha’s banks to Eochaill.
What gorgeous shrines, what breitheamh lore, what minstrel feasts there were
In and around Magh Meaghaid’s keep and palace-filled Adare !
But not for rite or feast ye stayed, when friend or kin were pressed,
And foemen fled when ‘ Crom a-boo’ proclaimed your lance in rest !”’
* ‘Baris of Kildare,” p. 102.
490
LIV.—On tHE ‘‘ Duties upon IRISHMEN” IN THE KILDARE RENTAL
Book, AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE Mac Rannatt AGREEMENT. By
C. W. Russett, D. D.
[Read June 14, 1869.]
In a Paper ‘‘ On an Agreement between the Mac Rannalls and Gerald,
Ninth Earl of Kildare,’’ read by me on occasion of my exhibiting the
original instrument at a late meeting of the Academy, I assumed that
the payment therein stipulated was in the nature of a tribute—irregular,
it is true, and without authority of law, but nevertheless fixed and per-
manent—to be rendered by the Mac Rannalls to the Earl as the ‘ conside-
rations’ for protection against molestation from his followers. I further
expressed an opinion that a considerable number of the entries in the
‘‘ Rental Book of Gerald, Ninth Earl of Kildare,”’ represented similar
payments of other Irish septs to the Earl, and were originally based upon
agreements, now most probably lost or destroyed, of the same tenor with
the Mac Rannall Deed. Since it appeared to me that the terms of the
Mac Rannall Agreement conveyed this meaning in almost literal words,
J did not consider it necessary to enter into any detailed argument
in support of my view as to the nature of the stipulated payment.
The analogy, however, between that payment and the numerous pay-
ments recorded in the Rental Book of the Earl of Kildare under the
name of the ‘“‘ Earl’s Duties upon Irishmen,”’ calls for a more lengthened
examination than was practicable within the limits which I proposed to
myself when I exhibited the Mac Rannall Agreement to the Academy ;
and as in the course of the interesting discussion which followed the read-
ing of the Paper, some question arose as to the nature of those ‘‘ Duties
upon Irishmen,’’ and some doubts were expressed—whether, for in-
stance, they really involved a tributary payment, or merely a defensive
and offensive alliance; whether the claim was an exceptional one
on the part of Gerald, the Ninth Earl, or was common to all the Earls
of Kildare; and even whether it involved anything more than the
ordinary interchange of gifts between an Irish chief and the members of
his sept—I have thought it desirable, with the permission of the Council,
to enter somewhat more exactly into an examination of these entries in
the Rental Book, in so far, especially, as they may be illustrated by a
comparison with the particular instrument on which, as I must consider
it to be established, the tribute of the Mac Rannalls was originally
based.
The ‘‘ Duties upon Irishmen’ form a special division of the Rental —
Book of the Earls of Kildare. In other respects this Rental resembles
other similar registries of the same period, containing an account of the
Earl’s tithes and advowsons, of his farms, and of his fees. In these respects
the general characteristics of this valuable- historical document do not
present any very material contrast with other ancient records of seig-
norial and manorial property; but the ‘‘ Duties upon Irishmen” stand
ot ee 7 ee
= ato. Pee
491
entirely alone, and are quite peculiar both in their origin and in their
nature.
Mr. Hore describes these duties generally, as ‘‘ tributes rendered to
the Earl of Kildare by various Gaelic clans, in consideration of the
protection afforded to them.”* It will be plain, however, to any one
who considers closely the terms of the various entries, that the several
payments differed very notably from each other, and especially that the
‘‘consideration of the payments,’’ when it is expressed, is by no means
uniform.
In the first place, indeed, the great majority of the entries in the
Rental express no consideration whatever. The entry in many cases
contains simply the name of the individual or family, together with
that of the lands on which the payment is charged, and the amount of
payment—whether in money, cattle, produce, or service—the times of
paying, and the receiver to whom the tribute is payable.
Of those entries in which there is an allusion, expressed or implied,
to the consideration for which the payment is made, several classes may
be distinguished.
First, there are several entries which, I think, plainly belong
to the ordinary proprietorial class, in which the rights of the Earl are
expressly declared to have been acquired by purchase, and in some of
which even the amount of the purchase-money is recorded. Instances
of this will be found in the sections on the O’Regans’ Country, on
Glanmalira, or the O’Dempsies’, on Annaly, on the Mac Geoghegans’, and
the O’ Moores’; and in the last of these the entry regarding the land of
Killen is of a mixed character, and recites that one-half the payment is
in consideration of purchase, and the other half of ‘‘ defence,’’—a title to
which I shall refer specially hereafter.
To the same category may be referred a number of cases in which
the claim seems to be in the nature of a mortgage, being assigned to
the Earl in pledge, either by the individual himself or by some other
by whom it had already been held in pledge from the proprietor.
Perhaps I ought to refer to the same class certain very curious and
noteworthy entries in which the lands charged with the stipulated
payment are recited as having been assigned as compensation to the
Earl. Thus the M‘Edmonds give a plowland in the Keyle{ “in
amends for hurt done to the Earl. The sons of Moryartagh M‘Geo-
ghegan transfer to the Earl a plowland in Ballyncornyn, which had
been assigned to them as amends of the slaying of Moriartagh Mac
Hue Mac Geoghegan,” and the half-plowland of Ballynekonaghta is
given in pledge by Ferall M‘Owyn M‘Geoghegan for 60 kyne, which
had been adjudged as eric ‘‘ for breaking the said Earl’s s/aznte, on the
guarantee of protection on the sept of Nele Mac Geoghegan.”
In a third and very numerous class, the payment is simply said to
be “granted” to the Earl, without any recital of title or consideration
on his part; and so far as the negative evidence of the Rental Book goes,
* “ Kilkenny Archzxological Journal,” vol. 1i., p. 309. f+ Page 132.
492
all these might be regarded in the light of voluntary offerings. We
shall see, however, that no such conclusion can safely be drawn from
the silence of the Rental Book. Examples of this explicit declara-
tion of “ grant’’ occur in very many of the sections, those on the Mac
Murrough’s Country, on the O’Nolan’s, on the O’More’s, the Mac Gil-
patrick’s, and the Mathona’s [Mac Mahon’s]; and there is another
class of entries in which, although the word ‘‘ grant’’ does not occur, it
may naturally be inferred from the identity or analogy of the circum-
stances.
There is a fourth class which appears to me to carry much weight
in determining the character of the title under which these claims were
made or submitted to—viz., an assignment of the fines, or a portion of
the fines, levied in the sept. Thus in the section on the O’Tholis
(O’Toole’s) Country, one of the items of tribute is ‘‘ half kanys’’ and
penalties within the land of Gleancappa. It is difficult to separate from
such a payment the notion of a tributary recognition of superior
authority and an acknowledgment of subjection.
Last in order comes a numerous and interesting class of payments
for which there is an express recital of consideration—viz., ‘‘ for
defence,” or ‘for the defence.’ No further explanation is given in the
Rental Book itself. It is not said who are the enemies against whom
defence is guaranteed, what are the rights to be defended, or, in a
word, what is to be the nature of the stipulated protection ; although,
from the use of the form, ‘the defence,” I think it may be inferred
that the term was well defined, and understood by the parties. These
entries are found in a large number of the Irish ‘‘ Countries,” as that of
the Mac Murroughs, the O’ Murroughs, the O’Nolans, the O’Birnes, the
O’Mores of Leix, and Clancolman. It may be observed that they are
particularly numerous in the first and fourth of the above-named dis-
tricts, four such entries occurring in the section on Mac Murrough’s
Country, and no fewer than nine in that on O’Birne’s.
Such are the various forms of recital in which the ‘‘ Duties upon
Irishmen”’ are recorded in the Rental Book.
On a general consideration of these recitals, it will be observed—
First, that there is not the slightest reason to suppose that the
payments, or any of them, were rendered exceptionally to the Ninth
Earl Gerald, and not to the Earls before and after his time. On the
contrary, very many of the entries contain an express recital of perpe-
tuity, as 7 perpetuum, ‘for ever,’ and “to the Karl and his heirs for ever;”’
and, to remove all doubt as to the fact that the ‘‘ Duties” did not in any
case form a personal appanage of the Ninth Earl in particular, it is only
necessary to point out that the Rental Book in express terms recites,
in recording some of the Duties, the names of other Earls, as well the
predecessors as the successors of the ill-fated ninth inheritor of the
earldom. At least two of the ‘‘ Duties,’’—one in the O’Ryan’s* and
one in the McGeoghagan’s Country}——had their origin under Gerald Fitz
* “ Kilkenny Archeological Journal.’”’ Ibid., p. 122. ify Mbide epee
493
Thomas, the Eighth Earl; while the very entry of the Mac Rannall
tribute itself, as we shall see, is dated several years after the restoration
of the family to its honours; and the tribute of Patrick O’Hee of the
Toreboy, in the O’Birnes’ Country, in consideration of which it is sti-
pulated that the Earl shall ‘‘defend him of all injuries and wrongs to his
power,’ is dated as late as 1564,* nearly thirty years after the death
of the Ninth Earl Gerald.t
Secondly, it is equally plain that the ‘‘ Duties” were by no means
voluntary gifts or offerings, but were rigorously exacted. In some of
the entries a clause of distress is expressly recorded. In all receivers
are named—some, judging by the names, of English race, but the larger
proportion Irish, and for the most part different for the different Irish
territories. In some cases payment is acknowledged and attested by
witnesses. In others, arrears are recited, and a composition in money
or in kind is substituted in discharge of these arrears. In one word, it is
hard to imagine a single indication of a perfectly strict and rigidly
adjusted system of enforcement of these arrears, which will be found
wanting in this simple, but thoroughly practical and business-like record
of the ‘‘ Estate office”’ of a great Anglo-Irish proprietor of the sixteenth
century.
Thirdly, I think it plain that the theory according to which the
“‘ Duties upon Irishmen,” as recorded in the Rental Book, consisted in a
system of interchanges of gifts as between an Irish chief and the mem-
bers of his sept, or of offensive and defensive alliances between the Earl
and the Irish chiefs, to be made mutually available against their common
or special enemies, is entirely unsupported by the terms of the Rental
Book in recording these ‘‘ Duties.”’ In saying this, I by no means question
the existence and even frequency of such alliances and such interchanges
of friendly offices between the Geraldines of both houses and the Irish
clans. To doubt this, would be to forget the well-known hereditary
character of their race. But I am no less clearly convinced that, while
such alliances undoubtedly existed, these ‘‘ Duties upon Ivishmen,”’ and
still more evidently the detailed Mac Rannall Covenant, represent an en-
tirely different class of engagements. There is nota single allusion, from
the first entry to the last, to any gift on the part of the Earl, of which
these tributes might be the counterpart ; nor is there a word in the record
of any of the payments which can be regarded as pointing to an alliance
offensive or defensive, or to any other treaty, as on equal terms, between
the parties. In all, the Earl is plainly the superior and the imponent ;
whatever we may be disposed to think as to the nature and extent of
his authority over the parties to the covenant.
On the other hand, however, it will be argued that neither is there
anything in this Rental to support the construction which I put upon
the Mac Rannall Agreement—namely, that it was a covenant to pay
‘black mail’’ to the Earl for protection against the aggression and exac-
tions of his own followers. And I freely confess that there is not a single
* Page 134. ¢+ Page 122.
494
entry in the Rental Book which avows in express and formal terms
this consideration. But I think it equally clear that this and no other
was the consideration of the Mac Rannall agreement.
I shall briefly recall the purport of that agreement as contained in
my former Paper on the subject.
The Mac Rannalls, represented by four members of the sept, agree,
for themselves and the heads of clan Melaghlin Mac Rannall, to pay
yearly, at All Hallowstide, to the Earl of Kildare, a shilling per quarter
for the land in which Mac Rannall and O’Ruark have a portion; and the
Earl on his part engages, ‘“‘in consideration [00 cinn] thereof to de-
fend and assist them’’—not, be it observed, against any common enemy,
nor even against any enemy in general or in particular, but—[_aip ga¢ a
én oa m-bialo pa cimacoaib an lapld] “ against every one who vs
under the power of the Harl’—that 1s, against the Earl’s own followers,
dependants, and friends.
I do not see how this can possibly be understood otherwise than as
a guarantee against molestation or arbitrary exactions upon the part of
the Earl's own people. And especially when I contrast this form of
words with other Irish deeds, which merely contain a guarantee of
protection in the enjoyments of rights, or the enforcement of lawful rents
(a specimen of which, as between O’Brien, the Earl of Thomond, and
Conmara Mac Sioda Mac Owen, in which the Karl promises to befriend
Conmara and to protect and defend him in his rights [a Cainooc agur
a copnom na ¢oip | will be found in Hardiman’s Irish Deeds, p. 32),
I cannot imagine a more explicit form of words in which, on the one
hand, to impose, and on the other to accept, the obligation of a money
tribute, as the price of immunity from such molestation on the part of
the Earl or his followers. Nor could the Celtic chief O’ Neill—when, as
we learn from a letter of Lord James Butler,* written about the same
period, he was ‘‘ calling for his black rente on Myth and Uriell’’—or
“Mac Murrough in Kilkenny and Wexford,” for the ‘‘new O’Carrollin
Tipperary,”’ have possibly devised an instrument more fitted to embody
their demand, ora title whereupon to found a more unanswerable claim.
I have already said, nevertheless, that the Rental Book actually
contains a record of the payment of the very Mac Rannall tribute cove-
nanted for in this instrument, and that at a date long subsequent to the
death of the ninth Earl. I shall read this entry, which has a most im-
portant bearing on the present question:
“ Moynterolys M°agranaylls Countre.
‘‘ Iti on eVye cartron whereof O’Roryke and Magranayll raceways
(receives) Rent, xijd. yerlye.
‘‘Cono' M‘Key captene of M‘Keys contri win Moyntyr Olys hathe
gywyn (given) Gerod Erlle of Kyldare % his Eyrsse (heirs) for eV
yn evy cartron yerly win the aforesayd M‘Keyys land xijd. wyche is
XXxjj cartrons, ‘t the same payable at Mychalmas. Wryttyn the xv of
* State Papers of Henry VIII., vol. iii., p. 34.
———
495
August 1562, t hathe pomest (promised) for this last yer for the forsaid
rent xxxij kyne, from this forthe yerly as is aforsayd. Beying p’sent.
‘‘ Meyzer Hosszy, Tyrect Tapesxyp, Repmonp M‘Suane,
“¢ Witi’m Couean.’’*
Ir is plain that the payment here recorded is precisely that which
in our Agreement is stipulated to be paid on the lands of Mac Rannall
and O’Ruark. The lands named in the instrument are the same; the
amount of payment is the same; the rate per quarter is the same; in
a word, the transaction, as recorded in the Rental Book, is literally
identical with the engagement undertaken in the Agreement.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that, although the Rental does
not expressly recite the consideration on the part of the Earl which
is stipulated for in the original Agreement, nevertheless the title deed
upon which the payment was based was no other than the very docu-
ment which is still preserved in the family archives, and which I had
the pleasure of exhibiting to the Academy.
The obvious conclusion from the comparison of this entry in the
Rental with the original entry to which it refers, is, that the entries of
the Rental Book are by no means to be regarded as complete. And, asin
the one instance in which we are enabled to test it, we find that the
consideration of ‘‘ protection against the followers of the Earl,’’ which
we know to have been contained in the original Agreement, is not
recorded in the entry which appears in the Rental, we are not warranted,
in the case of other covenants, in arguing from the silence of the Rental
as to such considerations, that no such consideration originally existed
in these covenants. On the contrary, it would be much more natural to
infer from the terms of the Mac Rannall Deed, which alone among the
many originals has escaped destruction, that in the case of the other entries
in the Rental Book, which are couched in similar terms, there did origi-
nally exist the same or similar deeds of agreement, although they are
no longer discoverable.
At all events, for such entries as those which expressly recite the
consideration of ‘‘ defence,’’ I cannot hesitate to interpret that phrase by
the light of the Mac Rannall Deed. And without in the least denying or
doubting—what indeed was expressly supposed in my former Paper—
the identity of interest between the Geraldines and the native Irish
population, their constant interchange of friendly offices, and the exist-
ence of friendly alliances between them in public policy, as well as of
secret confederations for the private purposes of both parties, I am forced
to recognise the ‘‘ Duties upon Irishmen” generally, and the Mac Rannall
Agreement and the corresponding entries in the Rental in particular, as
evidence of a system of irregular exactions on the part of the Geraldines
from the Irish population outside the Pale; beyond the law, but yet tole-
rated by the Crown, in its inability to cope with the enormous resources
* * Kilkenny Archeological Journal,” N.S., pp. 134—5.
k. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3.U
496
of its own too powerful feudatory, and accepted by the Irish, as
the only means of obtaining that security which the English So-
vereign was powerless to afford.
The truth, is, however, that we are not left to inference or conjecture
in this question. The Reports on the condition of Ireland in the State
Papers of the period abound in evidence confirmatory of the view which
T have given; and itis far from improbable that, in the muniment-rooms
of Kilkenny or Portumna Castle, covenants of the Karls of Ormond and
Ossory or Clanrickard with the Irish may yet be discovered, of the same,
or similar import with that which has formed the subject of this dis-
cussion. ‘The system of exactions which prevailed on the part of the
Anglo-Irish nobles is fully described in these Reports; and it was not
confined to the Geraldines alone. I referred in my former Paper to
certain ‘‘ Articles and Instructions’ to ‘‘our Soweraine Lord the King
for his land of Ireland,” drawn up in 1538, which expressly declare that
the major part of the Irish chiefs ‘‘bere grete trubut,”’ not only to the Earl
of Kildare, but to the Earls of Desmond and Ossory. The same articles
contain a similar allegation as to the “‘ Karl of Shrowisbury, within the
countie of Wexford,” adding, that, in consequence, His Grace the King
‘‘ out of that countie hath not one peny of revenuse, except the poundage
of the town of Wexford.”
Nor need we seek for any evidence of the magnitude of this evil in
the eyes of the author of this Report, beyond the recommendation
which his Report embodies, that ‘‘ the Erle of Kildare, and the Erle of
Ossory, be both heyr before your Grace; they to be examinyd what
trubut they haiv of your Irish rebels; whereby it shall apeyr unto your
Grace, as well the gret sumys of goodes that they haw of them, as the
bandes and allyaunce which every of them hath with Irish men.”
LY.—On tHe ‘“ Foun” oF THE ALPS AND ITS CoNNEXION WITH THE
GuaciER THEortes. By Prorsssor Hennessy, F. R.S.
[Read May 24, 1869.]
THE warm southerly wind known to the inhabitants of the valleys of
the Swiss Alps as the ‘‘ Fohn,”’ has lately attracted much attention from
geologists as well as physical inquirers. Those who maintain the far
greater development of glaciers at epochs not long anterior to the histori-
cal epoch, as compared to their present number andextent, appeal to the
Fohn, as the principal agent for reducing the glacial masses to their
present condition. They have endeavoured to show that the ~
Fohn is of recent origin, and that its existence depends essentially
on that of the great African desert, the Sahara. Here a meteorological
question arises—namely, does the Fohn actually come from the Sahara,
or from any other source? ‘To this question several eminent meteoro-
logists have already given replies, but I may be still permitted to state
the independent conclusions which were suggested to me from circum-
497
a which fell under my own observation when in Switzerland in
_ _ When the Fohn rushes into the central and northern Alpine valleys
it has generally been observed as a dry, warm wind, and it is this
peculiar dryness which first suggested its desert origin. This dryness
of the air in the valleys is, however, by no means universal; and it is
always accompanied by falls of rain and snow on the mountains, sub-
sequently followed by moist precipitations in the valleys themselves.
Hence it follows, that the Féhn, when first impinging on the mass of
the Alps, isnot a dry, buta moist wind. The first portions of the aérial
current of which it is composed, having been stripped of theirmoisture, by
condensation and precipitation among the higher summits and ridges,
descend in a dry state into the Alpine valleys. Together with its
moisture, it has lost heat when expanding in traversing the summits of
the mountains; but on descending to the lower valleys, it is again com-
pressed, and thus gives out sensible heat, and becomes known asa warm
as well as a dry wind. ‘This explanation of its physical characters
seems to be generally admitted among the meterologists who have most
carefully studied the phenomenon. The next question that arises is,
whether it is probable that warm currents of air derived from the
Sahara, or from some other southerly source, would follow the precise
direction required for sweeping over the Alps. The condition of the
Sahara as an originator of warm aérial currents is one essentially con-
nected with the diurnal fluctuation of temperature.* By day its surface
acquires intense heat, the greater part of which it loses by radiation
during the night. We should thus expect a proort, that its disturbing
influence on the atmosphere should be fluctuating and violent, rather
than extensive, such as might accompany a more constant source of heat.
Moreover, the column of heated air rising upwards from the heated soil
of the Sahara, and tending to flow meridionally northwards, owing to
the earth’s rotation, would be gradually deflected, and move towards
the north-east, so as to blow towards Turkey, Asia Minor, and the
Black Sea, rather than Switzerland.
The general direction of the Fohn points to an origin west of the
Sahara, in the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Morocco. This part of the
Atlantic is traversed by a branch of the great north-western equatorial
thermal current, of which another branch strikes our shores. The
bifurcation occurs south of the Azores, and one portion proceeds towards
the north-west coast of Africa and south-west coast of Europe. In order
to determine whether the Fohn originates from the Atlantic or the
Sahara, a careful tracing out of its passage overintermediate countriesmust
be made; and this has been in a great measure effected by Professor Wild,
of St. Petersburg; Professor Dufour, of Lausanne; Dr. Hann, and other
metereologists. M. Wild concludes that every time an equatorial
i * See ‘On the Temperature of the Lower Regions of the Earth’s Atmosphere,”
“‘ Transactions,” vol. xxiv., pp. 402, 408.
498
cyclone arrives in Europe from the coast of Ireland, along the Bay of
Biscay through Spain to the Mediterranean, there is a Fohn in the
Alps. If the equatorial storms attack the eoast of Ireland, the Fohn
commences in West Switzerland with its usual accompaniments. M.
Wild finally concludes that the Féhn has no direct relation with the
Sahara, and that it arises from the ordinary moist equatorial currents of
air coming from the Atlantic.
These results came under my notice for the first time in several
essays contained in the ‘‘ Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles,”’
of Geneva, for the past and present year, 1868 and 1869; and they
have induced me to refer to the conclusions to which I had been pre-
viously led from independent study of the phenomena. In 1864, when
listening to Sir Charles Lyell delivering his address to the British
Association at Bath, I was impressed with the belief that the distin-
guished geologist had entirely misinterpreted the phenomenon of the
Fohn with reference to the extension and diminution of glaciers, and
in a communication to the geological section I alluded to the subject.
Subsequently, in 1867, I had an opportunity of witnessing one of
the less intense currents of air which the peasants of the Oberland and
Valais call a Fohn, and which assisted in establishing in my mind the
true solution of the question.
T spent the night of the 8rd of September, 1867, at Guttanen, in
the Hasli-thal, a place well known to be within the district where the
Fohn is frequent. The night was still and warm, while the sky was
nearly cloudless. On the morning of the 4th, while descending the
valley towards Im-Grund, the wind commenced blowing with consider-
able force from the south-south-west; the sky was clear, and the warmth
of both sun and air so great, that I screened myself with a sunshade.
My guide cried out, ‘‘ Das Fohn,”’ and directed me to instantly fold up
the umbrella, and look to my stepsso as to avoid the danger of being
blown from the narrow pathway. The few clouds scattered over the
sky were not at this time in rapid motion, and it seemed manifest that
the violence of the wind was in part due to the shape of the valley.
At first the wind was dry and very hot; but the clouds continued to
gather rapidly, while the air grew appreciably more damp and warm.
In a short time the weather presented precisely the same appearances
as those with which we are familiar in Ireland when the wind blows
strongly from the south-west. ‘Towards evening, when I arrived at
Interlacken, the force of the wind had greatly lessened; but the sky was
completely covered with clouds, and rain fell abundantly during the
night.
On the 5th, when passing over the Lake of Thun, I noticed that all
the hills and mountains were closely enveloped in mist and rain, in the
same manner as the hills of Cork and Kerry during southerly winds.
Except at its commencement, this specimen of the Fohn appeared to be
quite the reverse of a dry parching wind.
In the records of meteorological observations, printed in the ‘‘ Archives
des Sciences,”’ I find noted under the 4th of September, at Geneva—dew
499
in the morning, haze all the forenoon; the barometer fell 2." 74 be-
tween the 3rd and 4th, and the temperature rose by 0:42 C.; prevailing
wind, south-south-west. At the Great St. Bernard’s—mist, morning
and evening of the 4th. In the night, between the 8rd and 4th, a
thunderstorm with rain; barometer fell 2 millimetres. The highest
temperature of the month was on the 3rd, 11° 24 C.; prevailing wind
south-west.
If the phenomena which came under my notice could be consi-
dered as representing the phenomena of the Fohn, I could not avoid
concluding that this wind was essentially similar to our south-west
Atlantic winds, and my subsequent perusal of the various essays on the
subject in the ‘‘ Archives des Sciences’ rendered this conclusion unques-
tionable.
In recent times it has become the fashion among a great number of
geologists to ascribe to ice the principal agency in modifying the features
of the earth’s surface. Glaciers are invoked to perform every kind of
denuding work, from the transport of a grain of sand to the rounding,
rending, and sculpturing of mountain masses. At the present day,
in Switzerland and Savoy, this work is partly performed by atmospheric
action, gravity, and the moving force of water both in its liquid and
solid state. In order that water should operate almost exclusively in
the solid state, the glaciers must have had, according to glacialists, a
much greater extension during comparatively recent geological epochs
than at present. The necessity for appealing to cosmical changes was
supposed to be obviated by the theory of the Fohn, which ascribes to
this wind an African desert origin. Evidence has been put forward to
show that the Sahara was submerged up to a comparatively recent
date, and hence it was concluded that during the period of its submer-
gence no Fohn could have existed. To the warm breath of Fohn is at-
tributed the retrogression of the glaciers to their present positions and
dimensions.
But if the Fohn is proved to have no connexion with the great
African desert, this theory of the regression of Alpine glaciers must be
abandoned.
LVI.—ReEportT oN THE RESEARCHES oF Herr CoHNHEIM ON INFLAM-
MATION AND Suppuration. By J. M. Porszr, M. B.
[Read July 12, 1869. ]
Tux researches of Professor Cohnheim on suppuration are of great im-
portance, and have excited a very unusual amount of interest. The
corpuscles of pus have long been acknowledged by microscopists to be
morphologically indistinguishable from the white cells of the blood; but
they were supposed to originate either by proliferation of the cells of
the inflamed part, or to arise spontaneously in a formative fluid or
blastema poured out from the blood. The point of Cohnheim’s theory
500
is, that the pus corpuscles are not only similar in form to the white
blood cells, but that they actually are blood cells which have, aided by
certain conditions of the circulation in inflamed parts, passed through
the uninjured walls of the blood vessels and become free.
The following is a short sketch of the observations on which this
theory is based. When the cornea was made to inflame, the suppuration
was found always to begin at the edge, and to travel towards the centre,
and this whether the irritant was applied to the central parts or to the
periphery. Now, the cornea is a tissue which contains no blood vessels
of its own, but whose borders join on to vascular parts. Furthermore,
at all stages of the suppurative process the cornea cells could be seen
unaltered in the midst of the pus cells, and the former never showed
any sign of proliferation, or of undergoing change into the latter.
Lastly, when coloured substances in a minute state of division were
injected into the blood, they were taken up by the white blood cells,
which were by this means marked, and could be traced in their wander-
ings through the body. If, in an animal thus treated, a keratitis was
excited, among the pus cells found in the cornea were always a number
which contained coloured particles, showing that some, at all events, of
the pus cells had been at a former time blood corpuscles.
At this point it became necessary to observe the process of inflamma-
tion in some vascular part where the passage of the blood cells through
the walls of the vessels might be seen, if such a process did really occur.
As the subject of his observations for this purpose Cohnheim chose the
mesentery, or transparent membrane which binds the intestine to the
back wall of the abdomen, and in which the vessels going to and return-
ing from the intestine are found. The animals used were frogs. A
few experiments made also on young rabbits and kittens, although
attended with much difficulty, and much more imperfect in their results
than those performed on frogs, showed, nevertheless, that the pheno-
mena of the inflammatory process were essentially the same 1n warm as
in cold blooded animals. The method of preparation adopted in the
case of the frog is as follows. The animal is first poisoned with a
small dose of curara, which prevents all voluntary movement, paralysing
the peripheral extremities of the motor nerves, while the circulation
goes on unimpaired. When the frog becomes motionless, a small open-
ing is made through the side into the abdomen, and through this the
intestine is drawn out. The animal is then laid on his back on a large
glass plate, on which a small disc of glass, surrounded by a narrow ring
of cork, has been cemented with Canada balsam. Over this disc the
mesentery is laid; and the intestine which comes to lie on the cork ring
is attached to this by a few small pins, so as to prevent displacement of
the object by the peristaltic movements of the intestinal muscular fibres.
The mesentery may or may not be covered with a piece of thin glass—
Cohnheim prefers to examine it uncovered ; and I have found it best to
do so, for the sharp edge of the covering glass is very apt to injure
some of the small blood vessels of the delicate mesenteric tissue, and to
cause hemorrhage, which completely destroys the object. When thus
O01
arranged, the glass plate is laid on the stage of the microscope, and the
mesentery examined with lenses of different powers, according as is
found necessary. It is not needful to apply any irritant to the mesen-
tery, for the mere contact with the air is sufficient to excite a severe
suppurative peritonitis; and as the animal often lives and the circula-
tion goes on steadily for upwards of forty-eight hours, the inflammation
can be watched with great facility in all its stages.
In a mesentery so exposed the following phenomena are observed.
The blood vessels dilate. The arteries dilate at first, and with considera-
ble rapidity; next the veins, more slowly. These vessels are some-
times enlarged to double their former diameter. The capillaries dilate
less; their apparent increase in size being chiefly due to their contain-
ing a greater number of red corpuscles, and so becoming more distinct.
Coincidently with this vascular dilatation a slowing of the course of the
blood is seen to occur, and the white corpuscles appear more nume-
rously in the peripheral layers of blood in both arteries and veins, but
more particularly in the latter. The white corpuscles go on accumulating
along the sides of the veins, and become stationary, adhering to the vas-
cular wall, till at last the inner surface of each vein is lined by a conti-
nuous layer of white corpuscles, forming a secondary tube, in the centre
of which the ordinary current continues to flow. Shortly after this
small projections are seen on the outer surface of the veins, and these
gradually enlarge till they each attain the size of a white blood cor-
puscle, which they further resemble in colour and granular appearance.
At last they are attached to the wall of the vein merely by a narrow
stalk; and from the side remote from the vessel they begin to throw out
finger-like processes and to perform other amzeboid movements, till at
length the stalk separates from the vein, and the corpuscle becomes free,
moves away, a perfect pus corpuscle, into the tissue of the mesentery.
This emigration of corpuscles goes on from all sides of the vein till the
vessel is surrounded by a thick mass of cells which have passed out
through its walls, and which were white blood cells, but which, now
they are extravasated in an inflamed tissue, must be called pus or exu-
dation cells. They undergo the most remarkable alterations of form,
and spread themselves through the tissue and over the surface of the
mesentery by virtue of the power of spontaneous motion enjoyed by all
masses of living protoplasma. In the capillaries during this time the
circulation is very irregular. In some vessels it continues to flow un-
intermittingly in a continuous stream. From such a capillary no emi-
gration of corpuscles takes place. In other vessels the current stagnates
for a time, and again goes on. In others the stagnation is permanent,
and in some the current varies from time to time both in direction and
rapidity. In those vessels in which a stoppage of the blood flow occurs,
whether temporary or permanent, the exit of the corpuscles can be ob-
served with great clearness. The white cells, which when in circula-
tion always preserve the spherical shape, when they come to rest inside
the vessel begin to change in form, and after a little time they are seen
to pass through the wall of the capillary just as they do through that
502
of the vein. In the case of the capillary the last doubt as to the iden-
tity of cells within and those without the vessel is removed; for the
vascular wall is here so thin as to allow a white corpuscle to be partly
within and partly without at the same time, and a gradual transference
of the substance of the corpuscle from the part within to the part with-
out can be watched till at last the corpuscle has wholly passed through,
and moves off to make way for others. Through the capillary walls
the red corpuscles also pass in considerable number ; and there are few
more remarkable objects than a capillary in which the blood has been
for some time stagnant, and in which a number of red corpuscles have
got halfway through the wall when the circulation recommences. The
‘parts of the corpuscles within are then agitated by the current, and
sometimes actually torn away from their other halves which have got
through, and remain motionless outside the vessel.
The exit of corpuscles through the walls of the arteries is insigni-
ficant, and seldom occurs except when a dilatation followed by a constric-
tion of the vessel allows a temporary or partial stasis of the blood to
occur. Red corpuscles never pass through the walls of the arteries or
veins.
After some hours the mesentery becomes cloudy and opaque, from
the number of cellular bodies mixed with fluid exudation from the ves-
sels, which are spread out on its surface or imbedded in its substance ;
the appearances are those of well-marked suppurative peritonitis, and
any one not knowing whence the cells are derived would have no hesi-
tation in calling them pus corpuscles.
It appears from this description that the main condition for the
emigration of white corpuscles is, that they should have come to rest
at all events for a short time while within the vessels. The white cor-
puscles, as is known, are composed of protoplasma, that peculiar sub-
stance which forms the mass of all living cells, whether animal or
vegetable. This protoplasma, among many remarkable properties, pos-
sesses two which are of great importance in our present subject—
namely, irritability and the power of spontaneous movement. While
the blood is circulating, and while the corpuscles are being perpetually
rubbed against each other and against the sides of the vessels, the pro-
toplasma is kept in a condition of tetanus ; and, contracting so as to oc-
cupy the smallest possible space, it maintains the spherical shape of the
ordinarily described white blood cell, and in this condition it 1s incapa-
ble of passing through the walls of the vessels. But no sooner do the
corpuscles come to rest, and get relief from the perpetual irritation of
friction, than they begin to move, throwing out processes and changing
in shape just as some infusorial animals are seen to do; hence, these
movements have been described and are usually known under the title
of the ame@eboid movements of the corpuscles. The white cells of the
blood further resemble the ameeba in their power of taking up into their
substance minute particles of matter brought in contact with them; and
when the corpuscles are thus fed, as it were, with materials easily
recognisable, their passage through the vascular walls and their wan-
wT
503
derings throughout the body are much more easily followed than when
the movements of the normal corpuscles are observed. I have repeat-
edly injected milk, carmine, and aniline blue into the lymphatic spaces
of frogs, and found the substance injected in the course of a few hours
taken up in great quantity by the blood corpuscles. Now, it is by this
power of changing shape and performing spontaneous movements that
the white corpuscles appear to be able to leave the vessels. The veins
and arteries are formed of coats, all of which, except the internal, are
composed mainly of connective tissue; for, as Cohnheim observes, even
the muscular coat may be considered as formed of connective tissue,
containing set in it a greater or less abundance of muscular fibre cells.
Now, we know that the connective tissues, with the exception of carti-
lage, are full of spaces through which the corpuscles possessed of ame-
boid powers of locomotion can freely pass. But the internal coat of the
larger vessels is composed of a layer of flat epithelial cells united at
their edges, and a similar layer forms the only tunic of the smaller ca-
pillaries. Now, if this were a perfectly continuous layer, it would be
difficult to explain the passage through it of the white cells; for we
have no reason to believe that these bodies have any power of making
a way for themselves, but only of travelling through passages already
formed. Put this difficulty is removed by a recent anatomical dis-
covery which shows that the internal vascular tunic is not absolutely
continuous, but that between the cells small circular spaces exist, called
stomata, numerous in the veins and ¢apillaries, and more sparingly pre-
sent in the arteries, and which are readily seen after an injection of the
vessels with nitrate of silver, a reagent which brings out with great
‘distinctness the outlines of the epithelial cells. Through these stomata
Cohnheim, apparently with much reason, supposes the white corpuscles
to pass.
With regard to the emigration of the red corpuscles through the
capillary walls much difficulty exists. The red discs are generally be-
lieved to have no power of spontaneous movement, and Cohnheim sup-
poses that they are forced out mechanically through the stomata,
enlarged by the previous passage through them of the white cells, the
increased pressure in the capillaries being brought about by the partial
stasis of blood in the veins. ‘The red corpuscles pass certainly in great
numbers through the capillaries of a part in which the venous circula-
tion is impeded, as may be seen in the web of the frog’s foot after
ligature of the crural vein; but the pressure must be exerted in the
direction of the axis of the vessel, and it is difficult to conceive how
this could act on the corpuscles so as to force them to move through
the walls of the vessel in a direction at right angles to that of the force
acting on them. Professor Bastian, from these and some other consi-
derations, prefers to attribute to the red corpuscles powers of sponta-
neous movement, and to believe that the red as well as the white
corpuscles leave the vessels through powers inherent in themselves, and
independently of mechanical pressure. I have never myself seen any
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL, X. 3x
504
spontaneous movement performed by the red corpuscles, whether within
or without the vessels, but at the same time I think that Cohnheim’s
theory does not account for the phenomenon under consideration. I
must hence leave the explanation of the fact for the future. Of the
fact itself there cannot be a shadow of doubt.
Now, with regard to the phenomena just described as observed by
Cohnheim in the exposed mesentery, I may say in one word that I
have confirmed their accuracy in every particular; I have seen and
measured the dilatation of the vessels; I have observed the retardation
of the blood flow, the stasis in the capillaries, the accumulation of
white blood cells along the inner surface of the veins, and the exit of
the corpuscles through the vascular walls; while I have never seen a
pus cell formed from any of the connective tissue or epithelial elements
of the mesentery or blood vessels. But there is one point untouched
upon by Cohnheim and almost all other writers on this subject, that is
the part played in inflammation by the lymphatic vessels and their con-
tents. The lymphatics in the mesentery of the frog run either as
sheaths surrounding, or as separate tubes immediately apposed to the
blood vessels. Now, on exposing the mesentery, these lymphatic
vessels are seen to contain clear lymph with leucocytes, indistinguish-
able from those of blood or pus, floating in it in variable number. Soon
the circulation of lymph becomes languid, and stops, while the corpus-
cles adhere about the outer side of the blood vessels, and perform
ameboid movements; so that the vessels are often at an early period
studded over with corpuscles which have not passed out from their in-
terior. The number of these corpuscles is quite insignificant, compared
to the number of those which subsequently pass out from the blood ;
but it will be observed always that those veins which are surrounded
by lymphatic sheaths are more thickly covered with pus corpuscles than
those which have no space about them—a fact the explanation of which,
I think, must be mainly sought in the lymphatic space, which, by afford-
ing room, facilitates the exit of corpuscles through the walls of the ves-
sels. ;
Very shortly after exposure, if the surface of the mesentery be exa-
mined, corpuscles will be seen floating in the fluid which moistens the
membrane. These, I think, float out from the lymphatic spaces under
the skin; for on making a small opening in the skin, and examining
the fluid which flows from the wound, I have always found it to con-
tain leucocytes in greater or less number. The peritoneal fluid also
often contains white cells. The observations on the tongue of the frog
gave results precisely similar to those made on the mesentery. All the
pus was derived from the blood, the cells of the tongue remaining
throughout the inflammatory process unconcerned in the suppuration.
These observations of Cohnheim have been repeated, and in all
essential particulars confirmed, by a great number of observers. The
only attempt at a serious refutation of the fact of the emigration of the
blood cells was made a few months ago by Professor Balogh, of Pesth;
but his objections are so futile, and his own observations so manifestly
505
erroneous, that it would be mere waste of time to give any lengthened
consideration to his paper.
That by the experiments I have detailed one mode of origin of
pus corpuscles is established beyond question, I think must be admitted ;
but at the same time I think it would be premature to affirm that this
is the only way in which these bodies arise. Still we must allow that
Cohnheim made a most remarkable and fruitful discovery, when he
found that the white corpuscles can traverse the walls of the vessels
without injury to the latter.
The importance of this discovery is not confined to the process of
suppuration only; for there can be no doubt that, under favourable
circumstances, the extravasated corpuscles may undergo development,
and take part in the formation of tissues or new growths ; and already ob-
servations and experiments have been made, showing that in the healing
of wounds and other processes besides those of suppuration the emigrated
white blood cells play a most important part. In several cases, too,
where great difficulty was formerly experienced in accounting for the
origin of pus by deriving it from the pre-existing cells of the inflamed
part, the theory of Cohnheim offers welcome assistance. Pneumonia,
in which the air vesicles of the lungs become filled with exudation,
composed mainly of pus cells, is such a case. Quite recently, Axel
Key has proved, by the injection into the blood of coloured substances,
so as to mark the white corpuscles, and examination of the exudation
in a subsequently excited pneumonia, that the pus corpuscles in the
latter contained coloured particles, and were, therefore, derived from
the blood. The great abundance of capillary vessels about the air spaces
of the lung will account for the well-known rusty colour of the sputum
in pneumonia.
This has long been recognised as dependent on the presence of red-
- blood corpuscles; and it will be remembered that through the capillary
walls red as well as white corpuscles have been seen to pass.
I hope in a future communication to report on the process of inflam-
mation in the cornea; my observations on this tissue have hitherto not
given decisive results.
506
LVII.—On ‘‘Eozoon CanavrEnst.”’ By Professors Wirrram Kine, Sc.D.;
and THomas H. Rownny, Po. D.; of the Queen’s University in
Ireland, and the Queen’s College, Galway.
[Read July 12, 1869.]
CONTENTS.
I. Introduction.
I. Foraminiferal Considerations.
a. ‘“Nummuline Layer.”’
b. ‘Intermediate Skeleton.’
c. ‘*Chamber Casts.’’
d. *‘Canal System.”
e. ‘* Stolons.”
If]. Mineralogical Considerations.
IV. Chemical Considerations.
V. Geological Considerations.
VI. Conclusion.
1. Lntroduction.
Tue first observation that gave rise to the idea of the subject of the
present Paper being a fossil organism was made, in 1858, by Sir Wiliam
E. Logan, Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, who was struck
with the resemblance of specimens, consisting of alternating lamelle of
white pyroxene (malacolite) and calcite, to the fossil coral, Stromato-
ora, common in the Silurian rocks. The specimen was from one
of the calcareous beds of the Laurentian system, at the Grand Calumet,
in Canada. Some years previously other specimens from a different
part of the same region, similarly laminated, had been brought to Sir
William Logan: these, however, consisted of layers of loganite—(a
mineral related to serpentine) and dolomite. The Director remarks—“ If
specimens from both these places were to be regarded as the result of ©
unaided mineral arrangement, it appeared to me strange that identical
forms should be derived from minerals of such different composition.’ *
Drs. Dawson and Sterry Hunt having had their attention called
to these specimens, and others found abundantly in the Laurentian
ophites of Canada, in which serpentine takes the place of the pre-
cited mineral silicates, the latter made a chemical and mineralogical
investigation of them, and the former undertook to examine their
structural characters. The result was, that both investigators pro-
nounced the specimens to belong to a “‘ fossil.”’ From occurring in
rocks the oldest of any known—older than any which geologists on
this side of the Atlantic were properly acquainted with, and seeming to
be in relation with the ‘‘ first appearance of animal life on our planet,”
* “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxi., p. 48.
S07
Dr. Dawson distinguished the “‘ fossil” by the generic name ‘‘ Zozoon’’
or ‘dawn animal ;” and called it specifically ‘‘ Canadense,”’ to denote its
occurrence in Canada.
Specimens brought to London by Sir W. Logan were placed in the
_ hands of Dr. Carpenter, who shortly after prepared a Paper, which,
along with others, written by the Director of the Canadian Survey, Dr.
Dawson, and Dr. Sterry Hunt, was published by the Geological Society
of London.* Dr. Carpenter was enabled to bring to light some addi-
tional details of a most important character, which not only confirmed,
as he conceived, the view held by Dr. Dawson, that ‘‘ Hozoon Canadense’’
was a gigantic foraminifer, but showed, in his opinion, that it belonged
to the most complex section of its class.
The discovery of presumed foraminiferal remains in rocks that corre-
spond in many respects with the ophites or green marbles of Connemara,
led us to imagine that the latter might contain a similar ‘ fossil,’
establishing thereby their geological age. We were thus induced to
enter on an investigation, which it is exceedingly probable would not
have been undertaken had not one of us been in possession of a first-class
binocular microscope, inasmuch as any researches of the kind carried on
with an ordinary instrument are of very little use in determining the
character of the different structures to be observed.
The various stages of our investigation need not be dwelt on here;
suffice it to say, that, from being firm believers in what had been taken
to represent an organism, we became in the end decided unbelievers.t
After fully satisfying ourselves as to the truth of the view that had
slowly and gradually forced itself on our convictions, we prepared,
in 1865, a Paper on the subject, which was read before the Geological
Society of London, and published in its ‘ Journal.’’}
It is now necessary to give a general description of the so-called
“fossil.”
The rocks containing ‘‘ Hozoon’’ are ophites— that is, such as
essentially consist of intermixtures of serpentine (composed of a hydro-
magnesian silicate, also other allied minerals), and calcite or dolo-
mite. There are two varieties: one has the serpentine in segmented
grains or granules scattered irregularly through the calcite. This is
called the ‘‘acervuline” variety. In the other the serpentine is in
segmented plates or layers, here and there confluent, and interlaminated
with the calcite. Various modifications of these two varieties occur ;
and specimens are common, showing the passage of one into the other.
In the” eozoonal” ophites of other countries the acervuline is the ordi-
nary variety ; and we have reason for believing that this is the case in
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” No. 81, Feb. 1865.
7 An announcement of the change in our view appeared in the ‘‘ Reader,” June 10,
1865, p. 660; and in the next number a not over-temperate attack was made upon us
by Dr. Carpenter.
+ “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., August, 1866.
508
Canada. Out of the latter region, however, the laminated one appears
to be very rare.
Entire specimens of the laminated variety have been found some
inches in thickness, and several in diameter, which has given rise
to the idea that individuals of ‘‘ Hozoon Canadense”’ grew during some
(the early) portion of their life by the addition of tier upon tier
of ‘chambers’ or ‘cells; but as many specimens show this
variety, with the presumed representatives of the latter parts, breaking
up and becoming scattered through the calcareous matrix, it has been
considered that the ‘‘acervuline”’ mode of growth supervened.
In ‘‘ eozoonal” parlance the calcareous portion is named the ‘in-
termediate’ or ‘‘ supplemental skeleton ;’’ while the granules and
plates of serpentine are called ‘‘ chamber casts,” on the view that
they were originally cavities in the skeleton, tenanted by the sarcode-
divisions of the animal, and which had become filled up with a mineral
deposit.
"To examine specimens with a high magnifying power, it is neces-
sary to decalcify them with weak acid, or to prepare thin sections.
By the first process the calcite disappears, leaving the serpentine
untouched. The interspaces between the granules and plates of the
latter mineral are now seen to be in numerous instances crowded with
a great variety of simple and arborescent vermicular shapes, composed of
the same, or a related silicate: some are attached to the granules;
and others still remain imbedded in the undissolved portion of the
‘¢skeleton,’’? seemingly independent of the ‘‘ chamber casts.’”’ These
structures were first detected by Dr. Dawson, who, supposing them to
be casts of tubes, such as belong to the ‘‘canal system’”’ excavated in
the ‘‘ intermediate skeleton”’ of certain genera of foraminifers, considers
them to represent the same part in ‘“‘ Hozoon.” Applying a high
power to the serpentine granules, &c., they are often seen to be
covered with a white glistening asbestiform layer, the fibres being
frequently at a right angle, and occasionally oblique, to the surfaces
to which they are attached. The fibres in many cases have a striking
resemblance to casts of the perforations or minute tubuli belonging to
the ‘‘ true wall” of the nwmmuline foraminifers (in which the perfo-
rations admit of the extrusion of the sarcodic extensions, called
pseudopods); and they have consequently been considered by Dr.
Carpenter, to whom is due the chief merit in discovering them, to
represent the ‘‘nummuline layer.”
The object of our Paper was to show that every one of the struc-
tures diagnosed for ‘‘ Kozoon Canadense’”’ by Dawson and Carpenter is
purely of inorganic origin. We maintained that the “ chamber casts” are —
simply granules of serpentine-—-as much mineral products as the
grains of chondrodite, pargasite, &c., common in certain rocks; that
the ‘‘ intermediate skeleton” is their calcareous matrix, as is the calcite
in which the latter minerals usually occur; that the branching shapes,
which constitute the ‘‘ canal system,” and penetrate the matrix, are
nothing more than forms of metaxite, or some allied mineral, also oc-
509
curring in micro-crystalline calcite; and that the ‘‘ nwmmuline layer,’
coating the serpentine granules, is a film of chrysotile in various states
of modification. Metaxite and chrysotile we showed to be mere allo-
morphs of serpentine, being the same hydro-magnesian silicate, under
other forms besides the amorphous, that characterizes the latter: the
three correspond to the fibrous, branching, and amorphous varieties
not unusual to calcareous, siliceous, and some other minerals.
Moreover, ‘‘eozoonal”’ structures were shown to have never been
found except in crystalline or metamorphic rocks, especially those contain-
ing serpentine, or some of its varieties; and to occur under these
conditions in deposits of widely different geological ages—not only in
the Laurentians, but in others that are members of later systemal pe-
riods, even in the serpentine or crystalline marbles p Tenentle to the
Liassic system.
The ‘ fossil” we are engaged with has obtained sufficient notoriety
as a disputed body, and it is of so much importance in geology, irre-
spective of whatever view may be taken of it, as to require from all
who are interested in the truthful progress of this science extremely
eareful consideration, and the most searching investigation. Yet the
late President of the Geological Society, Mr. Meee W. Smyth—
who declared that ‘the grandest feat of geological science within the
last few years is the astounding extension of the scale of geological
time consequent on the discovery of ‘ Hozoon Canadense’ ’?—has set
aside a ‘‘ fact” of considerable weight for a mere wnsupported an-
nouncement. ‘* The elaborate arguments of Messrs. King and Rowney
in favour of the mineral origin of ‘eozoonal’ structure had at one
time a strong show of support in the fact that these appearances”’ (struc-
tures) ‘were always observed in serpentinous limestone (ophicalcite)
only, whether in Canada, Connemara, Tyree, Bavaria (Dr. Giimbel),
or Bohemia (Dr. Von Hochstetter), notwithstanding great discre-
pancy in the age of some of the deposits. But the announcement made
by Dr. Carpenter in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
for August last (1865),’ of Dr. Dawson’s discovery of ‘ Hozoon’ pre-
served in carbonate of lime pure and simple, would appear to close the
discussion.’’*
In the present communication it is our intention to review all the
arguments and evidences, including statements made in connexion with
the above announcement, that have been brought forward since our
Paper was published ; and we shall adduce additional proofs against
what Dr. Carpenter calls the ‘‘ received doctrine.’”’ Moreover, Conne-
mara abounds with rocks yielding some of the most beautiful marbles
known, and composed to a considerable extent of ‘‘ Hozoon Canadense’’?—
a fact which may be held of additional importance in inducing the Royal
Irish Academy to take a part in promoting the settlement of the
question as to the origin of this so-called ‘‘ fossil.”
* Anniversary Address to the Geological Society. See ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Geo-
logical Society,” vol. xxiii., p. Ixiv.
510
Before entering on the several points treated of in the following
sections, we deem it necessary to make a few remarks on the principal
communications that have lately appeared on the subject.
The Director of the Geological Survey of Bavaria, Dr. Giimbel,
brought out a Paper* about the same time as ours appeared, which is
remarkable on account of the way the author has treated the subject,
and in confirming many of our statements. Dr. Giimbel, following the
same line of argument as we did through its legitimate channel, com-
pares the- different ‘‘eozoonal’’ structures with certain well-known
forms (some of which were cited by ourselves) of mineral silicates
imbedded in crystalline limestones; but, as an unquestioning belief in
‘‘ Fozoon’”’ eminently distinguishes his Paper, he quite consistently
regards as organic the forms which we showed to be mineral products.
Dr. Carpenter has published two contributions; also some ‘‘ Notes’’
appended to a communication by Dr. Dawson, shortly to be noticed.
The earliest one, entitled ‘‘ Supplemental Notes on the Structure and
Affinities of Hozoon Canadense,” + which immediately follows our Paper,
may have been written as an,answer to the evidences and arguments
we adduced; but, with the exception of two or three paragraphs at the
end, and a few foot notes, it is principally an elaborate réswmé, and in
many cases a verbatim copy, of a previous memoir by himself in the
‘‘ Intellectual Observer,” every point of which was discussed, and we
believe invalidated, or disproved by ourselves: as to the additional
matter, we shall have to notice it hereafter. The next Paper, with a
similar title to the above, appeared as a ‘‘ Letter to the President
of the Royal Society.”{ Anything new comprised in it, and in the
‘‘ Notes’ appended to Dr. Dawsen’s communication, will be so fully
treated of in another place as to render a notice of them unnecessary
at present.
Dr. Dawson’s Paper, entitled ‘‘ Notes on Fossils recently obtained
from the Laurentian Rocks of Canada, and on Objections to the Organic
Nature of Eozoon,’’§ is principally taken up with a description of a
‘¢ Specimen of Eozoon from Tudor,” and a few more, assumed to exhibit
“‘eozoonal” features, from other localities in Canada. The account of
the first of these specimens will be considered shortly. Dr. Dawson’s
criticisms on our ‘‘ Objections to the Organic Nature of Eozoon” are
uncommonly brief, scarcely occupying three pages; and, as a conse-
quence, they leave untouched much of what is contained in our “‘ elabo-
rate attempt;’’ the reason for such brevity being, as stated, that the
Tudor specimen “ furnishes a conclusive answer’ to our ‘‘ objections ;”
and that Dr. Carpenter ‘‘ has already shown their inaccuracy in many
important” points—we presume in the ‘‘Supplemental Notes.” The
same ‘‘ fossil” has also received some notice from Sir William Logan,
* “Ueber das Vorkommen von Eozoon in dem ostbayerischen Urgebirge,” 1866.
t ‘Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., pp. 219-228.
tf ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,” vol. xv., pp. 503-508.
§ “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” No. 91, August, 1867, pp. 257-264.
oll
in his Paper “On New Specimens of Eozoon,’’* published at the same
time as Dr. Dawson’s.
We shall now proceed to examine the specimen from Tudor.
In the first place, the ‘‘ fossil,’ which has the general appearance
of a Fenestella (not that we have the least suspicion of its having any
relation to the latter, or any other organism whatever), is exceedingly
thin, and consists of a number of parallel or sub-parallel slender string-
hike ribs, strangely called ‘‘ septa,” lying in one plane; which ribs
‘‘ divide and reunite at short distances :” a ‘‘ few transverse plates, or
connecting columns, are visible;’’ otherwise the so-called septa ‘do
not coalesce,” except on one of its sides. Taking Dr. Dawson’s view,
the specimen is to be regarded as a detached ‘‘ weathered section’’ that
has got ‘‘ broken” from an individual ‘‘ Kozoon’’ perpendicularly to its
“‘septa”’ before it became imbedded. Considering the arrangement and
thinness of the ribs—‘‘ scarcely two lines in thickness’—and the compa-
ratively large size of the specimen, ‘‘ six and a half inches in length,
and about four inches broad,”’ there seems much improbability that it
could have got detached from a massive “‘ organism,” such as ‘“‘ Hozoon”
is supposed to have been.
Secondly, the “‘septa are in the state of white carbonate of lime,”
some ‘‘portions” of which exhibit ‘“‘cleavage planes.” ‘There are
also a number of small veins or cracks passing nearly at right angles to
the septa, and filled with carbonate of lime, similar in general appear-
ance to the septa themselves;” and the same mineral, in larger examples,
occurs in other places, a ‘‘ white patch” of it having ‘‘ obliterated the
chambers”’ in one part.
From these statements, and the presence of nothing more than
a ‘‘ doubtful microscopic structure” in some parts of the ‘fossil,’ and
from the appearances presented by the ‘‘admirable photograph” of it,
““executed by Mr. Norman,’’} we feel ourselves warranted in suggesting
that the “septa,” ‘‘ veins,” and ‘‘ white patches,” are all of one and the
same origin—purely mineral.
Thirdly, the ‘* matrix” of the “fossil” is a ‘‘ dark-coloured, coarse,
laminated limestone, holding sand, scales of mica, and minute grains and
fibres of carbonaceous matter.”’ The ‘‘ septa,” itis stated, ‘‘ present, for
the most part, merely traces of structure, consisting of small parts of
canals, filled with the dark colouring matter of the limestone.”{ A
representation of a ‘section of one’’ of the septa is given by Dr.
* “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” No. 91, August, 1867, pp. 253-257.
+ The lithograph of the specimen illustrating Dr. Dawson’s paper represents the
‘* septa,” &c., less imperfectly defined than they are in the photograph ; for copies of
which we are indebted to Dr. Carpenter.
t Dr. Sterry Hunt, the Chemist and Mineralogist of the Canadian Geological Survey,
states that the fossil is ‘‘ penetrated by the blackish argil/aceous limestone which en-
velopes it.” —*‘ Esquisse Géologique du Canada,” p. 7.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 3Y
512
Dawson, ‘“‘ showing” the so-called canals ‘imperfectly infiltrated with
black (carbonaceous?) matter.”” Looking at Dr. Dawson’s figure
Pl. XII., fig. 1), and his description, we shall be much deceived if the
‘‘ canals,”’ such as they are delineated, be anything else than aggrega-
tions of the ‘‘ minute gras and fibres of carbonaceous matter’ belong-
ing to the ‘‘ matrix’ that have got entangled in the carbonate of lime
while crystallizing out in the presumed ‘‘septa,”’? as is often seen
in minerals vitiated or rendered impure by foreign admixtures.
Other objections might be urged—such as the fact of the so-called
“ chambers’”’ being filled with the same ‘‘ dark stone,” or mechanically
formed deposit, as the matrix—the implied admission that the ‘‘ minute
veins of calcareous spar traversing the septa, and the cleavage planes,
which have been developed in some portions of the latter,’ are ‘‘ crys-
tallized structures,’ that might ‘“ mislead any ordinary skilful micros-
copist;” but the aforementioned are sufficient. Moreover, the “ few
rare instances only,” or ‘‘obscure’’ indications, of the ‘‘nummuline
layer,’’ spoken of, have, we believe, been as much misunderstood as the
same part is in type specimens of ‘‘ Hozoon Canadense.”
Closing for the present our remarks on the Tudor ‘“ fossil,’? we
may briefly suggest that it is nothing more than the result of in- -
filtration of carbonate of lime, which has penetrated into a parting
between two layers of the laminated arenaceous limestone; or it may
be an example of anastomosing strings of segregated calcite ; in short,
at may be anything consistent with the nature of its matriz, or the condi-
tions under which the latter has existed.
Dr. Dawson has made an objection to our use of the term “ eozoonal.’’
We are not aware of having gone beyond what has or would have been
done by others ; indeed, it could easily be shown that we are actually
behind Dr. Dawson himself in this respect. We described as “‘ eozoonal”?
certain ophites from Connemara, Donegal, India, Bavaria, the State
of Delaware, and the Isle of Skye; and no valid reasons have been
offered to show that we were wrong, or even that we have strained the
meaning of the term.
It is somewhat singular that Giimbel, who has used the term in a less
restricted sense than we have (but who believes in ‘‘Hozoon’’) has escaped
all adverse criticism. He is perfectly correct; for, in assuming ‘‘ the
presence of Kozoon in the crystalline limestones of Finland,’ from the
fact of their containing “rounded, cylindrical, or tuberculated grains
of pargasite’’—and that the ‘ coccolite-bearing limestone of New York
seems to be closely related” to them, and to the ‘‘ Eozoon ophicalcite of
Steinhag’—he is only carrying out the “received doctrine” to its
proper extent.
‘* Kozoonal” rocks, we are certain, will turn out to be much more
common than may be conveniently admitted. Of late, specimens of
various kinds of ophite have fallen under our notice. We have ob-
tained examples, according to their labels, from ‘“ Egypt,” ‘‘ Nei-
biggen,” “Italy,” and ‘Scandinavia ;” and, although differing more or
cr
O13
less from the Canadian rock, they could not be separated from it, as
regards their general characters,*
Supported by so many examples, as well as those described in
our former Paper, we shall be much deceived if all ophites do not con-
tain some feature or other of the genus ‘* Eozoon;”? and as such rocks are
common, and belong to erystalline masses of all geological ages, believers
in this ‘‘organism” may felicitate themselves on the prospect of esta-
blishing lots of new species, or ‘‘ varieties.”’
Regardless of the complete evidence that we adduced, proving the
Connemara ophite to be essentially ‘‘eozoonal,’’ Dr. Carpenter has
lately decided, even contrary to his previous identifications, that ‘the
evidence of its organic origin rests on its partial analogy to the eozoonal
rock of Canada. It is, therefore, upon the character of the serpen-
tine limestone of Canada, not upon the nature of the Connemara marble,
that the question of organic origin entirely turns.’’+
This is precisely one of the terms to which we intend to adhere in
discussing the question. While examining the various structures of
“* Kozoon Canadense,”’ we shall test them as displayed in one of two spe-
cimens obligingly presented to us by Dr. Carpenter himself: at the same
time we purpose giving additional illustrations from extra-Canadian spe-
eimens when necessary.
2. Foraminiferal Considerations.
It is stated that ‘‘ Hozoon Canadense’’ consists of ‘‘ chamber casts”
in serpentine or other minerals, connected by narrow neck-like divisions
or ‘*‘stolons’—invested with an ‘‘asbestiform” or a ‘‘ nummuline cell
wall’’—and enclosed in a calcareous ‘‘intermediate skeleton,” penetrated
by a number of dendritic and other forms representing the ‘ canal
system.” The object of our previous Paper was to show that these
several features are merely mineral products.
It is now admitted, but not until after the publication of our view,
that in ‘highly crystalline rocks’ (of which “eozoonal” ophite is
undoubtedly an example), ‘‘ organic remains may be simulated by mere
mineral appearances’ (lawson)—that the features of the presumed or-
ganism can be ‘“‘ separately paralleled elsewhere” (Carpenter), i.e., in
others besides ophitic rocks: we, however, it is alleged, have, ‘through
defective observation, failed to distinguish between organic and cry stal-
line forms.’’}
* We have also seen specimens in the Jardin des Plantes and the Exposition Uni-
verselle, which, on proper examination, we have little doubt will prove to belong to the
same category. We observed in the former Institution a specimen, marked ‘“‘ 8N, 2965”
(the name of its locality could not be made out) : another beside it, from Corsica; and
two, ‘¢ 2931,” from Tuscany. The Prussian section of the Exhibition, Class 40°20,
contained an acervuline specimen, numbered ‘ 850.”
+ ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,” vol. xv., p. 506.
f “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 261.
514
In the following sub-sections, we purpose treating of the different
‘“eozoonal” features. Although it would appear that our former “‘ at-
tempt’’ has failed to bring over to our side those who originated the
‘received doctrine,” we, nevertheless, feel perfectly satisfied of its
complete fallacy; and we trust to establish the view we have taken of
it to the perfect satisfaction of every thoughtful inquirer.
a. ‘* Cell Wall.’’—We propose to consider this part very closely,
because declaredly by it ‘“‘the organic origin of Hozoon is capable of
being most unmistakeably recognised” (Carpenter). Moreover, it affords
a ‘“‘ notable illustration” of our ‘‘ defective observation’ (Dawson) ; also,
of our ‘‘errors of fact so remarkable, that they can only be accounted
for on the belief that when”’ our ‘‘ Paper was written,” we ‘* knew it
only by decalcified specimens, and had never seen it in thin transpa-
rent sections; for’ we ‘describe it as composed of parallel fibres
of chrysotile packed together without any intermediate substance”’
(Carpenter).
The allegation of ‘‘ defective observation” may be left to be judged
of by the sequel. As to the above statement respecting the ‘‘ proper
wall,” it does not appear to have been made after a very satisfactory
perusal of our Paper; for, although we described this feature in the
terms stated by Dr. Carpenter, we also mentioned that it is ‘‘ often seen
with the fibres standing apart.”? Further, not only is there given a re-
presentation of this particular feature in Fig. 1 of our Plate XLI.; but
we have actually advanced a hypothetical explanation of it.* Nay, it
may be put forward as a remarkable fact, that, at the time our Paper was
read, we were the first who unequivocally described the ‘‘ nummuline
layer’ as containing any separated aciculi at all.t
Whatever doubt attaches to their former descriptions of the ‘‘num-
muline layer,’ there can be none perteming to the terms in which
Drs. Dawson and Carpenter now describe it. Both speak of it as essen-
tially a calcareous cell wall penetrated by separated threads of serpentine.
Taking such a restricted view, this part, then, cannot in any instance,
as we have stated it to be, be composed of ‘ parallel fibres packed to-
gether without any intermediate substance,” or, according to Dr. Car-
penter, of aciculi ‘‘ standing side by side like the fibres of asbestos.”
Now, considering the abundance of cases to be seen in Canadian
‘‘eozoonal”’ ophite strictly agreeing with our description, we cannot
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., pp. 191, 193, 195, and
NG),
+ Respecting Dr. Carpenter’s “ belief’ that when our “ paper was written” we
‘‘ knew this layer only by decalcified specimens, and had never seen it in thin transparent
sections,” we can assure him that it is quite erroneous. We only referred to one of the
kind (‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p.193, Pl. XIV., fig. 3) ;
more being unnecessary, because, in our opinion, such sections afford but a very im-
perfect, and in many cases an erroneous idea of the nature of the ‘‘ nummuline layer.’”’ De-
calcified specimens are by far the most instructive and most trustworthy, as will be seen
hereafter. We could similarly dispose of some other like statements, somewhat personal,
made by Dr Carpenter; but our Paper must be devoted to purely relevant matter.
515
but feel surprised at the tenacity with which the more restricted view
is held. But to show whether it is our opponents, or ourselves, who
labour under ‘‘ defective observation,” we have given a representation
ofa portion of the ‘‘nummuline layer” in Plate XLI., Fig. 1, taken
from one of Dr. Carpenter’s sections, magnified 120 diameters, which
we have decalcified.*
At d is represented a portion of the ‘‘nummuline layer,” in this
instance, consisting of distinctly separated aciculi. The separations
were filled up with carbonate of lime or calcite, now dissolved out.
At ¢, is another portion with the aciculi in perfect contact. At 0, the
aciculi or fibres, as they must now be called, present a somewhat modi-
fied aspect, being neither ‘‘ glistening white,” nor ‘‘ cylindrical,’’ asin
the previous places; but having the usual colour of serpentine, and the
structure of chrysotile or asbestos. At a, the last modification is in
an incipient state ; the fibres, in this case in the serpentine, being re-
presented by mere incised lines, individually more or less interrupted
in their continuity, and varying in their distance from one another.
We have next to draw attention to anothir example in the same
section (more or less paralleled by many others in it), which equally
proves that the above four varieties of the ‘‘nummuline layer” are no
more than modifications of one type.
In Figure 2, the letter A denotes a wide opening, formerly filled with
calcite or the ‘‘ intermediate skeleton,’ lying between two portions of
serpentine constituting ‘‘chamber casts.’’ The low side, at d, of the
opening presents the aciculi beautifully developed (which is also the
case at the upper side, at d), standing out from the surface of the ser-
pentine, and distinctly separated. Following the aciculi upwards and
to the left, they gradually become less distant from one another; and
finally pass into the compact state at ec, where it is impossible to observe
the smallest openings between them, each being defined by nothing more
than its own bounding surfaces, exactly as are the fibres of asbestos. +
On the opposite side, the aciculi are for the most part standing apart. —
Viewing the separated aciculi by themselves, they may be consi-
dered to closely resemble the ‘“‘ minute projections” or casts of pseudo-
podial tubuli which Dr. Carpenter has noticed on the siliceous
‘‘chamber casts” of specimens of Amphistegina, dredged by Professor
Jukes off the coast of Australia: but to believe that the two cases are
-gdentical, when in the former the aciculi are plainly seen to graduate
into a state which completely excludes the possibility of their being
casts of wall-enclosed tubuli, the imagination requires to have more
play than can be allowed in a matter-of-fact discussion.
* The section from which the figure has been taken did not, when it came into our
hands, exhibit with sufficient clearness the different “ eozoonal features,” though quite as
well as any other ‘‘ thin transparent sections ;” so we were induced to decalcify it.
+ The fibres, c, erroneously appear in the figure as if slightly separated.
516
More remains to be noticed in this example. In our former Paper
we contended that the “‘nummuline layer’ is not a calcareous ‘‘ proper
wall” independent of the ‘‘ chamber casts,’’ but merely their external
serpentine changed into its asbestiform condition of chrysotile; and we
gave an illustration, ‘‘selected out of a number of the same kind,”’
which ‘‘ demonstrated” the truth of our view :* this case has been totally
tgnored. It is singular that Dr. Carpenter’s section is quite prolific of
precisely similar cases. The one under notice, which is equally de-.
monstrative, shows the edge of the serpentine, at a, distinctly cut with
lines, frequently corresponding in their distances from one another
with the diameter of the adjoining separated aciculi, into the bounding
surfaces of which, in point of fact, they run. The same phenomenon is
displayed at the upper portion of the opening, where the divisional
lines are only just appearing. With such modifications as those lettered
a, 6, c, and d (and many more that we are prepared to bring forward), the
assertion 1s inexplicable to us that the ‘‘cell wall in no instance presents
the appearance of chrysotile, or of any other fibrous mineral, when exa-
mined with care under sufficiently high powers’’} (Dawson).
In order to explain, on the “‘ eozoonal”’ view, the various appearances
presented by the ‘‘nummuline layer,”’ it might be suggested, as in
another case, that the compactness of the aciculi is the result of
‘‘metamorphic changes’’ to which these parts have been subjected ;
thereby causing them to lose their typical character. Thus, in the case
under Figures 1, and2, d (Pl. XLI.), it is conceivable that, as the szliceous
aciculi (‘‘ casts of pseudopodial tubules’) are contained in a calcareous
matrix, the substance of the latter may have been removed by per-
colating waters containing carbonic acid; thus allowing the aciculi
free to enlarge, through intumescence, and become juxtaposed.{ But
this explanation totally fails to account for the asbestiform condition
of the ‘‘cell wall :’’ for, by no possible means, or by no sound process of
reasoning, can it be supposed that the separated aciculi could be con-
verted into the imperfectly developed divisional structure of the modi-
fication, lettered a, which is indisputably incipient chrysotile. From
the one extreme, of separated aciculi, to the other, of imperfectly
chrysotilized serpentine, there is an unbroken passage—an insensible
gradation—demonstrating the ‘‘nummuline layer” to be of purely
mineral origin. This conclusion is equally proved by the perfectly
corresponding changes that occur in veins of chrysotile, as shown in our
former Paper, and to be further elucidated in the present one.§
* “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., Pl. XIV., fig. 2.
t ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 262.
{ Vermiculite, related to loganite and serpentine, swells out on the application of
heat; so do other hydrated minerals, as the zeolites; also the fibres of chrysotile on ex-
posure to air (Delesse).
§ The hypothetical explanation of the presence of carbonate of lime between the
aciculi, advanced in our previous Paper, will be supplemented by additional evidences
given in the section on the ‘‘ Mineralogical Considerations.”’
517
Dr. Carpenter regards the ‘‘ structure of the nummuline chamber
wall” to be a “feature,” by which ‘the organic origin of Eozoon
is capable of being most unmistakeably recognised ;” and accordingly
he has been led ‘‘confidently to assert that no parallel to it can be
shown in an undoubted mineral product.”* This is a strange assertion
to be made after we had stated that, in numerous instances, grains of
chondrodite, imbedded in calcite, as in a specimen from New Jersey, are
““more or less encrusted with an asbestiform layer, which exhibits
modifications, speaking advisedly, the exact parallel of those common
to the proper wall” of ‘‘Hozoon Canadense :’? + it is equally strange that
both Drs. Carpenter and Dawson have ignored this specimen. We could
describe another, one of the kind that has been detected by us in the
coccolite marbie of Tyree; but this ‘‘ parallel’? has already been pointed
out by Dr. Giimbel, who discovered it in a specimen of a somewhat
similar rock occurring at New York.t He has, moreover, determined
that the grains of ‘‘ green hornblende (pargasite),’’ characteristic of
crystalline limestone, at Pargas, in Finland, are similarly invested.
In the latter instance, ‘‘ a careful microscopic examination of the surface
of the grains’ revealed numerous small aciculi, called ‘* small tubuli,”’
consisting of a white substance, and otherwise resembling those belong-
ing to the ‘“‘nummuline layer’’ of ‘‘ Hozoon.’’§
In our early examination of the part under consideration a difficulty,
which we mentioned, occurred to us.|| Observing that the ‘‘sarcode
chambers” of the different superimposed layers are furnished with
both an wpper and an under “‘ proper wall’’—and that ‘“ the successive
layers, each having its own proper wall, are often superposed one upon
another without the intervention of any supplemental or intermediate
skeleton’’ (Carpenter)— it struck us that, on the ‘‘ eozoonal’’ view, the
pseudopods, presumed to have penetrated the under ‘proper wall,”
could not extend themselves, as their egress would have been effectu-
ally barred by the upper one of the immediately subjacent layer of cham-
bers. Dr. Carpenter, who has noticed our objection, appears to have mis-
understood it; as the ‘‘ fact’’ he has adduced against us, and which he
assumes we had “no acquaintance with,” is not to the purpose :{
nevertheless, the ‘fact that many foraminifera (both recent and
fossil), having perforated shells, habitually grow affixed to sea weeds,
corals, shells, &c., and that the attached side possesses the charac-
teristic tubular structure no less than the free,’ is of considerable
importance, viewed in connexion with his belief, ‘‘ that there inter-
venes in the living state a thin layer of sarcode between the shell
and the subjacent surface.” Assuming this to be the case—and our
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 221.
t Ibid., vol. xxii., pp. 196, 197, Pl. XIV., figs. 5, 6.
t ‘Canadian Naturalist,” December, 1866, p. 99.
§ Ibid., December,1866, p. 98.
|| “* Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 191.
4 ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii , foot note, p. 225.
018
own observations are in favour of it—the circumstance will go far to
sustain our “ objection;” inasmuch as there is required in ‘‘Hozoon”’ a
vacancy to hold a ‘‘layer of sarcode ;” whereas, in the cases to which
we referred (and we are acquainted with a number of others), there
exists no representative of the kind, either in the form of a “‘ siliceous
layer,” or anything else; the space between two “chamber casts,” that
rest one upon the other, being crossed by and filled up with continuous
aciculi.* We did not, when adducing this point, regard it in a
stronger light than a difficulty: it was not urged as a positive argu-
ment on our side; but we now do so; and, at the same time, we chal-
lenge its subversion.
Reflecting on all the evidences and arguments given in this and our
former Paper in connexion with the ‘‘ proper wall,” we feel certain
that the original description we gave of it 1s the only published one that
can be said to be correct ; and we are thoroughly convinced that our view
of its nature vs incontrovertible. It is a feature composed of yuxtaposed
as well as separated aciculi: it is part and parcel of the ‘‘ chamber
casts,’’ being mineralogically an allomorph of their component serpen-
tine: added to which, the ‘‘ fact’’ last brought forward shows clearly that
no unquestionable evidence can be adduced in favour of the belief, that
the ‘“‘nummuline layer’ is the representative of the pseudopodial or
tubulated cell wall of a foraminifer; for, as such, it would in number-
less cases have been functionally useless.}
b. ‘Intermediate Skeleton.””—We have nothing of importance to add
to our former remarks on this part; nor, from the absence of any evi-
dence or argument against us, is anything more required to sustain the
view we hold of its being identical with the matrix containing grains
of pargasite, &c., in various crystalline rocks. |
ce. “‘ Chamber Casts.” —Referring to what is stated in our former Paper
respecting the isolated grains of coccolite and other minerals in Tyree
marble, also those of chondrodite in the crystalline limestone of New
Jersey, being strictly analogous to the ‘‘ chamber casts of Eozoon,”’ Dr.
Dawson commences one of his arguments by stating, that ‘‘if all speci-
mens of Hozoon were of the acervuline character, the comparisons of the
chamber casts with” such grains ‘“‘ might have some plausibility. But
it is to be observed that the laminated arrangement is the typical one.t
On what ground does Dr. Dawson make the last statement? The
same question equally applies to a similar one made by Dr. Carpenter.
A character to be “ typical” must be general; but the ‘‘ laminated ar-
rangement,’ although often beautifully developed in specimens from
* “ Popular Science Review,’ vol. iv, Pl. XV., Fig. 10 (Carpenter, and Rupert Jones).
+ It must not be overlooked that the “‘ elongated bundles” with ‘‘ tangentially” ar-
ranged fibres, to which Dr. Carpenter has ‘seen no parallel in other Foraminifera,” equally
show the impossibility of the ‘‘ nummuline layer” being an organic production.
t “* Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 263. Dr. Gumbel, like
ourselves, has identified the grains of coccolite and pargasite, respectively occurring in
the crystalline limestones of New Jersey and Finland, with the ‘‘ chamber casts.” Why
is our case no more than a plausible comparison ?
519
some localities in Canada, is not general even there (‘‘ The acervuline
portions make up a large part of the Canadian specimens of Eozoon,”’
Sterry Hunt*); and it is extremely rare in other countries. We have
met with only a few specimens from Connemara offering an approach
to it; while all those we have examined, collected on the Continent,
have the “‘ chamber casts,’’ with an acervuline arrangement: besides,
the specimens described by Dr. Giimbel ‘‘ show throughout this irre-
gular structure, which seems to characterize the Bavarian specimens;’’t
and those collected at Krumau in Bohemia, by Professor Hochstetter,
are essentially acervuline. In describing any organism having a wide
geographical range, no naturalist would consider that plan of growth
which marked it 7m only one locality (or which may be only beautifully
exhibited in a few museum or cabinet specimens, selected out of a large
number in a different condition on account of possessing such feature) to
be general or *‘ typical.’’ Rather, would he consider it to be exceptional. }
One of the many interesting points connected with ‘‘eozoonal”’
ophite is, that the granules or ‘“ chamber casts” may consist of different
species or varieties of mineral silicates, serpentine and diopside (or mala-
colite) beingcommon. In one place a specimen may have the layers of gra-
nules formed entirely of the former, and in another of thelatter. ‘‘ Some
sections exhibit these two minerals filling adjacent cells, or even por-
tions of the same cell, a clear line of division being visible between
them” (Hunt). In one of the sections presented to us by Dr. Car-
penter there occurs a layer of granules, apparently consisting of chon-
drodite, lying between others of serpentine. Loganite is another mi-
neral which often replaces the latter. Connemara ophite occasionally
displays precisely the same differences. In a specimen before us, a
layer, composed of granules of serpentine, lies immediately adjacent
to another, formed of an aggregation of crystals of what appears to be
malacolite intermingled with calcite. Another specimen consists of pa-
rallel layers, varying from a quarter to an inch in thickness, of granular
serpentine, (?) pyrallolite, openly cleaved malacolite, and a guttate wax-
like mineral (? deweylite). Calcite, which is more or less associated with
all these minerals, fills up the cleavage openings of the malacolite ; demon-
strating that in the latter the silicate has undergone partial removal, and
that the resulting openings have become filled in with a carbonate.
Long ago Dr. M‘Culloch directed attention to the different silicates
occurring in the green-spotted pink marble of Tyree ;§ and his state-
* “ Canadian Naturalist,” December, 1866, p. 90.
+ Ibid.
t Dr. Dawson has charged us with the admission that the “ laminated forms are
essentially Canadian.” What is stated in our Paper is—‘*‘ we had got the impression
that in the Grenville varieties the chamber casts were rarely arranged otherwise Hae in
lamine ;” but after examining some specimens presented to us by Sir W. E. Logan, awe
saw that the acervuline arrangement wasa characteristic feature of the Canadian ophite
(“Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p.190).
§ “ Western Highlands of Scotland,’’ vol. i., p. 54, &c.
Hels, PROC —VOLs xX, 3 Zz
520
ments respecting the phenomenon are completely confirmed by our own
observations. We find a number of grains(spots) consisting of hornblende,
others of sahlite, a few of quartz, and some apparently of serpentine ;
while an occasional one appears, half composed of hornblende, and the
other half of sahlite.
Dr. Carpenter has stated that we ‘‘do not attempt to offer any
feasible explanation of the fact,” that the ‘‘siliceous mineral’”’ forming
the ‘‘chamber casts’? may be serpentine in one place, pyroxene in another,
or loganite in another.’”? Chondrodite and pyrallolite may also be
added. Nevertheless, it so happens that we did make the “attempt :’’
but we fail to find that a single argument, or evidence, has been urged
against our ‘‘ explanation” of its being a pseudomorphic phenomenon.
But, whether the attempt has been successful, or not, we hold the “‘ fact”
to be demonstrative of the mineral origin of the ‘‘ chamber casts ;”
since it is strictly paralleled in the case of the different mineral silicates
composing the grains imbedded in the Tyree pink marble, and other al-
lied rocks.
Considering that the ‘‘chamber casts of Hozoon Canadense’”’ have
never been found to consist of any other mineral than a silicate, and
that there is no reason to a paleontologist why they ought not to
occur composed of a carbonate, it is singular that the latter point has
been so little noticed by writers opposed to our views. The use we have
made of the general fact, to their disadvantage, has been totally ignored,
though an indirect attempt has been made to invalidate it. Dr. Dawson
has incidentally stated that the “‘ chambers are filled in different speci-
mens with’’ (besides the silicates alluded to) ‘‘ calcareous spar, or even
arenaceous limestone.’’* In mentioning the last substance, evidently
the Tudor specimen was thought of; but we decidedly refuse to accept
the case as one to the point : and as regards the “‘ calcareous spar,’”’ we
are unacquainted with any published instances of this mineral being an
infilling of the kind.
Further remarks on the composition of the ‘“‘chamber casts’ will
be made in another place.
d. ‘“‘ Canal System.”—We have already stated, as our opinion, that
the examples which have been brought forward of this part are nothing
more than imbedded crystallizations, resembling arborescent silver, the
various kinds of dendrites in agates, branching aragonite, &c. Most
of the cases alluded to were brought forward by way of illustrating
the ‘canal system ;’? and we have nothing to complain of as to any
want of attention to them on the part of Drs. Dawson and Carpenter ;
but it is our duty to mention that the strictly homologous case of me-
taxite has been very slightly noticed by the one, and ignored by the
other. Dr. Dawson, who admits to having “ not seen specimens” of
this mineral, puts the case aside by simply stating, that ‘it is evident
waits Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 263.
521
from the description and figure given” of our specimen, ‘“‘ that, whether
organic or otherwise, it is not similar to the canals of Eozoon Cana-
dense.”* Notwithstanding, however, this denial of the similarity that
we have contended for, it will not much surprise us if Dr. Dawson
himself has not unconsciously shown, in another way, that we are
right; for it is strongly to be suspected that the ‘‘ siliceous bodies’’
with ‘‘minute vermicular processes projecting from their surfaces,”’
occurring in ‘‘ Laurentian limestone from Wentworth,” are nothing more
than forms of metaxite,or some allied mineral,—a suspicion that equally
applies to the ‘‘tubuli of surprising beauty,’’ detected by Dr. Giimbel
‘in small isolated compact portions of the carbonate of lime’ in ‘*‘a
specimen of crystalline limestone from Boden, in Saxony.”’+
The irregularity of the ‘‘canal system’’—the ‘‘ very remarkable
differences in size and form”’ of its ‘‘ definite shapes’’—is a point not to
be overlooked ; while it must be remembered that our statement remains
uncontradicted that ‘‘no such differences characterize the canal system
of any known foraminifer, fossil or recent.”
Morever, examples of the ‘‘ canal system” occur where it is impos-
sible to conceive that their matrix had any relation to a ‘‘supplementary”’
or ‘‘intermediate skeleton.’ A specimen of Canadian laminated
‘‘ eozoonal”’ ophite, presented to us by Dr. Sterry Hunt, contains an
isolated piece of micro-crystalline calcite, about an inch in diameter,
which, on being decalcified, exhibited a number of beautifully-developed
dendritic forms, opaque and transparent. How are these to be accounted
for? It may be suggested that the piece is an aggregation of fragments
of the ‘‘skeleton’’: in this case the forms ought to bein a fragmentary
state as well; but their perfectly unbroken condition will not allow the
suggestion to be entertained fora moment. It may be thought that
this is a case in which the “‘ skeleton”’ and the “‘ canals’ are of abnormal
growth: the latter ‘‘run wild’ enough under ordinary circumstances of
occurrence ; but here they are inexplicably erratic on the foraminiferal
view. And it is infinitely more so with the ‘‘ tubuli of surprising
beauty, both singly and in groups,’ discovered by Dr. Giimbel in the
Boden “ erystalline limestone,” minus other ‘‘ eozoonal’’ structures.
On the supposition that the rock just named contains the debris of
“« Hozoon,” and that the so-called “‘ tubulr” are of organic origin, the
‘‘isolated compact portions of the carbonate of lime” containing them
must be regarded as fragments of the ‘‘ intermediate skeleton ;’” or—in
what way have the ‘“‘ tubulc’”” become imbedded in the ‘‘ compact por-
tions ?’ Imagine portions of the “skeleton,” with beautiful examples
of the “‘canal system,’’ to occur without any vestige of ‘‘ chambers,”’
or their ‘“cell-wall!”
It is now time to go into the subject of the chemical composition of
the ‘‘ canal system”’ in the celebrated ‘‘ Madoc specimen.’ When first
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 263.
+ ‘ Canadian Naturalist,” December, 1866, p. 100.
522
brought before the notice of geologists by Dr. Dawson, in a letter dated
March 28th, 1866,* the case was announced to be an example of
‘* Hozoon preserved simply in carbonate of lime, without any serpentine
or other foreign mineral ;’”’ and a ‘‘ conclusive answer to’’ our ‘‘ objec-
tions.’ Now, what proofs have come to light to warrant this expres-
sion? Ina “ Note on supposed Burrows of Worms in the Laurentian
Rocks of Canada,” subsequently read (June 20, 1866,) before the Geo-
logical Society, nothing more appears with reference to the case than an
allusion merely to “ fragments of Hozoon, not fossilized by serpentine, but
simply by carbonate of lime !’’+ While in the brief and only other account
published of it by Dr. Dawson, and written about twelve months after the
announcement was made, the infillingis ignored altogether!{ Dr. Carpen-
ter, itis true, mentions something additional on this point; but he merely
makes the statement, unsupported by any proper evidence, ‘“‘ that the
canals, being filled with a material either identical with or very similar
to that of the substance”’ (‘‘ crystalline dolomite,” Dawson) “in which
they are excavated, are so transparent as only to be brought into view
by careful management of the light.”§ Considering that our “ ela-
borate arguments had at one time a strong show of support” (War-
rington W. Smith)—is this all that is required to prove that the
canals are filled with ‘‘ carbonate of lime pure and simple?’ Must
the Madoc specimen, now, be considered ‘‘ to close the discussion ?”’ Sup-
posing the ‘‘ transparent material’ to be a carbonate, which is not at
all made clear, it may still be assumed that the “‘ very characteristic
examples of the canal system’ are of purely mineral origin. The
substance in which they are ‘‘ excavated,” according to Dawson, is
‘‘erystalline dolomite’—a matrix rarely free from some imbedded
erystalline or other configurations. In our former communication we
showed that the dolomitie rocks of the North of England are often charged
with cylindrical coralloidal or dendritic shapes, composed of carbonate of
lime :|| 1f these were on a small scale, many of them would closely resem-
ble the ‘‘ various forms of the canal system” observed in the ‘‘ fragment”
from Madoc. Most of the limestones occurring in the latter place are
siliceous dolomities, and contain more or less carbonate of iron: as
such, they are likely to hold configurations ofa ‘‘ transparent material,’
possibly a ferriferous calcite, or other mineral carbonate, which, with-
out proper testing, might be considered as ‘‘ either identical with or
very similar to, that” of their imbedding substance.
But another case, similarly interpreted, has also turned up. Dr.
Carpenter has detected in ‘‘sections of a specimen of Hozoon’’
dendritic and other forms of the ‘canal system,” which, as they
agree Closely in transparency and colour with their enclosing calcite
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 228.
t “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 609.
{t ‘Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 261.
§ “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 212.
|| ““ Geology of Canada,” 1863, pp. 592, 593.
528
(“‘ intermediate skeleton’’), can only be exhibited with Collins’ “ gradu-
ating diaphragm.” ‘‘ Now these parts, when subjected to decalcification, -
show no trace of canal system ; so that it is obvious, both from their
optical, and from their chemical reactions, that the substance filling the
canals must have been carbonate of lime.” * Another section which Dr.
Carpenter has obligingly presented us with is, in some places, crowded
with “‘ forms :” some are quite colourless and transparent, and cannot
be seen under full light, agreeing thus far with the above descrip-
tion. The colourless examples have been distinguished by Dr. Carpenter
himself, who has drawn a circle in ink around them. One of the cir-
cles contains the beautiful case, represented in Figure 11 (Pl. XLIV.) as
seen magnified 210 diameters, under Webster’s condenser, with graduat-
ing diaphragms. The ‘‘forms”’ are enclosed in transparent calcite, affected
with both rhombohedral and macrodiagonal cleavage. Now rises an
important question :—If these ‘‘ forms’’ consist of transparent ‘‘ car-
bonate of lime’’—why do they, as is invariably the case with them
and others in the section, present no traces of the cleavage which so
eminently distinguishes the calcite? Where the ‘‘ forms’’ remain covered
with, or enclosed in, the calcite, the cleavage lines of this mineral pass
over them (as shown at one end of the long cylindrical body in the
figure) ; which might mislead some into the idea that the ‘‘ forms’’ possess
the same crystalline structure as their matrix : but in no instance, where
they are uncovered, have we observed the least appearance of any
divisional structure in their component substance. From these con-
siderations, it may be well imagined that when we partially decalci-
fied the section—that is, dissolved the calcite down to only a slight
depth, so as not to allow the ‘‘ forms’ to drop out—we were not sur-
prised to find them still remaining. Those that are represented in the
figure were standing out above the remaining calcite, and as clear as
the purest glass.
The account lately given by Dr. Carpenter, and published with the
knowledge of our experiment and observations, affords no further light
on this question. ‘* The larger branches’ of the ‘‘ canal system,”’ it is
now stated, ‘‘ were infiltrated with serpentine, and the middle branches
with sulphide of iron, while the smallest branches were filled with
carbonate of lime, of the same nature’’—“‘‘ of the same crystalline charac-
ter’ —‘“‘as the matrix.” Is cleavage referred to in the last part of this
quotation ?{ Ifso,it may belong to the calcite overlying the ‘‘ canals,”
as is certainly the case in our specimen.
It has often been mentioned that ‘‘ canals” have been seen contain-
ing a “‘ yellowish-brown coloration,” or ‘‘black matter’ —a circumstance
* ‘¢ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 264.
+ “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” No. 98, May, 1869, pp. 117, 118.
t We are glad to gain any additional information from our opponents on the nature
of the ‘‘ branches filled with carbonate of lime,” and their enclosing matrix; but no-
thing of the kind appears in the above and latest published account of them. Dr. Car-
penter makes some allusion to the ‘‘ cleavage planes” we have referred to—in such a
way, however, that it could be turned not only against ‘‘ Kozoon,” but against himself.
O24
which has given rise to the belief that “the infiltrating mineral has
been dyed by the remains of sarcode still existing in the canals of
Eozoon.” In one of the sections presented to us by Dr. Carpenter, a
few of the ‘‘ canals” were labelled as containing “ carbonaceous matter” :
they might be said to have a brownish colour—looking at them by
transmitted light; but after decalcification, and examined as opaque
objects, they presented nothing more than a dull white appearance,
somewhat like the ordinary examples. The Tudor specimen has also
been described by Dr. Dawson as having the ‘canal system imperfectly
infiltrated with black (carbonaceous ?) matter ;”” which may be taken as
inorganically explained by the mineralogist and chemist of the Canadian
Geological Survey, Sterry Hunt, who states that the ‘‘ fossil” is “ pene-
trated’? with the same material as its matrix—a ‘‘ blackish argillaceous
limestone.”
We have grounds for suspecting that this ‘‘ carbonaceous” piece of
evidence in favour of the organic origin of ‘* Hozoon” has been, or is all
but abandoned ; and we anticipate a similar fate for the ‘‘ strong odour
of musk, to some extent’”’ given out by ‘‘ some specimens when cut,’’*
which has lately been adduced as a circumstance of the same tendency.
e ‘* Stolons.”’—Our former criticisms on the parts now entered upon
have brought out the admission from Dr. Carpenter, that his figure of
the selected example of ‘‘ passages of communication between the cham-
bers” of ‘‘ Eozoon,” stated to have their ‘‘exact parallel in Cyelo-
clypeus,”’| is ‘somewhat diagrammatic.” { As no further elucidatory
remarks of such “ passages” have been published, clearly it would be a
waste of time on our part to add another word to what we have already
brought forward (and which still remains invalidated) in proof of their
being nothing more than ‘‘ flattened or table-shaped crystals of appa-
rently pyrosclerite,” wedged in transversely or obliquely between the
serpentine granules or ‘‘ chamber casts.”’§
3. Mineralogical Considerations.
Examining ‘‘eozoonal”’ ophite in the decalcified state, the serpen-
tine will be seen without a flaw in one place, while in another, imme-
diately adjacent, it is cut up by divisional planes extremely irregular,
or rudely parallel; presenting a confusedly fractured appearance, or a
somewhat platy structure. Whether the serpentine is in scattered
granules (‘‘ acervuline’’), or arranged in layers, these peculiarities mani-
fest themselves indifferently in the centre, and at the surface; but
they are common in the latter situation. The platy serpentine fre-
quently becomes more or less fibrous, often passing into that form of
the ‘‘nummuline layer,’’ which has its fibres “ standing side by side
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxv., p. 118.
+ “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxi., p. 62.
$ Ibid., vol. xxii., p. 225. ;
§ Ibid., vol. xxii., Plate xiv., figs. 10, 11, p. 208. Plates of white granular serpen-
tine (flocculite) in the same position have doubtless also been taken for stolons.
520
like asbestos,” and which we hold to be typical chrysotile. Further-
more, the fibres, as already pointed out, likewise become gradually or
abruptly changed into white glistening aciculz, retaining their juxta-
position, or separated from one another by well-marked interspaces—
now open, but filled with calcite before decalcification.
The serpentine granules have their surface also often changed into
a white flocculent substance,* which may be granular, coarsely platy,
fibrous, or acicular: these variations are well seen in Fig. 3 (Pl. XL1.)
taken from one of Dr. Carpenter’s sections.
The divisional peculiarities, when on the large scale, as in the cases
first noticed, cut the serpentine into a variety of forms, with rounded
or hollowed surfaces, rudely resembling both acervuline and laminar
‘‘ chamber casts:’’ in many cases the resemblance is so striking as at
once to suggest the idea that the forms are examples of ‘‘ chamber
casts” in process of formation. When calcite occupies the divisional
interspaces, as often happens (or rather was the case before decalcifica-
tion), it may be conceived that such calcareous intercalations are
examples of the ‘‘ intermediate skeleton’’ in course of elaboration.
Dr. Carpenter’s section, the first one brought under notice, affords nu-
merous cases of the above modifications. Over a considerable portion of it
may be seen, as represented in Fig. 4 (Pl. XLI.) long parallel divisions
(¢), insome places completely, or imperfectly closed—in others, more or
less open: the latter condition is due to the removal of the calcite conse-
quent on decalcification. The closed divisions are partially, or entirely
filled up—sometimes with flocculite—generally with a crop of fibres or
aciculi, separated and in contact, projecting from their sides. Occasion-
ally the serpentine, forming the sides of these divisions, is incipiently,
or completely chrysotilized; and in numerous cases there is the same
passage from ‘‘asbestiform fibre” to separated aciculi, as seen on the sur-
faces of ‘‘ chamber casts.”
That these divisions are nothing more than cracks, is rendered
palpable by all their appearances, especially by their intersecting
uninterruptedly the layers of ‘‘ chamber casts’ (a), as well as the cal-
careous intercalations (6) forming the so-called ‘‘ intermediate skeleton.”’
Reverting to cases of the same kind which occurred to us while
engaged with our former Paper: we pointed them out as totally
destructive of the opinion that ascribes the ‘‘ asbestiform layer” to pseu-
dopodial tubulation ; and we adduced an example unmistakeably on our
side.| How has it been disposed of 2 Dr. Carpenter affirms to having
met with ‘‘ numerous examples” of the kind, but ‘‘so destitute of the
characters of the true asbestiform layer,” that he has ‘‘no hesitation in
regarding” them ‘‘as ether originally a product of wnorganie agencies,
or as the result of metamorphic changes in a structure originally
organic.” How can such an argument be handled? If we lay hold of
the ‘“‘inorganic” side, it slides over, and presents the ‘‘ organic’ one !
* Called floceulite in our former Paper.
¢ ‘Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 196, Plate xiv., fig. 4.
526
Returning, for a moment, to the answer already given in a previous
section,* as it is equally applicable to the present case; we shall simply
reply to the ‘“‘ metamorphic’ portion of Dr. Carpenter’s argument,
by offering an example, selected from a number of the same
kind, to be seen in one of the cracks (¢ x., in Fig. 4), previously
noticed; and which is represented in Fig. 5 (Pl. XLII.) as seen by
a power magnifying 210 diameters. The two walls of this crack
(C), which intersects a layer of ‘‘ chamber casts united into a
continuous horizontal lamella, are’ crowded with both compact. (c)
and separated aciculi (d); the latter cylindrical, parallel, and as much
‘true casts of pseudopodial tubuli’”’ as any that are known to form
the ‘‘nummuline layer.’”’ So we may safely defy every attempt to
make the argument, based on this example, present any other than
the ‘“<norganic” side. Again, how does Dr. Dawson treat the
example described and figured in our Paper? The occurrence of
‘‘veins of fibrous serpentine or chrysotile,” occurring in Canadian
ophite, is mentioned ; but evidently the cases ‘‘ which were well known’’
to Dr. Dawson are not the same; since, ‘under a high power, they
resolve themselves into prismatic crystals in immediate contact with
each other ;’’+ whereas the one we brought forward, when similarly
magnified, is seen, and it was stated so, to contain acicult, not only
in close contact, but separated /t
We have represented in Figure 6 (Pl. XLII.) another example, occur-
ring in Connemara ophite, interesting as throwing further light on the
changes characteristic of serpentine. It consists of a vein (a) intersecting
a considerable mass of this mineral. As in numerous other cases, the
serpentine here and there changes in colour, graduating from translucent
dark green to a pure opaque white ; while in many places it is colourless
and transparent. Near one end (upper part of the figure) the vein
strikes through a cluster of granules (‘‘ chamber casts’) of green
serpentine, above which it can be traced for a short distance (though
too high to be represented), gradually thinning out. In the opposite or
downward direction, it intersects a mass of compact serpentine, and
terminates in a large cavity (A). In passing through the serpentine,
the vein, with a few exceptions, is transversely asbestiform, the fibres
being, as in chrysotile, unresolvable or indefinite, in consequence of their
complete juxtaposition : in some places the divisional lines are sepa-
rated; and here and there they are extremely faint : in one part, for
a short distance, the vein is scarcely differentiated from the intersected
serpentine. Adjacent tothe granules the vein becomes acicular; the
aciculi being in general closely (c) juxtaposed, and in a few places dis-
tinctly separated (a, 6). A few ofthe neighbouring granules have their
surface hispid with independent aciculi (d), undistinguishable from those
belonging to the vein. On entering the cavity, the vein, here asbesti-
* See ante, p. 516. :
¢ “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 226, foot note.
t “‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 262.
O27
form, becomes divided (c, @); 1m one division (d) the compacted fibres
change into aciculi, distinctly separated.
Similar asbestiform veins, more or less parallel to the last, occur on
each side of it: indeed, the specimen, a slab a few inches in length, is
in one part intersected by a number of the same kind of veins, dividing
it inte thick sub-parallel plates, which by further subdivision would
become converted into layers of ‘‘ chamber casts.’’ Other important
changes, to which serpentine is subject, remain to be noticed.
Dr. Carpenter’s section, examined by transmitted light before it was
decalcified, showed very distinctly a number of striking examples of the
“canal system ;”’ but still no proper idea could be formed as to their
origin and nature. JDecalcified, and examined as opaque objects, how-
ever, an important ight was thrown upon them.
Like other specimens, noticed in our former Paper, the one now
under examination occasionally shows the passages that had been
occupied with the calcareous matter of the ‘intermediate skeleton” clog-
ged with flocculite ; and this substance occurring as ‘“‘ white amorphous
masses.” Fig. 7(Pl. XLIIT.), represents a passage, unusually wide, con-
taining one of these ‘‘ masses’’ of considerable size, which is broken up(A,
B), and divided into thickish plates—straight, curved, or wavy—lying
close and parallel to one another, or opening out and again conjoining re-
peatedly, or variously diverging.* The plates themselves also break up
into a great variety of slender configurations, that are filamentous,
foliaceous, arborescent, palmate, or rod-like; and elliptical, circular,
or crescentic in their transverse section: in short, there seems to be
no limit to the variety of ‘‘ shapes”? assumed by the plates of flocculite.
This substance varies also in texture, being spongy, granular, or com-
pact; in the last state resembling dense snow, from which condition it
occasionally passes into one resembling imperfectly translucent ice; or
it assumes the character of serpentine, having precisely the green colour,
varying in shade and translucency, of this mineral.
The various forms presented by the flocculite in this section, especially
the arborescent, are certainly beautiful; and when a number of the
different kinds are clustered together in the same field of view, a more
pleasing sight cannot be revealed by the microscope.
Our former investigations made us acquainted with examples, lead-
ing us to adopt the conclusion (previously arrived at by Dr. Carpenter)
that the ‘‘ amorphous masses’ and ‘‘ definite shapes” are no more than
“« modifications of one type;” but we had no idea of meeting with a
specimen so completely demonstrative of this view. We now go further.
In Dr. Carpenter’s section, the edge of the serpentine, contiguous to
the example of the ‘‘ canal system’? represented in Fig. 7, Bx, is seen
* It is a source of much regret that we find ourselves unable to give any more
than a rude sketch of one (simple compared with many) of the numerous examples
which the section displays; but we have taken every pains to represent its leading points
as truthfully as possible.
R.1I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 4A
028
to be both gradually and abruptly changing into flocculite, cylindrical
rods, and aciculi. Hence, it 1s impossible to resist the more compre-
hensive conclusion that, in this case, the ‘‘ canal system,” ‘‘ chamber
casts,” and “‘nummuline layer,” are all structural modifications of ser-
pentine. |
We may digress to bring forward another case strongly tending in the
same direction. Decalcified specimens, before us, of an ophite, beautifully
‘* eozoonal,”* have the chamber casts’ consisting, as usual, of green ser-
pentine, which, however, frequently changes colour, becoming here
opaque white, and there colourless and translucent. The serpentine is
in some places, as represented in Fig. 8 (Pl. XLII1.), affected with two
dissimilar sets of cleavage, one lamellar, and the other somewhat fibrous,
intersecting each other obliquely (a, 6.) Occasionally this phenomenon
first shows itself by the set, a, alone, and next by the gradual introduction
of the other or fibrous set, 6. Where both sets are fully developed, the
cleavage partings are each often wide, which causes the ‘‘chamber casts,”’
now opaque and white, or translucent, to appear as if broken up into
long slender rhomboidal prisms.| Next, the cleavage solids become
more and more separated from one another, their edges at the same
time getting more and more rounded off; so that, at last, they appear
as clusters of cylindrical rods (c), undistinguishable from the ‘‘ brush-
like” examples of the “canal system.” }
Clearer evidence of the conversion of the serpentine into the ‘‘ de-
finite shapes,” forming the ‘‘ canal system,” cannot be required ; and it
corresponds remarkably with the one furnished by Dr. Carpenter’s
section ; the only difference being that in the latter the rods are generally
milk-white and opaque; while in the Neibiggen specimen they are
nearly colourless and translucent. This is the character generally of the
‘‘canalsystem’’ in the latter specimen, whether it is represented by
simple or dendritic forms.
* We got a small slab of this ophite (which, as far as can be made out, is labelled
Neibiggen), in London, in the summer before last. The locality appears to be in Ger-
many.
+ The third cleavage set, intersecting both the other sets, necessary to form a com-
plete solid, was not observed; but from the peculiar obliquity of the prisms, and the
dissimilarity of the sets that are exhibited, we are disposed to regard these prisms as
triclinic (Fig. 8x represents a transverse section of one of the prisms): in this case,
serpentine may belong to the trebly oblique system. Dr. Carpenter’s section also
shows the serpentine, in some places, broken up by two dissimilar sets of cleavage, ob-
liquely intersecting each other; but the resulting prisms are often not so regular as
those occurring in the Neibiggen ophite: it is also noteworthy that the cracks which
cut through the adjacent layers of serpentine and calcite (‘‘ chamber casts” and “ in-
termediate skeleton’) in Dr. Carpenter’s section correspond in direction with the
least developed set; while the layers themselves run more or less parallel with the
other, or better developed set. This coincidence is curious; and it is suggestive of the
possibility that there is some relation between the rude and the regular divisional structure
of serpentine, and the acervuline and the laminar arrangement of the ‘‘ chamber cast of
Eozoon’”’ respectively.
{ In the figure, only the tops of the rods are represented, as seen when looking down
upon them.
529
It must next be borne in mind that the cleavage partings above
noticed had an infilling of carbonate of lime before they were decalci-
fied. A precisely similar case, it will be recollected, we pointed out in
a specimen of ophite from Connemara.* How willa mineralogist explain
this phenomenon? The cleavage partings in the serpentine of the one
ease, and in the malacolite of the other, he knows full well were originally
elosed ; and in that state each parting had its two walls in perfect con-
tact. Thereisno other explanation open to him than that the substance
of these mineral silicates has been abstracted from the cleavage divisions,
and replaced by calcareous matter. In the Neibiggen specimen, the
partings are observed to be gradually getting wider: at first they were
divisional lines of the finest character; next, slightly open separations ;
afterwards, well-marked chinks or wide fissures; finally, indefinite
irregular passages. It would be unphilosophical to assume that the
process of abstraction stopped at the last stage.
The cases lately brought forward have an important bearing on
a question discussed in our former Paper, and which has already
been briefly alluded to in the present one: we refer to the pre-
sence of carbonate of lime between the aciculi of the ‘‘ proper wall,”
where they are separated. No doubt whatever rests on our mind
that the presence of this substance in the cleavage partings of the
Neibiggen and other specimens, also in the acicular interspaces of the
nummuline layer, is due to one and the same cause; but how it got into
these openings is a point on which we can still offer no more than a
hypothetical explanation.
Our hypothesis is based on pseudomorphism, as understood by
mineralogists. Blum, who has laboured most assiduously at this de-
partment of science, separates the phenomena, embraced by it, into two
classes—one comprising ‘‘ alteration pseudomorphs,”’ and the other,
‘““replacement pseudomorphs.’”’{ ‘The first class includes examples
of minerals in which certain of their essential chemical constituents
have been removed, and replaced by others, as in cuprite (CuO) con-
verted into malachite (CuO, CO,+HO), leucite into oligoclase, &c.
The second olass includes those minerals in which all their original
constituents, being completely eliminated, have been replaced by others,
as chlorite after magnetite, chalcedony after fluor, cassiterite after
orthoclase, hematite after calcite, &c., &c.t
Reverting to the acicular layer, and assuming it to consist of a
hydro-magnesian silicate, there can be no doubt that in the cases on
which we are engaged the aciculi are separated by carbonate of lime.
* See ante, p. 519.
+ Pseudomorphic phenomena have been investigated, with more or less success, by
a number of mineralogists and chemists. Other divisions have been proposed ; but we
adopt the one given by Blum as being the simplest for our purpose.
+ The Mineralogical collection in the British Museum contains several very interest-
ing specimens of pseudomorphs, which we have been allowed to examine by Professor
Maskeyline, and his assistant, Mr. Davis.
530
And considering that the layer is immediately adjacent to the so-called
‘‘intermediate skeleton,’’ composed of carbonate of lime, there is not
much difficulty in understanding that this substance might, in
numerous instances, infiltrate itself into the thin inter-acicular sepa-
rations.
But the cases with which we are at present especially concerned do
not admit of so simple an explanation; as we have to account for the
presence, not of thin films of carbonate of lime, but of much thicker
intercalated portions of this substance, equalling the diameter of one,
two, or more acicul. Guided by the changes undergone by the ser-
pentine and malacolite in the Neibiggen, Connemara, and other speci-
mens, we are strongly inclined to refer the present cases to Blum’s class
of ‘‘replacement pseudomorphs.”’
The mineral serpentine, although belonging to a group of difficultly
reducible silicates, is rendered, when in the condition of chrysotile, or
flocculite, comparatively easy of decomposition under proper conditions.
Besides, considering the difference between these allomorphs, one being
fibrous, and the other granular,—that they are often intermixed,—and
that the asbestiform variety is not structurally uniform, being incipiently
fibrous here, and perfectly fibrous there,—it must be admitted, that not
only do the divisional structures referred to afford facilities for
pseudomorphic action, but they are eminently favourable to the de-
velopment of that ‘‘infinite variety of detail,’’ as noticed by Dr. Car-
penter, presented by the separated and juxtaposed aciculi of the
‘‘nummuline layer’’seen in decalcified specimens. From whatis known
of the numerous examples of replacement pseudomorphs, described by
Blum, Bischof, Breithaupt, Delesse, Muller, and others, there is no
difficulty in assuming that the crowded and infinitesimally small fibres
forming this ‘‘layer,’’ also the loosely aggregated particles composing
the granular flocculite — both kinds composed of a hydro-magnesian
silicate, the most soluble of its class—might be replaced by calcite or
dolomite, if the rock containing them were furnished with carbonate
of lime (as is the case with ophite), and had been subject at any time
to deep-seated hydrothermal action: or, a similar change is admissible,
supposing serpentine alone to be present, and aliowing the rock to have
been permeated by heated water, holding a calcareous carbonate in
solution. The silicate composing the fibres or aciculi might in the latter
case be substituted by calcite, or dolomite.
Such is our hypothesis, modifications non-essential to its principle
being allowed, to account for the origin of the calcite, where it separates
the fibres of the ‘‘nummuline layer.” We also offer it to explain how
the “‘ definite shapes” have been formed out of plates, prisms, and other
solids of serpentine, viz., by the erosion, or incompleted waste, of the
latter, and the replacement of the removed substance by calcite,—the
‘‘ definite shapes” being the residual portions of the solids that have
not completely disappeared. And we hold, in accordance with this
view, that the calcite or replacing carbonate, enclosing the re-
sidual portions, and which forms the “intermediate skeleton,” is like-
ool
wise nothing more than a pseudomorph after serpentine.* In short, we
see no reason to conclude otherwise than that the whole of the ‘ eozoo-
nal”’ structures have originated through chemical substitutions.
We have next to adduce a case, which, apart from its bearing on the
origin of ‘‘eozoonal’” structures, is of the utmost importance in elucidat-
ing the phenomena manifested by pseudomorphosed minerals, and rock
masses. The veins, in the cases already figured, exemplify the change of
compact or amorphous serpentine into fibrous chrysotile, and the replace-
ment of the latter variety by ordinary calcite; but in the present one
(Fig. 9, Pl. XLIY.), the replacement has taken place unaccompanied
by any structural change. Before decalcification, the vein under notice,
which intersects some massive serpentine in one of our slabs of Coune-
mara ophite, seemed to be wholly filled with chrysotile; but, after be-
ing subjected to the action of dilute acid, we found the infilling had in
a great measure disappeared ; only portions of it, both compact (¢) and
separated (d), were left adhering here and there to the walls of the
vacant space, now a fissure; while at the bottom (/f), where decalcifica-
tion had not proceeded deep enough, there still remained the infilling
in a completely fibrous state. But we now observed, what had not been
particularly noticed in our first examination, that the vein, which is
siightly coloured, varied in shade, the portion answering to what had
been dissolved out being the lightest ; it therefore became evident to us
that the fibrous infilling consisted of two substances,—one an insoluble
silicate, and the other a soluble carbonate. This ease, like others that
have been brought forward, can only be explained by pseudomorphic
action—a hydro-magnesian silicate replaced by what we believe to be
* To us this hypothesis, if even suggested to account for the formation of the irregular
beds of crystalline limestone interposed among the metamorphic rocks of Ireland and
Scotland, has more in its favour than the one promulgated by Sterry Hunt to ex-
plain the origin of the far greater calcareous masses belonging to the Laurentian system of
Canada. The existence of the latter rocks seems to have materially influenced Sir Charles
Lyell, Professor Ramsay, and others, in accepting the ‘‘ received doctrine.”’ A gigantic
foraminifer, such as ‘‘ Kozoon Canadens¢’ is reputed to have been, would have just the
sort of skeleton to produce reefs of limestone. But, unfortunately for this argument,
Sterry Hunt has most emphatically pronounced ‘“‘the often-repeated assertion that
organic life has built up all the great Jimestone formations” to be ‘‘ based on a fallacy :”’
they ‘‘owe” their ‘‘ origin to chemical reactions, which are still going on in the ocean’s
waters, and which have in past times given rise direct/y to limestone strata; in which
the occurrence of shells, corals, and Eozoon, is only accidental.” (‘‘ Geology of Canada,
1866,” p. 201; ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxi., p. 70).
[In connexion with this subject, we find the following statement by Professor Hull :—
“The researches of Sir William Logan and his colleague of the Geological Survey of
Canada, followed by other naturalists, have demonstrated that even the oldest known
limestones on the surface of the globe owe their origin to Eozoon” (‘‘ Quarterly Journal
of Science,” July, 1869). We much regret that this statement is open to adverse
criticism. It will be pronounced to be ‘‘ based on a fallacy” by Dr. Sterry Hunt; and the
point gratuitously assumed to be ‘‘demonstrated’’ by the Director of the Irish Geological
Survey is damaging to his own beliefin ‘‘ Eozoon ;” inasmuch as it necessitates the disprov-
ing of our position, that the limestones referred to (we mean the non-serpentinous) are re-
markable for the tota? absence of any reliable evidences of ‘‘eozoonal’ remains.—A pril
20, 1870.]
Os
ae
carbonate of lime. ‘The distinctive peculiarity of this case, however, is
that the latter substance, which is structurally satin-spar, retains the
fibrous character of the chrysotile.
Finally, pseudomorphism, in crystallized examples, leaves intact the
form of the crystals. It will be well to bear this point in mind, as
cases may exist in which the ‘‘ definite shapes”’ retain their forms, and
yet consist of a substance different from what is common to the ‘canal
system.’ It will be time enough, however, to discuss such possible
cases when they are known to us; but, so far, we see no reason why
the ‘‘ definite shapes” may not occasionally become more or less carbo-
nated (as siliceous minerals often are), or be composed of a soluble
silicate, without losing their form; and consequently in a condition to
yield as readily even to dilute acid as their matrix (‘‘ intermediate
skeleton’’), especially if it consist of dolomite.* We, therefore, think
that the Madoc case, and others of the kind, presumed to ‘‘close the
discussion” against us, have been immaturely considered, and do not
at all justify the conclusion they have given rise to.
Dr. Carpenter has asserted that we ‘‘do not attempt to offer any
feasible explanation of the fundamental fact of the regular alternation of
lamellee of calcareous and siliceous minerals.”’+ We have not avoided
this point; nor do we conceal our inability to explain it satisfactorily.
But, if Dr. Carpenter wishes to construe our inability into evidence in
his favour, he is assuredly mistaken ; for a similar ‘‘ alternation”’ is not
uncommon as a purely inorganic phenomenon. We have already
pointed out the interlamination of calcareous and siliceous minerals in
pargasitic and other rocks;{ and we now adduce a similar case, men-
tioned by Dr. Gumbel, occurring in the gneiss of Wunsiedel, in the
Fichtelgebirge, where ‘‘specimens”’ of this rock ‘‘ exhibit sheets of
hornblende of from five to fifteen millimeters, separated by limestone
layers of from fifteen to twenty miliimeters in thickness.Ӥ Such
examples strongly confirm us in our belief that the ‘‘ fundamental fact,”
however it may have been produced, is no more than a peculiar mineral
arrangement—most probably a superinduced phenomenon.||
Dr. Carpenter declares, that he is ‘‘ prepared to maintain the organic
origin of Eozoon on the broad basis of cumulative evidence afforded by
the combination, in every single mass, of an assemblage of features which
can only be separately paralleled elsewhere ; and in the repetition of this
* A small piece of eleolite, and another of ‘intermediate skeleton,” composed of dolo-
mite (which, it must be remembered, is difficultly soluble compared with calcite), were
placed in weak acid, such as we usually employ in “ eozoonal”’ decalcifications : both
were dissolved.
t+ ‘* Proceedings of the Royal Society,” vol. xv., p. 506.
t ‘Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 210.
§ ‘Canadian Naturalist,” December, 1866, p. 95.
|| Alternating layers of brown limestone and dolomite, perpendicular to the beds
containing them, are common in a Permian rock near Sunderland, in Durham: they
might be taken for lamin of deposition (see ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,”
VO SM Peele
033
combination with the most wonderful exactness, over areas of immense
extent.”’* This passage contains a remarkable admission, which in
point of fact is next to surrendering the organic origin of ‘‘ Kozoon ;”’
for the features of this “fossil,” it is conceded, ‘‘ can be separately
paralleled by mere mineral arrangement.t So, there is little now left
in favour of the ‘‘ received doctrine” but the ‘‘ broad basis of cumula-
tive evidence” above referred to; which consists of the ‘‘ combination”’
of ‘‘chamber casts,” ‘‘ intermediate skeleton,’’ ‘‘ nummuline layer,” and
‘canal system.” Has a “‘ combination” of all these ‘ features” been
discovered ‘‘in every single mass” of Canadian ‘‘ eozoonal’’ ophite?
Even taking the expression in a much more limited sense than its
construction bears—how does it happen that the ‘“‘ proper wall” is
generally absent, or so very imperfectly preserved, in ‘‘ masses’ of this
rock from Grenville and the Grand Calumet? And why is it that
neither the ‘‘ proper wall,” nor the “ canal system,” occurs in ‘‘ masses”
at Burgess? Where, “over areas of immense extent,” has a “‘ repetition
of this combination” been found? The researches of Dr. Giimbel and
Professor Hochstetter have certainly not supplied Dr. Carpenter with
evidences bearing out his assertion. Again—are ‘‘eozoonal features”
only ‘‘ separately paralleled” in pargasitic and other crystalline lme-
stones, in which both the ‘‘ chamber casts’’ and ‘‘ intermediate skeleton’’
oceur? Or—is such the case in chondroditic rock, which possesses
not only the ‘‘ features” just named, but also the ‘‘nummuline layer ?”
Nay—have not the “ canal system” and ‘‘nummuline layer” (and of
course the ‘“‘ intermediate skeleton’’) been ‘‘ distinctly observed” by Dr.
Giimbel ‘‘around scapolite nodules, encrusted with serpentine, associated
with calcareous marble at Stemhag, in Bavaria ?’’t
This “combination” argument is based on an exceptional fact; for
the ‘‘ assemblage” referred to by Dr. Carpenter is rarely seen in other
varieties of ophite than the one occurring at Petite Nation ; but, whether
exceptional or not, it requires some further notice.
We feel persuaded that the fact, as just admitted, represents a
phenomenon inherent in serpentinous rocks, arising from their mineral
composition, and the physical conditions under which they may have
existed—a phenomenon to which Breithaupt’s term, paragenesis, might
not be inappropriately applied.
We have in previous pages made known that serpentine is often
seen intersected or broken up by divisional planes—some regular and
parallel, others exceedingly irregular. From a number of evidences we
have met with, and which have already been noticed in detail, we have
* Quarterly Journal of Geol. Soc., vol. xxii., p. 223.
+ The concession, however, was only made after we had pointed out the parallel
eases. Neither Drs. Dawson, Carpenter, nor Sterry Hunt, in their original memoirs,
refers to the ‘‘ intermediate skeleton,” andthe ‘‘ chamber casts,” being ‘ paralleled” in
the Tyree and other marbles,—the ‘‘ nummuline layer,’ by modified chrysotile,
filling up true fissures,—and the “canal system,’ by dendritic configurations of
metaxite, &e.
t This case will be further noticed presently.
034
assumed that when heated solutions containing calcareous matter, or
carbonates, penetrate the fissures, the adjoining serpentine will become
converted from a silicate into a carbonate; and hence will be formed
isolated or variously connected grains, lumps, and layers of serpentine
(‘‘chamber casts”); while the separations are occupied by intercala-
tions of calcite, or dolomite (‘‘ intermediate skeleton”). Here and there
the surfaces of the grains, &c., will become concurrently platy, floccular,
or asbestiform: in the latter state the serpentine is converted into its
allomorph, chrysotile, in the form of an investing layer; which through
further changes will become acicular, with the aciculi often removed,
and their places occupied by calcite, &c. (‘‘nummuline layer’). The
calcareous intercalations between the granules, &c., will retain more or
less residual serpentine, which, if remaining chemically unchanged, will
become converted into white amorphous masses, parallel lamelle, solid
bunches of rounded filaments, cylindrical and broadly flattened rods—
simple and branching (‘‘ canal system”), characteristic of another allo-
morph, metaxite. As serpentine rocks are liable to all, or to only a
few of the above changes, depending on the various conditions under
which they may have existed, we do not apprehend any material ob-
jections to the principle (there may be to minor points) of our hypothesis
from those who have paid attention to the subject; we, consequently,
have the strongest confidence in the conclusion that ‘‘ the combination of
an assemblage’ of ‘‘ eozoonal features,’’ in the rare instances in which
it occurs, 1s inseparable from ophite—that it is an inevitable and a
purely correlative phenomenon. The “ eozoonal”’ rock of Petite Nation
certainly stands out prominently as a case in point: but the circum-
stance is due to no more than a concurrent development of the various
forms assumable by its protean mineral, serpentine, under favourable
conditions; and itis no less paragenetic than is assuredly the case with
the ‘‘ combination” occurring in chondroditic and pargasitic crystalline
limestones.
It ought not to be expected that the phenomenon can be met with
except in rocks approaching mineralogically to ophite. There are not
many. Of the few that are known, we have shown them to present a
‘‘combination”’ so strictly ‘“ eozoonal,’”’ and so conclusively demon-
strating the paragenesis of their ophitic types, as to leave nothing more
of the kind to be desired.
Dr. Giimbel has made known a very curious fact, which has some
relevancy to the subject we are discussing. At Steinhag, in Bavaria,
there occurs ‘‘ Hozoon’’ associated with the never-failing metamorphic
limestones, schists, and gneiss. The limestones ‘‘ often contain small
lenticular masses or nodules, consisting chiefly of scapolite, crystalline
and almost compact, measuring fifty by twenty millimeters, and even
much more, around which serpentine is arranged in a concentric
manner ;” and ‘‘in the parts around these nodules” there were ‘‘ some-
times distinctly observed tubuli, canals, and even indications of a shell-
like structure.” Dr. Giimbel ‘‘ could not satisfy” himself, ‘“‘ after nume-
rous examinations of fragments of such masses, whether’ he ‘‘ had to
ae .
530
deal with the commencing growth of an Hozoon, or merely with a con-
cretionary mass; since the granular structure of the scapolite centre
could never be clearly made out. Moreover, the arrangement of these
nodules, arranged in a stratified manner, is opposed to the notion that
they are nuclei of Eozoon.”* Now, here is a case (and Dr. Giimbel
failed, evidently much against his inclinations, in determining it to be
organic) which indisputably furnishes a “‘ combination,’’manifesting the
mineral origin of the ‘“‘ creature of the dawn” so plainly that this
‘“ organism’? must be altogether repudiated by every paleontologist ; for
obviously the case is a beautiful example of pseudomorphism and allo-
morphism combined,—ofscapolite changing into serpentine, and the latter
assuming the form of chrysotile (the ‘‘ shell-like structure’’),—while the
“‘tubuli” and ‘‘canals” are probably metaxite, or some allied mineral,
originating directly from the serpentine, or the scapelite.
It is stated by Dr. Giimbel as being ‘‘ well known that the crystal-
line minerals, which in numerous localities are found in the metamorphic
limestones of Bavaria, often present rounded surfaces, as if they had at
one time been in a liquid state. As examples of these, Naumann men-
tions apatite, chondrodite, hornblende, pyroxene, and garnet. The edges
and angles of these are often rounded; the planes curved or peculiarly
wrinkled, and only rarely presenting crystalline faces ; having, in short,
a half-fused aspect, and offering a condition of things hitherto un-
explained. One of the best known instances of this is found in the
green hornblende (pargasite), from Pargas in Finland.’’} Dr. Sterry
Hunt has lately drawn attention to the same superficial features, occur-
ring in certain minerals from the calcareous vezms intersecting the
Laurentian rocks of Canada.{ When preparing our former Paper, we
were forcibly struck with the resemblance of the outside of the grains
m the Pargas and Tyree marble to the rounded and pitted surfaces, cha-
racterizing the acervuline ‘‘ chamber casts’ in ‘‘ eozoonal’’ ophites.
Dr. Sterry Hunt, repudiating the idea put forward by some writers
that the phenomenon, as seen in veins, is “‘due to a commencement of
fusion,” regards it ‘‘as the result of a partial resolution of previously
formed crystals.’’ The opinion published antecedently by ourselves as
to the origin of the flocculent coat often seen on the granules of serpen-
tine in ‘‘ eozoonal”’ rocks is substantially the same; for we have ascribed
the presence of this covering, as well as the ‘‘nummuline layer,” to the
gradual waste or decompesition of the serpentine by deep-seated hydro-
thermal action; and we are disposed to think that the distinguished
chemist of the Geological Survey of Canada will yet see reasons for
agreeing with us by extending this idea to explain the origin of the
irregular surfaces of the so-called ‘‘chamber casts” occurring in
‘“eozoonal” rocks, as well as those of the crystalline minerals found ~
in the metamorphic limestones of Bavaria and other countries.
* “ Canadian Naturalist,” December, 1866, p. 90.
t+ ‘‘ Canadian Naturalist,’’ December, 1866, pp. 97, 98.
+ “Canadian Naturalist,” December, 1866, p. 124; ‘‘ Geology of Canada,” 1866,
p. 190.
R, I, A. PROC. —VOL,. X. 4B
036
Dr. Sterry Hunt, however, has endeavoured to make out for this
phenomenon a genetic distinction, depending on its occurrence in veins,
or in beds: in the former, the minerals, according to his view, lost their
angles by a dissolving agent; in the latter, their irregular form is
original, being the impression of the inner wall of the ‘‘ cavities’ or
‘“ sarcode chambers of Hozoon.” There may be a ‘‘ marked contrast’’ be-
tween the superficial aspect of the vevm-minerals, and that of the same
species disseminated in beds ; but the ‘‘ contrast’’ seems rather to be due
to the different conditions under which their respective calcareous
gangues, as they are constituted at present, were produced. The crystal-
line character of the vein-gangue, it may be admitted, was a direct de-
positional result; while that of the bed-gangue, as will be conceded by
most geologists, has been developed by metamorphic action : other and
consecutive agencies would not, on this view, be inoperative. So far
as we are enabled to judge from passages in the ‘*Geology of Canada”
for ‘“‘ 1863” and “‘ 1866,” we are strongly inclined to the belief that
the grains or granules of serpentine, loganite, coccolite, apatite, quartz,
&c., occurring in veims, do not possess sufficiently distinctive characters
to warrant their differentiation, as regards origin, from similar forms of
the same minerals found in beds; and if it should prove correct that the
‘rounded crystals” of the one, and the ‘‘ chamber casts” of the other,
are identical, the circumstance will certainly be fatal to ‘“‘ Kozoon.’’*
That “‘ heated watery solutions’’ have ‘‘ permeated” both beds and
veins, and that these solutions have transferred various mineral con-
stituents from the former to the latter, is quite our opinion, as it is
Sterry Hunt’s.t| But does not such a process involve a powerful
argument against the doctrine of the organic origin of “‘ Hozoon ?’’—for
what more likely source is there for the precited vein-minerals than
the bed-minerals of the same species that present the so-called ‘ semi-
fused aspect ?”’
4, Chemical Considerations.
In one of his passages, referring to ourselves, Dr. Carpenter makes
a statement that requires some notice in the present place. ‘‘ While
asserting that by no conceivable process could the animal substance
originally occupying the tubuli of the nummuline layer have been
replaced by siliceous minerals, they have entirely ignored the fact,
stated by me, that this very replacement has taken place in recent
specimens in my possession.” { It is difficult for us to understand how
* We feel much regret at having no specimens of the minerals in the granular state,
mentioned in the text, from the calcareous veims intersecting the Laurentian rocks of
Canada: it would, therefore, be conferring a marked favour on us, if any one would send
to our address, Queen’s College, Galway, a collection of them, as well as the same kinds
from the associated beds of crystalline limestone.
t+ ‘ Geological Survey of Canada,” 1866, p. 193.
t ** Proceedings of the Royal Society,’’ vol. xv., p. 507.
587
such a statement has been made; for we have neither ‘‘asserted”’ the
one, nor ‘‘ ignored”’ the other.*
Tt was stated in our former Paper that we must ‘‘be excused
accepting any explanation of the process of infiltration, unless it ac-
counted for the present appearances of all the presumed sarcode-
encasements;”’ and we especially referred to those cases in which the
** yarallel lamelle disposed like the leaves of a book,” the ‘‘ rounded
filaments” of the ‘solid bundles,”+ and the fibres of the asbestiform
layer, are not separated by any parietal divisions. Dr. Carpenter
virtually admitted the difficulty which attaches to this point by pro-
posing a-process that has more of alchymy than chemistry in it, and
discarding the simple one originally suggested by Dr. Dawson. By
either ordinary chemical, or mechanical infiltration, the tubuli of an
undisputed ‘‘nummuline layer,” or ‘*‘ canal system,’’ would become filled
up with mineral matter, producing ‘‘ perfect models” of ‘‘ pseudopodial
threads,” and other sarcodic extensions. Dr. Carpenter, however, seeing
the ‘‘ compact’ and ‘‘ solid” nature of the cases to which reference has
been made, and knowing well that the extensions just alluded to often
unite and form ‘‘ coalesced bundles in recent foraminifers,’’ emphatically
declares that ‘‘ each case represents a mere aggregation of the elementary
forms of sarcodic prolongation,”—that ‘‘ they are not amitations, but the
very threads or prolongations themselves turned into stone by Nature’s cun-
ning, by a process of chemical substetution which took place, particle by
particle, between the sarcode body of the animal and certain constituents
of the ocean-waters before the destruction of the former by ordinary
decomposition.’’{
Our view of such a ‘‘ process’ (it was against the ‘‘ coneeivability”’
of 2 we argued) is correctly represented by Dr. Carpenter in the follow-
ing passage :—‘‘ This idea has been designated by Professors King and
Rowney as so completely destitute of the characters of a scientific hypo-
thesis as to be wholly unworthy of consideration.Ӥ Weare, therefore,
not surprised that Dr. Carpenter has been under the necessity of aban-
doning it.) But we do not think that his position has been much
* See “‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 195.
+ These two are varieties, according to Dr. Carpenter, of the ‘‘ Canal System.” Dr.
Dawson, it would appear, does not recognise the organic origin of them, particu-
larly the ‘‘ white amorphous masses” into which they pass (see “Quarterly Journal of
Geological Society,” vol. xxiii., p. 262). But not a particle of evidence—merely an
expression of belief—is offered by way of invalidating the proofs which so completely
identify them genetically with the typical representatives of the ‘‘ canal system.”
+ “ Intellectual Observer,” vol. vii., p. 290, &¢
§ “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 220, foot note. The
‘* quast-alchymical”’ idea which we have opposed is given in the “ Intellectual Ob-
server,’ and the ‘*‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society of London :” see our former Paper,
in “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society” vol. xxii., pp. 202, 203.
|| See precited foot note. It is singular, however, that Dr. Carpenter makes no ad-
mission of his having abandoned this ‘idea ;” nor is there any allusion to the circum-
stance in any of his Papers on “‘ Eozoon” published since we exposed it. But apparently
038
improved by adopting the hypothesis proposed by Professor Milne
Edwards to explain the ‘‘ infiltration of bones and teeth by a process of
substitution during the decomposition of their animal contents;’’ because,
although it may be correct in this case, the hypothesis, applied to
‘“* Kozoon Canadense,” requires the ‘‘ sarcodic prolongations”’ to remain
distended, elongated, or expanded after death—conditions which it is
impossible to conceive, considering that such parts in foraminifers
‘‘ consist of the softest and most transitory form of living substance’
(Carpenter).
Up to the present time the “‘ replacement” minerals (serpentine,
loganite, diopside, chondrodite, &c.) of ‘* Hozoon’’ have chiefly been
found in metamorphic rocks and veins, but never in ordinary unaltered
deposits. Nevertheless, Dr. Sterry Hunt has broached the ‘‘ novel
theory” that they have been “‘ directly deposited from the seas of the
time,”’ as ‘‘ chemical precipitates, which have filled by a process of in-
filtration its chambers and canals.”
» In support of this view,” the following evidences have been brought
forward :—Ist. The deposition of silicates of lime and magnesia from
natural waters; 2nd. “The great beds of sepiolite in the unaltered
Tertiary strata of Europe; 3rd. “ The contemporaneous formation of
neolite;” 4th. ‘‘ Glauconite, which occurs not only in Secondary, Ter-
tiary and recent deposits, but also in Lower Silurian Strata.’’*
first. In the ** Geology of Canada,” 1863, p. 559, it 1s stated that
the ‘‘ water from Gillan’s Spring, in Fitzroy, which had been evaporated
to one-tenth and filtered, became turbid by further boiling, and gave a
flocculent precipitate, which consisted of silica combined with lime and
magnesia. A similar reaction was observed with the Varennes and
other saline waters; and hkewise with the waters of the St. Lawrence
and Ottawa rivers.” Obviously the analogy of these examples (which
were only obtained at a high temperature) to the Laurentian ‘‘ precipt-
tates,”’ we are engaged with, is a very questionable and remote one.
Second. ‘*A hydrous ter-silicate of magnesia, which has been
described by the name of sepiolite, occurs associated with limestones
and clays of Tertiary age, and of fresh water origin, in France,
Spain, Morocco, Greece, and Turkey. It is the meerschaum of some
there is some difficulty that prevents his ridding himself of it; for he as much as suggests.
that the “ double asbestiform layer,’’ which we brought forward (see our former Paper,
Pl. xiv., fig. 1, p. 194), may have been formed by the spreading out of coalesced.
bundles of the pseudopodia that have emerged from the chamber wall, just as obtains
with the sarcodic layer of recent foraminifers (‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological So-
ciety,” vol. xxii., p. 222). Now, as both layers are more or less ‘‘ compact and indefi-
nitely fibrous,” they, of ‘‘ course, are not imitations’ (casts), but the coalesced pseudo-
pods ‘‘ themselves turned into stone by Nature’s cunning before their destruction by
ordinary decomposition!” Respecting this ‘‘ double asbestiform layer, we have detected
more of the kind in Dr. Carpenter’s section ; and all of them are only explainable on our
view, as elsewhere published.
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” yol. xxi., pp. 67, 70, &c.
_ 539
authors, and the magnesite of others.”* Although no doubt can be
entertained that a deposit of the kind referred to does occur, as stated,
no one is warranted in assuming that it is in its original condition.
There are strong grounds for believing, as is the case with the gypseous
and dolomitic beds associated with it, that the mixed deposit under
consideration was originally differently constituted. Much uncertainty
generally prevails among geologists as to the origin of magnesian lime-
stones, which equally applies to the rocks composed of hydro-magnesian
silicates: the sepiolite of France andSpain is a case in point. According to
Dr. Sullivan and Prof. J. P. O’Reilly,{ there occurs extensively in the
basin of the Tagus and Duero a white or greyish-white dolomitic lime-
stone, ‘‘ containing from 25 to 40 per cent. of hydrated silica;” andin parts
of the same region, especially at Vallecas, near Madrid, there also occurs
a ‘‘hydrated silicate of magnesia, 2MgO, 3 Si0°-+-2HO, accompanied
by halb-opal, a variety of silica, chalcedony, and hornstone in a marl bed.”
The facts stated ‘‘ suggest a connexion between these minerals and
the siliceous dolomite ;” and the ‘‘ connexion is made more probable by
the occurrence of fossils of Helix, which, with many species of fresh water
shells, are abundant in the lacustrine limestone of the central plateau,
converted into meerschaum”? (sepiolite). ‘‘ Another fact which favours
it is the occurrence of pseudomorphs of meerschaum after calcite” (or
more probably dolomite, as suspected by the authors) ‘‘in druses of the
former.” Sullivan and O’Reilly explain the origin of the sepiolite from
the siliceous dolomite by the action on the latter of water holding
carbonic acid in solution: assuming this, the whole of the lime would
be gradually removed, while the magnesia, slowly combining with the
silica, would be converted into sepiolite; and any excess of silica would
be converted into halb-opal.t{
The resemblance between the lacustrine deposits of Spain and those
of France is so strong in many respects as to lead Professors Sullivan
and O’Reilly to suggest a common origin for both. Agreeing with
them, we refuse to accept the second evidence as a case in point.
Third. The mineral, neolite, which is deposited in some mines in
Arendahl, may be received as showing that an alumino-magnesian
* Geology of Canada, 1863,” p. 577.
+ “ Atlantis,” vol. iv., p. 315, and “ Notes on Spanish Geology,” p. 171, 1863.
t The ex-President of the Geological Society, Mr. Warrington W. Smyth, ia
stating “‘ there can be no doubt that the ‘ Vallecas meerschaum’ has been produced by
silica, probably hydrated, brought into contact with carbonate of lime and magnesia,
held in solution in water by carbonic acid” (see Anniversary Address, ‘“‘ Quarterly
Journal of Geological Society,”’ vol. xxiii., p. xvi.), has been misled into giving coun-
tenance to Sterry Hunt’s view by the ‘ well-known” laboratory fact, noticed by Dr.
Sullivan and Professor OReilly, as showing the reaction between these bodies. In
omitting, which we believe to be altogether an inadvertency, the mode these authors
have suggested for the origin of the Vallecas sepiolite—that is, from an already-formed
dolomite—the pseudomorphic view they have put forward has been altogether lost sight
of; and a totally different one—inapplicable to the case except as an illustration, and
involving a contemporaneous precipitation from a chemical solution—put in its place!
540
silicate is generated, and held in solution in subterranean waters ; but,
owing to the probability of the solution being formed under pressure
and at an elevated temperature, the case cannot be considered as having
any relation to the presumed precipitation of serpentine.
Fourth. Glauconite is essentially a hydrous silicate of protoxide of
iron and potash, with variable proportions of alumina and carbonate of
lime —a composition that consigns this partly chemical and partly
mechanical product to the same category as the preceding non-analogical
eases. A similar fate assuredly awaits the long-known infilling sub-
stance (silica, ferruginous clay, or silicate of iron—with or without
lime) of fossilized foraminifers.* The casts of the Amphistegina, &c.,
so often referred to by Dr. Carpenter, are the result—some of mecha-
nical, and others of chemical infiltration ; so that in either case, their
origin is no more than that of the commonest fossils. Foraminiferal
shells in Cretaceous rocks have often been mechanically filled with
chalk-mud.
These are all the evidences that have been adduced to justify the
assumption that serpentine, pyroxene, loganite, &c., have been ‘‘ directly
deposited as chemical precipitates from the seas in which Hoz00n was
growing, or had only recently perished ;” and that these silicates ‘‘ pene-
trated its chambers, pores, and canals, precisely as carbonate of lime
might have done.”}+ Is it not significant that a complete collapse has
* Mantell and Henry Deane in “ Philosophical Transactions,”’ 1846, p. 466; Ehren~
berg in “ Berlin Monatsbericht,” Feb., 1855 ; Bailey in ‘‘ Proceedings of Boston Society
Nat. Hist.,” vol. v., p. 364, 1856; &c.
+ “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxi., p. 70; and ‘‘ Canadian
Naturalist,” December, 1866, p. 125.
Entertaining this “ novel theory,” Dr. Sterry Hunt consistently ascribes the forma-
tion of ophitic rocks to the direct deposition of their mineral substances,—the calcite to
the precipitation of carbonate of lime, and the serpentine to the precipitation of silicate
of magnesia. As regards the latter mineral, this theory is altogether different from that
maintained by Bischof, Rose, Breithaupt, and others, who regard it as being invariably
a pseudomorphic product—a view to which we have fully committed ourselves (see
“ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 216). Most ophites appear to
have resulted, through regional chemical alteration, from hornblendic and augitic
rocks; and, notwithstanding Sterry Hunt’s arguments and evidences, which we have
shown to be untenable, it so happens that he himself has adduced facts strongly sus-
staining the view to which heis opposed. ‘‘ Large masses of white granular pyroxene
are frequent in beds of limestone in the Canadian Laurentians, generally associated
with serpentine, which often incrusts it; and small nuclei of this pyroxene frequently
form the centre of concretionary masses of serpentine:’” the latter ‘‘ may vary from a few
inches to a foot or more in diameter” (“‘ Geology of Canada,” 1866, p. 205, 207).
It is also mentioned that ‘crystals of considerable size—some imperfectly defined, and
an inch in diameter—of serpentine, occur imbedded in calcite, in North Burgess”
(Op. cit., p. 204): these “crystals” may be considered as nothing but pseudomorphs.
His loganite, a serpentinous mineral, is considered by Dana to be an “altered horn-
blende” (‘System of Mineralogy,” 5thed., p.221, &c.). For our part, we are strongly
disposed to believe that most of the minerals in the Laurentian limestones are due—some
directly, and others indirectly—to the pseudomorphism of doleritic, dioritic, and other
rocks.
O41
happened to the efforts of both Drs. Sterry Hunt and Carpenter to
explain a “ process” which cannot but be regarded as “of primary im-
portance in the main question under discussion ?”’
5. Geological Considerations.
It will seem strange to many, after reading the statement in our
former Paper of several specimens of Connemara ophite having passed
under our notice, possessing the characteristic ‘‘ eozoonal’’ features more
or less combined, and as perfectly preserved as in Canadian examples,
that this rock should be referred to, as having only ‘a partial analogy
to that of Canada” (Carpenter), and as being a “‘ disputed case” (Daw-
son). Ifnecessary, we could fill a Plate with examples, from our locality,
of the “‘asbestiform layer,” arborescent and other “ definite shapes,” not
surpassed by any that have been figured, from Petite Nation or elsewhere,
in their seeming resemblance to the ‘‘cell-wall” and ‘canal system’?
of a nummuline foraminifer, and associated with ‘‘ acervuline chamber
casts,’ exactly as in ‘‘ Hoz0on Canadense.’”’ Indeed, the Connemara
ophite, with such examples, is more typically ‘‘ eozoonal” than the
accepted variety from Bavaria, if the latter contain no better marked
‘foraminiferal features” than have been detected in it by Dr. Giimbel.
In our former communication, referring to the Isle of Skye ophite,
which is indisputably Liassic in age, we stated that ‘‘no doubt can be
entertained as to its eozoonal’’ character—a statement which may be
considered to be sufficiently borne cut by our describing it as containing
*¢¢ chamber casts’ occasionally invested with the ‘proper wall,’ and
‘‘thickish dendritic aggregations :” the latter, it might be understood, we
considered to represent ‘‘the canal system.”* Yet Dr. Dawson sets
aside our statement respecting these features by asserting that this rock
‘“‘is admitted’ (by whom ?”) ‘‘ to failin essential points of structure”! It
has thus become absolutely necessary for us to give a representation of the
** eozoonal”’ characters of the Isle of Skye ophite, which we have done in
Fig. 10 (Pl. XLIV.), magnified 210 diameters, taken from a portion of a
decalcified specimen. The ‘‘ chamber casts” (A, Ax), it will be seen, are
furnished with an ‘‘ asbestiform layer” (d@), asmuch a ‘“‘true cell wall” as
any examples occuring in the Canadian rock ; and consisting of separated
and juxtaposed aciculi—parallel and divergent. Owing to the specimen
haying been ground down to produce a level surface, most of the
‘“‘chamber casts’’ have been cut across, which causes the ‘‘nummuline
layer’ investing them to appear as if ‘‘ bordered with a delicate white
glistening fringe ;” but below the plane of this surface there are two
** chamber casts” (A x), which, when properly focussed, are seen to have
their entire surfaces completely ‘‘hispid”’ with aciculi, forcibly reminding
one of the recent siliceous casts of Amphistegina described by Dr. Car-
penter.
* “Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., p. 204,
542
It would be a marvel to find a Liassic ophite possessing characters
strictly identical with those typical of ‘‘ Hozoon Canadense ;’’ still the
similarity is surprisingly close. If anything is to be “‘ admitted,” it is
that the rock, as far as we have ascertained, “fails” in having the
‘‘canal system” so remarkably arborescent as it is in the much older
ophites. Nevertheless, this feature is well represented by the “ thickish
dendritic aggregations,” also by some other forms we have lately
detected strictly identical with the ‘‘small” and common variety repre-
sented by Dr. Carpenter in his original memoir.”* The ‘‘nummuline
layer,’’ too, is a strictly identical ‘‘ essential point;” but, owing to the
‘“chamber casts” consisting of a very pale green serpentine, in some
cases translucent and nearly coleurless, the aciculi do not present that
striking contrast to the former so beautifully displayed in typical
examples.t}
One of the arguments we advanced against the organic origin of
‘¢ Hozoon’’ was based on the fact that this ‘‘ fossil,” although occurring
in various geological systems, had not been found except in metamorphis
rocks. The way the Tudor specimen (also the ‘‘ mere fragments”
already noticed) was ushered into public notice was calculated to
induce the belief that it had been discovered in an ordinary unal-
tered calcareous deposit. Thus,—‘‘a remarkable specimen of Hozoon
Canadense has lately been found in Laurentian limestone’ (‘‘ homo-
geneous’), ‘‘ establishing the conclusion previously arrived at from the
study of remains of Kozoon included in serpentinous rocks” (Carpenter).
Other accounts, however, describe the matrix as a ‘“ dark-coloured,
laminated limestone, holding sand, scales of mica, and minute grains
and fibres of carbonaceous matter’ (Dawson),—a ‘blackish argillaceous
limestone” (‘‘ calcaire argileux et noiratre,” Sterry Hunt),—a ‘‘ mica-
ceous limestone or calc schist’ (Logan and Vennor),—a rock ‘‘ compara-
tively unaltered” (Logan)—‘‘ not so much altered as those near Gren-
ville’ (Smyth). Thus, after all, the Tudor specimen—whatever its
matrix may turn out to be—occurred in a metamorphic deposit; it
being from a ‘‘ region in which the Laurentian rocks of Canada appear
to be less highly metamorphosed than is usual” (Dawson).t We hold
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxi., Pl. VIIL, fig. 5.
t+ We have not yet succeeded in obtaining specimens of “‘ eozoonal” ophite from
undoubtedly later geological periods than the Liassic; but from what we perceive in
specimens of serpentine rock, without any lime, considered to be Miocene, from Italy, and
kindly presented to us by the Chevalier Jervis of Turin, also others, containing lime,
some stated to be Italian, for which we are indebted to the firms of Edmondson & Co.,
and Sibthorpe & Son, of Dublin, and those already noticed exposed in the Paris Ex-
hibition and the Jardin des Plantes, we entertain a strong suspicion that the Tertiary
‘‘ophicalcite’”’ of that country will prove to be ‘‘ eozoonal.” A specimen of ophite from
“Egypt” in our possession, also possibly Tertiary, contains grains and lumps of
serpentine, imbedded in calcite: the latter mineral is crowded with very long parallel
aciculi, both separated and juxtaposed.
{ The mineral origin of the Tudor specimen is in no way invalidated by the fact of
its matrix being ‘‘ comparatively unaltered ;” as it is not a rare circumstance for slightly
043
it, therefore, to be still a fact that no vestige of ‘* Hozoon” has yet been
found except in metamorphic rocks, whether completely changed, or
“comparatively unaltered.’’ So far, then, a disastrous failure has
attended all the efforts that have been made to meet our implied
challenge to believers in ‘‘ Eozoon’’—to produce a single specimen from
the “miles in thickness” of ‘‘ unaltered calcareous, argillaceous, and
mixed deposits,” anterior in age to, or synchronous with, the Liassic
““eozoonal”’ ophite of the Isle of Skye.
Nothing daunted by their inability to meet our challenge, our
opponents still indulge in a style of reasoning and writing that ill
becomes scientific men. Dr. Carpenter has now so much confidence in
the “‘creature of the dawn’ as to ‘‘ believe” that it has lived through
all geologueal time ; forgetting that by this expansion of faith the moun-
tain he has to remove 1s correspondingly enlarged. To find no remains
of “‘ Hozoon’”’ in ordinary unaltered rocks, ranging from the Laurentian
to the Liassic inclusive, seemed sufficient to shake the faith of the most
enthusiastic : it was surely damaging enough to be struggling impotently
against a Liassic rock in the state of white crystalline serpentinous marble
containing ‘* Hozoon ;” which, ‘‘as it recedes from” the agent of this
condition, ‘‘ darkens in colour, loses its metamorphic aspect, and gradu-
ally passes into ordinary limestone ;”* and becoming in the latter state
divested of all traces of the reputed organism! Now, however, Dr. Car-
penter has made himself responsible for its occurrence in more recent
deposits: he has thoughtlessly allowed himself to be crushed by the wel/-
examined chalk rocks, essentially foraminiferal, but demonstratively non-
**eozoonal !”’
Faith, there are too many reasons for knowing, frequently waxes
beyond all comprehension. We are now unable to resist referring to
some remarks by Dr. Carpenter in connexion with the ‘‘transparent gela-
tinous substance,’ ‘‘somewhat similar to the plasmodia of botanists,”’
discovered in deep-sea mud by Professor Huxley, who has named it
“‘Bathybius.”’ Although unable to ‘‘ call it either plant or animal,”’ the
latter considers it ‘‘a living substance, susceptible of apparently indefi-
nite growth.”| Dr. Carpenter describes this lowest of the lowest as a “‘ liv-
ing organism of a type even lower, because less definite than that of
Sponges and Rhizopods;” adding, that “the discovery of this in-
definite plasmodium, covering a wide area of the existing sea-bottom,
should afford a remarkable confirmation, to such (at least) as still think
confirmation necessary, of the doctrine of the organic origin of the
serpentine-limestone of the Laurentian formation. For if Bathybius,
like the testaceous Rhizopods, could form for itself a shelly envelope,
altered rocks to contain crystalline aggregations of felspar, and the minerals forming
ophites and diabases (see “* Geology of Canada,” 1863, p. 606; and Hsquisse Géolo-
gique du Canada, p. 20). Rocks of the kind occurring in Connemara contain layers of
epidote, &c.
* Geikie in “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xiv., p. 19.
+ “Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,” October, 1868; ‘* Quarterly
Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxv., p. 118.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. 4c
544
that envelope would closely resemble Hozoon.* Further, as Professor
Huxley has proved the existence of Bathybius through a great range
not merely of depth but of temperature, I cannot but think it probable
that it has existed continuously in the deep seas of all geological
epochs. And so far, therefore, from considering that the discovery of
Kozoonal rock in the Liassic, or even in Tertiary strata, would (as
asserted+ by Professors King and Rowney in a Paper recently presented
to the Geological Society) be a conclusive disproof of its organic origin,
I am fully prepared to believe that Hozoon, as well as Bathybius, may
have maintained its existence through the whole duration of geological
time, from its first appearance to the present epoch; and should be not
-in the least surprised at bringing it up from 1000 or 2000 fathoms,
if I should be enabled to dredge at those depths.”{ The leose logic,
inexcusable misstatements, and unbounded faith, characteristic of this
extract, fully prepare us for the announcement, after the projected
dredging expedition in the North Atlantic is over, that its author is
enabled to place before the Royal Society ‘‘ eozoonal’’ embodiments of
the ‘‘spirits” he may bring up ‘‘from the vasty deep.”
6. Conclusion.
&
Looking merely at the granules and segmented plates of serpentine
in ‘‘eozoonal ophite,’’ their interposed calcite, and the arborescent
forms enclosed in the latter, Dr. Dawson was to some extent justified
in believing that collectively these ‘‘ features’? represent a fossil
foraminifer; looking at the ‘“asbestiform layer’? in its ‘‘true’ or
‘‘ typical” state, here and there investing the granules and plates, Dr.
Carpenter’s belief, that it formed the ‘“ proper wall” of the foraminifer,
was in some respects plausible. But this is all we can admit. Up
to the points mentioned, Drs. Dawson and Carpenter laboured assi-
duously, and with considerable success. Instead, however, of proceeding
farther, they abruptly closed their investigations, as if the question
were a purely foraminiferal one. They tested their “ creature of the
* Compare the description of Bathybius, over leaf, with this statement: also
consider that Dr. Carpenter has diagnosed ‘‘ Hozoon” with structural characters which
would entitle it to be placed in the nummuline or highest group of the testaceous
Rhizopods; while Ernst Hackel would place Bathybius, if he believes in it, in his group
Monera, which comprises ‘‘ organisms occupying not only the simplest, but the simplest
conceivable position of living matter.” See ‘‘ Quar. Jour. of Mic. Soc.,” vol. ix.
t+ This statement does not agree with our assertion, which referred solely to metamor-
phic rocks of different geological periods.
£ ‘Proceedings of Royal Society,” No. 107, p. 191, December 17, 1868. As some
of our readers may desire to have further information respecting the foraminiferal mud
occurring at great depths, we beg to refer them to some Papers by one of us in
‘* Nautical Magazine,’” 1862; and ‘‘ Fraser’s Magazine,” October, 1863, ‘“‘ On Certain
Physical and Natural History Phenomena of the Atlantic.” It need scarcely be men-
tioned that mud of the kind brought up from the bottom of the Atlantic, off the west
coast of Ireland, at depths varying from 1000 to 1750 fathoms, does not contain a
particle of ‘‘eozoonal” structures. ;
d45
dawn” with no independent testimony ; contenting themselves, with a
few trifling exceptions, by examining it from a single point of view ;
even forgetting, im their excusable enthusiasm, to notice certain grave
difficulties they cannot but have observed, and which, notwithstanding
our having pointed them out, have been left unexplained, and still remain
an insurmountable obstacle to the thoughtful acceptance of the ‘‘ received
doctrine.”
Dr. Carpenter proclaims the ‘‘ moral certainty” of ‘‘a number of
separate and independent facts’ having a ‘‘consistency.’”’ The facts
referred to may be ‘‘consistent,’’ but certainly they cannot be called
*‘independent.”’ To us they are strictly andsimply correlative. ‘‘In-
dependent facts,’’ in the question at issue, must be gathered from those
sciences which bear directly upon it—as chemistry, mineralogy, and
geology.
Viewing ‘‘ Eozoon”’ in its chemical relations, it is inexplicable—so
much so, that to account for certain persistent characters of the ‘‘ canal
system,’ and ‘‘nummuline layer,’’ Dr. Carpenter has proposed two
““ideas,’? one of whichis altogether unscientific, and the other vs inad-
missible ; while Dr. Sterry Hunt’s hypothesis for the infilling of the
‘‘chambers” and ‘‘other cavities” has no tangible evidence in its
favour. Hxamined mineralogically, it is absolutely necessary to ignore
not only agroup of well-attested cases, offering a ‘‘combination of
phenomena’’ more orlessagreeing with those urgedin favour of ‘‘ Hozoon,”’
but equally the clear inference that such ‘‘combination” in ‘‘ eozoonal”’
ophite is as much paragenetic as it is in chondroditic and other rocks.
Regarded geologically, ‘‘Hozoon”’ signally fails in the circumstances of
occurrence, necessitated by the plainest considerations pertaining to
_ sedimentary lithology; never presenting itself except in metamorphic
rocks belonging to widely separated systemal periods, and thereby
equally failing to meet the most obvious requirements of paleontology.
Finally, to subscribe to the organic origin of ‘‘Hozoon,” the chemist
must become a believer in guast-alchymy, and in direct oceanic precipt-
tations unknown in nature. The mineralogist must assume certain
obscure and insufficiently tested bodies to consist of calcite : he must be
inappreciative of the various allomorphs of serpentine, and of pseudo-
morphic phenomena; and consider every imbedded crystalline body—
‘“tuberculated,” or ‘*segmented’”—‘ cylindrically shaped,’ or with
angles rounded off—to be the remains of an organism. The palgon-
tologist, besides slighting all he knows of the circumstances of petriface
tion, must accept as a “ fossil’’ a production never found in rocks that
ought to contain it. Even the zoologist must believe to be a “ nummu-
line foraminifer’”’ what is structurally an Jmpossibilitas Nature, in
having a “canal system” and ‘‘ skeleton’”’ that often ‘‘ ran wild” without
either ‘‘chambers”’ or a ‘cell wall;” and in being seldom otherwise
than inconcervably the result of pseudopodial tubulation.
‘ Solvite tantis animum monstris,
Solvite, Superi !””
546
SUPPLEMENTARY Note.
[Read 28th February, 1870. ]
Wirurn the last fortnight we have been successful in finding “‘eozoonal’’
structures under conditions which unmistakeably establish their origin.
We have first to notice a specimen of ordinary metamorphic micro-
crystalline limestone, from Aker, in Sweden. It contains numerous
light green grains of pyroxene of the variety known as coccolite, a
considerable portion of a colourless translucent variety of a related
mineral seemingly malacolite, and a few small purple spinels. The
grains of coccolite, which have a rude cleavage approximating to a sub-
conchoidal fracture, are isolated, or form aggregations, in the calcareous
matrix: their surfaces are variously rounded and excavated, giving the
grains an irregularly lobulated appearance. The occasional presence
of planes, edges, and solid angles on their surfaces, renders it certain
that the grains were originally crystals that have undergone super-
ficial erosion by some dissolving agent. ‘The spinels, which are in
octahedrons, have been subject to a similar waste, though not to the
same extent—only occasionally occurring more or less spherical, and
with eroded surfaces.
In their irregular lobulated character, variety of aggregation, and
scattered arrangement, the grains of coccolite strikingly resemble those
of serpentine (‘‘ chamber casts’) in the ‘‘ acervuline” variety of
“‘ Hozoon Canadense,” occurring in Canada. We take credit for being
the first to point out a precisely similar agreement in the grains of
chondrodite, pargasite, &c., common in the crystalline limestones of
other places.*
But the specimen under notice shows other and additional characters,
which still more clearly establish its ‘‘ eozoonal” relationship.
When a slight portion of the matrix is removed by decalcification,
the surface is seen to be crowded with slender cylindrical forms, more
or less branching, often remarkably beaded, and arranged in all con-
ceivable modes of grouping. They agree in every respect with the
finest typical examples of the ‘‘ canal system,” as represented by Doctors
Carpenter, Dawson, and Professor Rupert Jones.t
Associated with the latter are numerous specimens of the malacolite,
divided by different sets of cleavage planes, the principal one giving
them quite a lamellar structure. Occasionally others occur, approxi-
mating more or less to perfect prismatic crystals: but generally some of
the angles, edges, and planes, have disappeared, or only traces are
observable; so that they present the appearance of vermicular rods—
* “ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,’’ vol. xxii., p. 209.
+ See Dawson in ‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxi., Pl. VII.,
figs. 3, 4, 5; Carpenter, ibid., Pl. VIII, fig. 5, a, 6, c, and Pl. IX., fig. 5, a, b, ¢, d;
Rupert Jones, ‘‘ Popular Science Review,’’ vol. iv., Pl. XV., figs. 6, 7, 8.
O47
straight, bent, or twisted—nodulose, or irregularly excavated. These
configurations exactly answer to certain of the so-called ‘“ stolons.’*
It may be contended, by those from whom we differ on the question
discussed in these pages, that the specimen belongs to an ‘‘ eozoonal”
rock. But, apart from its fatal agreement with other specimens of the
kind in possessing the never-failing crystalline or metamorphic charac-
ter—how, on such a view, are we to set aside the clear evidences of the
*‘ chamber casts’ and the ‘‘ stolons” having been originally crystals ?
Besides, not only have these parts had a crystalline origin, but it is
equally plain that the same conclusion must embrace the “ canal
system ;” for it is impossible to detect any line of demarcation between
the “stolons’’ and the latter. Dissolving action has, in the first place,
converted the crystals of malacolite into the ‘‘ stolons:” next the crys-
tals were divided by cleavage, and eroded to such an extent that, in the
state of the ‘‘ canal system,” they became reduced to mere skeletons.}
Respecting the beaded character of the branching forms, we are strongly
inclined to believe that it has resulted from the cleavage which trans-
versely cuts the prisms: obviously the erosion would be deepest where
it was present.
In no instance have we detected any traces of the ‘‘ nummuline
layer”’ on the grains—a deficiency we attribute to their component mi-
neral, coccolite, not assuming the fine asbestiform structure which so
eminently distinguishes serpentine in its change into chrysotile. There
is often, however, a thin whitish granular coat investing the grains,
sometimes so compact as to remain after they have been accidentally
detached from the matrix.
Another specimen, which is from Amity, New York, consists of a
similar calcareous matrix, holding spinel, chondrodite, serpentine, a
micaceous mineral, and malacolite. One of the crystals of spinel is a
compound octahedron, about two inches in its axial diameters, having
part of its faces built up of minute triangular facets, and others, of
small implanted octahedrons; both lying parallel to the faces of the
large crystal. Numerous linear chinks, and irregularly formed cavities,
separate the component triangular facets and octahedrons; and they are
filled up with micro-crystalline calcite, similar to that of the matrix,
enclosing malacolite. Decalcification brings out beautifully the last-
named mineral, which assumes with wonderful exactness all the charac-
ters and modifications of the ‘‘ stolons” and ‘‘ canal system,”’ as displayed
in the Aker specimen; so that the description we have given of them
would have to be repeated if we described those under consideration :
* See Carpenter, ‘ Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,’ vol. xxi., Pl. VIIL,
fig. 3, Pl. [X., fig. 3; Jones, ‘“‘ Popular Science Review,” vol. iv., Pl. XV., fig. 5.
+ It may be hypothetically suggested that, in the final stage, the crystals have been
totally dissolved. Malacolite consists, in round numbers, of silica 55-, lime 28°, mag-
nesia 17: Assuming carbonic acid to have acted as the solvent, this substance might
completely replace the silicic acid, and in this way change the basic constituent of the
mineral; making calcite (or dolomite) a pseudomorph after malacolite.
048
and were it necessary to represent the latter, our representations would
be close fac-similes of the figures, already referred to, which Dawson,
Carpenter, and Rupert Jones, have published in their respective
memoirs. 7
All the calcite of the specimen equally shows the same ‘‘ eozoonal’’
structures ; and that they have originated from the waste of crystals of
malacolite. One example consists of a prismatic or longitudinally-
cleaved mass of this mineral, having at one end the cleavage prisms
diverging, losing their edges, and slightly branching; strikingly
resembling the case figured in our first memoir,* and reminding us
of the example of the ‘‘ canal system,’’ described by Dr. Carpenter as
‘consisting of parallel lamellee disposed like the leaves of a book.’’+
Since it was first announced that we had determined ‘‘ Hozoon
Canadense” to be nothing more than a mineral production, we have all
along felt that specimens would be found demonstrating more and more
completely the truth of our conclusion: but we were certainly not
prepared to meet with a large crystal of spinel, holding in its chinks
and cavities typical examples of two of the essential features of this
reputed organism; and these themselves possessing evidences indis-
putably testifying to their purely crystalline origin.
The Aker and Amity specimens show, what we have long sus-
pected, as intimated here and there in the preceding Paper, that the
arborescent forms (‘‘ canal system’’) may consist of other silicates be-
sides serpentine. As to their being composed of anything else than a
siliceous substance, we are not yet prepared to offer an opinion on the
matter ; though it must not be overlooked that similar forms, but on a
comparatively gigantic scale, are common, consisting of carbonate of
lime, in magnesian limestone, near Sunderland, in Durham. We have
been led into this subject from observing a recent announcement, by
Dr. Sterry Hunt, of another discovery in ‘‘ Hozoon Canadense” (atChelms-
ford, near Lowell, U.S.) of ‘‘the canals and tubuli of the calcareous
skeleton filled, not with a silicate, but with carbonate of lime.”{ On
seeing this announcement, we immediately wrote to Mr. Bicknell, of
Salem, mentioned by Dr. Sterry Hunt, asking him to oblige us with speci-
mens of the kind. Shortly afterwards we received from Mr. Bicknell,
by sample post, a transparent section carefully prepared by himself, and a
piece of the rock,—both labelled ‘‘Chelmsford.’’ There were also speci-
mens of ‘‘ eozoonal’’ ophite from Newberryport, a neighbouring locality.
In the latter, some of the structures are typically exhibited: the fibres of
the ‘‘nummuline layer,” however, aremore confusedly arranged, and much
longerthan usual. In the former, the serpentine, of a pale-greenish colour,
is in irregularly fractured pieces, separated from one another by unusu-
ally wide interspaces of calcite (‘‘ calcareous skeleton’’), which contains
* * Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,” vol. xxii., P1,XV., fig. 17, 2.
Tt “Intellectual Observer,” vol. vii., p. 294.
t “Scientifie Opinion,” January 20, 1870, p. 46.
049
bundles of radiating crystals, also groups of vermicular branching forms
(‘‘ canals and tubuli’”’): the ‘‘ nummuline layer” is not well developed,
being often represented by minute radiating aciculi. We have carefully
tested the Chelmsford specimens, both by chemical reactions and pola-
rized light, without, however, detecting any evidence of the ‘‘ canal
system”’ being else than siliceous; or of being composed of a substance
identical with or related to its calcareous matrix.* Now, we cannot
dispute the statement of Dr. Sterry Hunt; as probably some mistake
may have been made in our specimens. We must, however, 77 this case
too, complain of the very meagre and unsatisfactory account given of the
‘* canals and tubuli” in the otherwise more detailed notice of the Chelms-
ford ‘‘ Eozoon,”’ published in *‘Silliman’s Journal,” p. 77, of January last.
No evidence whatever is offered to show by what process the chemical
nature of these parts was determined ;—whether the conclusion that they
are of the same composition as the ‘‘ calcareous skeleton’’ was based on
an examination by polarized light ; or whether they do not consist of some
soluble silica, or of a mixture of a carbonate and a silicate such as would
be quite as readily acted upon by weak acid as their imbedding substance,
especially if it be dolomite. We wish to call particular attention to the
last point, as brief mention has already been made of a specimen of ele-
olite (a translucent variety, from Brevig), which, in consequence of its
being an alkaliferous silicate of alumina (and there is no reason why
such a compound may not occur in the Laurentian metamorphic marbles),
was dissolved in weak acid. Another specimen, which we have lately
subjected to the same process, was taken out of the solution in a partially
digested state. When examined with the microscope, the residuum,
which is in a slightly coherent condition, was found to consist of inter-
lacing configurations, some of which, where well separated from the rest,
bore no inconsiderable resemblance to the ‘‘canal system’”’—not, it is true,
in its beautiful arborescent forms, but in the small crooked branching
varieties, common to many Canadian examples. Prismatic cleavage,
which elzeolite eminently possesses, had evidently favoured the develop-
ment of the configurations. They are transparent, rudely branching
and anastomosing, showing rarely any cleavage edges or planes; these for
the most part having been removed by the action of the acid.
Such a case as this clearly necessitates every point being duly con-
sidered before any conclusion can be drawn as to the cnemical nature
of the ‘‘ canals and tubuli,” should they appear not to have their ordi-
nary composition. It also strikingly illustrates the view we have taken
that these parts in typical ‘‘ Hozoon”’ are merely the skeletons of frag-
ments, or of crystals—respectively of serpentine or some other silicate—
which remain after their waste had been arrested through changed con-
ditions. Moreover, it testifies to our having succeeded in forming from
eleolite, by the action of a weak solvent, configurations approximating
to the rude varieties of the “‘ canal system.”
* We expect still to receive specimens, undoubtedly identical with those described by
Dr. Sterry Hunt; when we hope to announce with more certainty the result of our inves-
tigations.
000
DESCRIPTION OF THE Ficures In Pirates XLI., XLII., XLIIL.,
and XLIV.
Fig. 1.—Portion of a “‘ chamber cast” from a transparent section of ‘ eozoonal’’
ophite from Canada: to show the changes which serpentine undergoes. At first
it is affected with fine linear separated divisions (a) ; which, through becoming more
numerous, give rise to chrysotile (d): next is developed acicular chrysotile (ce);
which passes into “‘ true nummuline” layer, i.e. with the fibres or aciculi separated.
This section was presented to Dr. Rowney by Dr. Carpenter: as stated elsewhere,
we decalcified it. Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 are from the same section. The parts
are represented as seen by reflected light, and with a power magnifying 120 dia-
meters.
Fig. 2.—‘‘ Chamber casts” separated by interpolated calcite (calcareous or ‘‘ interme-
diate skeleton”); this being dissolved out, the cavity, A, has taken its place. The
left ‘‘ chamber cast,” also the right one at the upper part, show fine linear sepa-
rated divisions (a), which, when numerous, produce chrysotile (e). (By mistake
this part is represented as consisting of what appear to be separated fibres; but
they are in immediate contact}. At d, d, the fibres represent ‘‘true nummuline
layer.” It will be observed that the fibres exactly correspond in direction with
the linear divisions in the serpentine; which clearly proves that both kinds have
one and the same origin. 210 diameters : opaque.
Fig. 3.—Lump of serpentine, breaking up into ‘‘chamber casts,” The intervening spaces
are filled with plates and “‘amorphous masses” (Carpenter) of granular flocculite ;
in some places this substance is rudely fibrous. At A (cavity) the flocculite is re-
placed by calcite (dissolved out), and the rude fibres by ‘‘ true nummuline layer.”
210 diameters: opaque.
Fig, 4.—Enlarged representation of a portion of Dr. Carpenter’s section, showing the
layers of ‘‘chamber casts” (a), and ‘intermediate skeleton” (0), obliquely divided
by parallel cracks or fissures (¢). Opaque.
Fig. 5.—Representation of one of the cracks (C), marked e in fig. 4, lined with chry-
sotile(c), which is often in the state of ‘true nummuline layer’ (d@). Opaque.
The fibres, it must be understood, are in close contact, though apparently not so in
the figure.
Fig. 6.—Vein or crack (intersecting serpentine in a slab of Connemara ophite), filled
with chrysotile in its various modifications. The upper portion of the vein passes
through ‘“‘ chamber casts;” and here it consists of both juxtaposed (c) and sepa-
rated (a) aciculi: the last variety, which is undistinguishable from “ true num-
muline layer,” is also seen on the adjacent segmented granules, marked d. On
entering the vacancy A, the vein, here typical chrysotile, becomes divided into
two portions; the division, d, being separately acicular; and the other, c, asbes-
tiform.
Fig. 7.— Decalcified portion of “ intermediate skeleton,” containing plates, rods—branch-
ing and simple—characteristic of the ‘‘canal system;” also ‘‘ amorphous masses’
(A, B) or flocculent modifications of the latter. At Bx, the serpentine is seen
changing into the above. (This figure fails to give a proper idea of the changes
exhibited by the serpentine). Opaque.
Fig. 8.—Portion of serpentine in a specimen of Gecalcified ophite from ‘‘ Neybiggen,”
divided by lamellar (a) and fibro-lamellar (0) cleavages. These two divisional
structures break the serpentine into prisms ; which, losing their edges, become
vermicular and separated (ce), at the same time changing from green to white.
In the latter state the configurations closely resemble the simple “ definite shapes’
of the ‘canal system.”” Opaque: 120 diameters. Figure 8, x, represents a trans-
verse section of a prism, formed by the two sets of cleavage (imperfectly delineated,
however).
Fig. 9.—Portion of a decalcified vein or crack intersecting serpentine in a slab of
Connemara ophite. Both sides are lined with various modifications of chrysotile, —
asbestiform at c, and separately acicular at d. The bottom of the vein (darker
coloured) is filled with fibrous calcite: the same substance occupied the spaces
between the two fringes of chrysotile, also the openings between the separated
aciculi, before decalcification. Opaque: 60 diameters.
5d1
Fig. 10.—Grains (‘‘ chamber casts’’) of pale-green serpentine (represented decidedly too
dark) in a decalcified specimen of Liassic ophite from the Isle of Skye, presented
to us by Professor Harkness. The grains are for the most part invested with
‘¢true nummuline layer,” which in some places is asbestiform, The grain, A z,
(which is below the level of the others) has its surface quite hispid with separated
aciculi. Opaque: 210 diameters.
Fig. 11.—Transparent siliceous ‘‘ definite shapes” (only made properly visible by means
of Webster’s condenser, with graduating diaphragms) of the ‘ canal system,”
partly imbedded in calcite. The matrix having been decalcified a little, the ‘‘ defi- -
nite shapes” project above its surface: the thin end of the long one is still imbedded,
as shown by the characteristic rhombohedral and macrodiagonal cleavages of the
calcite passing over it. 120 diameters. N. B.—Figure 11 2 is cancelled.
LVIII.— Tue Ruins on Arpittavy, Co. Gatway. By G. Henry
Kinanan, F. R.G.S. I.
[Read November 8th, 1869. }
Arpitiaun, or High Island, lies a short distance from the coast of
Tar-connaught, and on it are the ruins of an ancient ecclesiastical
colony. Of this island O’Flaherty, the historian, thus writes: ‘‘ An-
ciently called Innishiarther, i. e., the West Island, it is inaccessible
but on calm, settled weather, and so steep that it is hard, after landing
in it, to climb to the top.” He afterwards states that the abbey was
founded by St. Fechin of Omay, and that eleven holy hermits are buried
here; while Hardiman in his notes gives the names of these men.*
_ The ruins of the ancient structures are situated at the S. W. end of
the island; an irregular peninsula being enclosed by a wall extending
from the cliff over a coose that enters the island on its western shore,
to the cliff over another coose that runs north-westward into the south
part of the island; and inside this wall seem to have been all the prin-
cipal buildings.
Between the two cooses is a small lake, on the north shore of which
the settlement was erected. The church was enclosed within a wall
or cashel, and associated with it are other structures, with the prin-
cipal clochaun.
The accompanying sketch plan (map, Pl. XLV.), shows the cooses,
lakes, and wall, of all these buildings whose sites can now be traced.
This island, about twenty-four years ago, was part of the Connemara
property of the Martins; while it belonged to that family the ruins
are said to have been protected, and to have been in a good state of pre-
servation. Unfortunately, when it passed out of their hands it came into
that of an absentee English proprietory, and during the famine and sub-
sequent years (1846 e¢ seg.) many of the most interesting of the carved
stones were carried away. Since then no care has been taken to pre-
serve the ruins, they being allowed to be destroyed by persons hunting
rabbits ; while the crosses and the other carved stones have been knocked
* O’Flaherty’s “ History of Hiar or West Connaught,” pp. 114 and 115.
Rt. A. PROC.— VOL. xX. * 4D
502
about and broken. The buildings, &c., which were observed, are as fol-
lows :—
No. 1. (Pl. XLV., and Fig. 1, Pl. XLYI.). The foundation of a stone
circular structure that appears to have been a clochaun. It was about
twenty-seven feet in the inside diameter, the wall, at the base, being
about four feet thick ; through it was a doorway two feet wide, opening
towards the 8S. W.; the stones of the foundation, except at the doorway,
were built, not pitched. This erection was outside the outer wall, east
of the N. E. gate.
No. 2. (Pl. XLY., and Fig. 2, Pl. XLVI.). In the outer wall, along-:
side the N. E. gateway, there is the site of an oblong double structure
that appears to have been a Fosleac (or dwelling built of flags), and was
seemingly divided into two chambers. The northern one was twenty-one
feet long by six feet wide, and appears to have been a typical fosleac, as
the flags used in the construction of its walls were pitched (or placed on
edge), not built, apparently; originally it was also covered with flags.
The south chamber seems to have been two feet shorter than the other,
but it was twelve feet wide. Its south and east walls were also made
with pitched flags; but the north wall, which was three feet thick at
the base, including the thickness of the flags forming the south side of
the north chamber, was built, the stones being laid flat. Running
oblique from the south wall of this structure, extends the outer enclos-
ing wall; but of it all that now remains in position is a line of upright
flags. North of this fosleac, between it and a large granite boulder
on the edge of the cliff overhanging the sea, is the site of the N. E.
gate into the outer enclosure.
No. 3. (Pl. XLV., and Figs. 3 and 4, Pl. XLVII.). A rectangular
clochaun. In the interior it is six feet long by five and a quarter feet
wide, with walls that appear at the base to have been four feet thick. It
had only one opening into it—a doorway looking nearly due south
(S. 10 E.), that was three feet high and two and a half feet wide.* In-
side, the walls went up square from the floor for about three feet, after
which they coved in, to form the roof, the centre of which was crowned
by three large flags (garnetiferous mica schist), the entire height from
the floor to the apex of the roof being about eight feet. On account of
its ruined condition, the original outward form cannot be seen; however,
tradition says that it was bee-hive shaped, like those on the Aran Isles.
This building, as well as the next to be described, is outside the
church enclosure, or cashel; however, opposite its door there are the
ruins of a passage about three feet wide, with walls of pitched flags,
which seems to have led to a doorway in the wall of the cashel. From
this it is conjectured, that although the building is outside the en-
closure, yet the entrance into it was from within. In confirmation of
* The clochauns on this island are of quite a different type to those on the Aran
Island, Galway Bay, for these have only one doorway, while all those on Aran seem to
have had two, besides windows in most of them.
503
this idea, it may be mentioned that an old fisherman, who was met with
at the ruins, appeared to say he remembered them s0 joined before the
passage was broken down.*
No. 4 (Pl. LXY. and Fig. 5, Pl. XLVII.). A detached ruin about
nine,feet square apparently an Ovleac (or stone building), built with flat
stones, except the doorway, which was formed of large flags pitched on
end. This structure is now so much dilapidated that nothing more can
be learned about it.
No.5(Pl. XLV. and Figs. 6, 7, and 8, Pl. XLVIII.). A rectangular
clochaun, seven feet wide [north and south ], by eight feet long, with walls
about five feet thick. This building also has only one aperture into it—
a doorway in the east wall. The doorway is peculiar, as it narrows from
three feet wide on the outside of the wall, to one and three-quarters
feet wide at the floor, and one and a half feet wide at the top, on the
inside of the wall. The outside of this clochaun isin a similar deplorable
condition to that of the clochaun just now described; fortunately,
however, the interior has been spared by the barbarians who have ruined
the rest of the settlement, and displays a beautifully finished chamber,
in good proportions, coved in on all sides from the floor to the roof,
a height of over nine feet, the apex being covered by three flags placed
in steps, as represented in Fig. No. 7, which is a sectional view of the
interior of this building. The sketch does not show the full beauty of
the building, as its finish was similar to that of many of the interiors
of the clochauns in the Co. Kerry, each stone fitting into or lying evenly
on its fellow, and all joints being so close that a knife could scarcely be
inserted between the stones. Moreover, all the corners are symmetrical,
and curve evenly from the floor to the apex of the roof. This structure,
although its west wall apparently was partly in the wall of the cashel,
yet had no passage into it, the entrance, as before mentioned, being
from the east. The doorway was about three feet high, and its lintel,
on the inside, ought to be mentioned, as it is over six feet long; that
length being exposed, while the rest of it is concealed in the north wall.
No. 6. (Pl. XLY.) A doorway intothecashel. This, as previously
mentioned, seems to have been joined by a passage to one of the clo-
chauns (No. III.).
No. 7. (Pl. XLY.) A rectangular chamber, nine feet long by four
and a half feet wide. It is in, and extends nearly across, the thickness
of the cashel wall. It appears to have been about four feet high, and
was covered by large flags. It was entered from the cashel by a door-
way two and a half feet high by three feet wide.
No. 8. (Pl. XLY.) A rectangular chamber extending along in the in-
terior of the wall of the cashel, and adjoining the south-west gateway. It
is about thirty-two feet long, by four feet wide at the bottom, and coving
into three feet wide at the top of the walls; the roof being formed of long,
* The man only partially understood English, and I, unfortunately, knew very little
Irish.
d04
narrow, thick flags [see fig. 9. Pl. XLVI. It was entered from the church
enclosure by a doorway at its south end, about three feet high, and two
and a-half feet wide. This, apparently, was a chamber for the door-
keeper; however, it is locally called ‘‘The prison.” It is similar in
construction to the wall chambers in the stoneforts [cahers and doons |
in other parts of Ireland.*
No. 9 (Pl. KLV.). The south-west doorway into the cashel, which
was about two and a-half feet wide.
No. 10(Pl. XLV.). The site of a structure about fifteen feet square,
that was built between the lake and the south-east doorway in the
cashel. It probably was a clochaun.
No. 11 (Pl. XLV.). The south-west doorway into the eashel, which
seems to have been about three feet wide. This, and all the other door-
ways into the cashel are said to have been through the wall, to have
been about three and a-half feet high, and originally covered with flags.
If this is a true tradition, all persons going into or coming out of the
cashel must have crawled on their hands and knees. That this is not
improbable seems likely, as on the islands of Aran the doorways into a
few cashels, which are still undestroyed, are about of similar dimensions.
No. 12 (Pl. XLYV.). <A rectangular church, called on the Ordnance
Map, ‘‘The Abbey ;” this is supposed to have been erected by St. Fechin
in the seventh century. Its walls are built in courses, not grouted, as
those of the churches on the Isles of Aran; but it has an Egyptian door-
way, sloping from the bottom upwards, and covered at top by a single
flag, about six inches thick. d
No. XIII. The site ofastructure about thirteen feet long by twenty-
one feet wide. It was situated alongside the south-east doorway
through the outer enclosure wall, and contiguous to the previously-
mentioned south coose.
CARVED AND SCULPTURED STONES.
Those that have been left on the island consist principally of crosses,
all of which are more or less dilapidated. At the landing place on the
east of the island is a very perfect cross, of which fig. 1, Pl. XLIX., isa
sketch. This is the most uninjured cross on the island.
Near the centre of the island, at aholy well (the water from which
is said to cure colic and all such complaints), is a handsome cross, of
which fig. 2, Pl. XLIX., is a sketch. This cross is symmetrical, while
first mentioned is not, as will be seen by the sketch [ fig. No. 1].
In the cashel, partly broken, was found a cross somewhat similar to
that at the east of the island [fig. 1]. This was taken and placed
* In the county of Kerry, where cahers or stone forts are common, these wall
chambers will be found; nevertheless, these are not confined to that county, for in the
stony parts of Galway and Mayo, in which localities stone forts had to be built, they
have also been observed ; however, in these counties the typical forts are of clay, in which
are derc-talamhs, or earth caves.
555
upright at the east side of the station between the S. W. and S. E.
doorways of the cashel, in the hope that it might thereby be preserved
from further ill usage. There was also found among the ruins, having
a portion of it recently broken, along slab, in which, on both sides,
were cut four holes in the form of rude crosses. These holes have been
remarked cut in slabs at some of the old churches in the west of the
county Galway, but usually in limestone flags. On the island called
Illaun M‘Dara the remains of three or four of these holed stones were
observed—one was of across shape, with the four holes through and
through the stone ; this is represented in fig. 3, Pl. XLIX. ; while another
had the holes associated with a handsome cross, as shown in fig. 4, Pl.
XLIX. The holed stone found in the cashel on Ardillaun was placed
upright at the station by the lake shore a little south-east of the cashel,
for a similar reason to that stated in relation to one of the other crosses ;
all the other crosses observed were shamefully misused, some being in
fragments. Attention should be drawn to a ball of granite observed
inside the cashel; it is about fifteen inches in diameter. The use of
this ball was not determined, and there seems to be no tradition about
it. The author of these notes would suggest, that possibly it had been
used by the inhabitants of the settlement for grinding corn in a bullaun,
or rock basin. Against this suggestion, however, is the fact that no
bullaun could be found, and no person seems to have ever heard of one
on the island. It should be mentioned that in ancient times there was
a mill on the stream flowing from the lake to the sea; but now the
mill stones, &c., are all gone, the only thing to mark its site being a
small portion of the milldam. The water supply is so small, that evi-
dently the mill should have been useless a great part of the year; and the
inhabitants have had to resort to querns, or some such method of corn
grinding. It may be mentioned that inside the cashel was found
a partially-cut stone, that seemed to be a half-formed quern.
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MINUTES OF THE ACADEMY
FOR THE SESSION 1866-67.
NovEMBER 12, 1866.
The Rieut Hon. Lorp Tatzot p—E Matautpe, President, in the Chair.
Tue Rev. J. H. Todd, D. D., was elected a Member of Council, in
the department of Antiquities, in the place of Charles Haliday, Esq.,
deceased.
The following papers were read :—
“On Spenser’s Irish Rivers ;” by P. W. Joyce, Esq., A.M., T.C.D.
“Qn the Scandinavian Antiquities lately discovered at Island
Bridge, near Dublin;” by Sir W. R. Wilde.
‘On the Battle of Moytura (in continuation) ;” by Sir W. R. Wilde.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
Stated Merrtinec, Novemser 30, 1866.
Sir W. R. Witos, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The Secretary of the Academy, on the part of the Very Rev. Eugene
Brown, President of Clongowes Wood College, deposited in the Museum
an ancient crozier.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
DrEcemMBER 10, 1866.
The Rient Hon. Lorp Tatzot pE Matrantpe, President, in the Chair.
The President made the following observations on the death of the
late Rev. Edward Hincks :—
We have had lately to regret the loss of the Rev. Dr. Epwarp Hrnoxs,
who was one of the ornaments of our Academy.
It will be in your recollection that he has contributed many papers
to our ‘‘ Transactions” on Egyptian and Cuneiform Philology. The
1V
subject is a very abstruse one, and I cannot say that I feel competent
to enter into many details. In spite of the labours of Young, Champol-
lion, Birch, and the distinguished band of German and French Egypto-
logists, there must remain much to discover in this extensive field of
research. Dr. Hincxs was one of their most successful followers, and
Egyptian mythology and chronology owe much to him.
However, of late years Dr. Hrncxs devoted the energies of his
acute mind chiefly to the elucidation of the inscriptions in the arrow-
headed character which are so numerous in Persia and Assyria.
Among the scientific triumphs of the present century, there is
scarcely one more remarkable than the progress which has been made
in unravelling the enigmas of these hitherto unknown tongues.
Grotefend, Lassen, and Sir Henry Rawlinson led the way; and the
latter two have most satisfactorily deciphered the Persian portion of the
trilingual inscription of Behistun. However, the other two portions—
the Median and Babylonian—have in great measure baffled them by
the enormous difficulty they have to contend with in an almost total
ignorance of the languages in which they are written. Great as the dif-
ficulties were to be encountered in the Persian inscription, there were
powerful aids in the knowledge we possess of the Sanscrit, Zend, Peh-
levi, and other cognate languages, which appear to have been closely
allied to the ancient Persian. The Median and Babylonian are supposed
to be Semitic languages, and with but little resemblance to any other.
I am not aware whether anything has been attempted in regard to the
Median inscriptions. Dr. Hincxs most successfully grappled with the
Babylonian, and I believe his original discoveries have been confirmed
by the independent observations of others.
Working in a remote country parish, without the advantage of
public libraries, or the familiar intercourse with fellow-students, in these
obscure inquiries, he deserves every honour that we can pay to his me-
mory; and we must feel most grateful for the value which his erudite
essays have conferred on our ‘‘ Transactions.”’
I doubt not that more competent persons will give to the world a
more complete and extensive account of his services to Oriental litera-
ture; but I should be wanting in my duty as your President, if I did
not seize the earliest opportunity of offering my tribute to his worth
and eminence.
The following papers were read by the Secretary :—
‘‘ Notes on some of the Ancient Villages in the Aran Isles, County
of Galway ;’’ by G. Henry Kinahan, F.R.G.8.I.
‘¢ Notes on a Crannoge in Lough Naneevin ;”’ by G. Henry Kinahan,
F.R.G.S.1.
The President informed the Academy that he, with a deputation of the
Council, had on the 6th December waited on the Lord Lieutenant, with
reference to the increased Annual Grant to the Academy recommended
by the Select Committee of the House of Commons, in 1866.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors,
Vv
JANUARY 14, 1867.
The Rieut Hon. Lorp Tatsor pz Maraninpg, President, in the Chair.
The following were elected Members of the Academy :—
Sir Rowland Blennerhassett, Bart., M.P.; Major-General Right Hon.
F. Plunkett Dunne, M.P.; Charles J. O’ Donel, Esq. ; Brigadier-General
J. Meredith Read; George Francis Roughan, Esq.; William Barlow
Smythe, Esq.; John Wilson, Esq., M.A
The following letter was read :—
‘‘Monxstown Park, 9th January, 1867.
“Dear Srr,—It is with much pleasure I have to announce to
you that Mrs. Haliday has decided on presenting intact to the Royal
Irish Academy the whole of the late Mr. Haliday’s Collection of Pamph-
lets, Tracts, and Papers, &c., relating to Ireland. Having been left
all his property absolutely, she is desirous to pay this tribute to the
memory of her late beloved and lamented husband, and at the same
time to preserve to the Royal Irish Academy so valuable and unique a
collection.
‘<1 shall be happy to confer with the Librarian as to the best mode
of removing the Pamphlets, &c., to the Royal Irish Academy.
‘“ Believe me, dear Sir, yours truly,
‘¢RicHarp WELCH,
‘““ Executor to the late CHartes Haripay.
‘* Rev. W. Reeves, D. D.,
“ Secretary, R. I. A., Dawson-street.”’
The following resolutions were adopted :—
That the marked thanks of the Academy be returned to Mrs.
Haliday for her very valuable donation, which will form so im-
portant an accession to the Library of the Academy, and prove so bene-
ficial in future times to the students of Irish History.
That the thanks of the Academy be also returned to Richard Welch,
Esq., for his kindness in communicating Mrs. Haliday’s intentions.
A paper ‘‘On the Distribution of Temperature in the Lower Region
of the Earth’s Atmosphere’ was read by Henry Hennessy, F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
JANUARY 28, 1867.
The Rieut Hon. Lorp Tarpot pr Matanipe, President, in the Chair.
The President addressed the meeting on the loss sustained by the
Academy from the deaths of the Rev. R. Mac Donnell, D. D., Provost
of Trinity College, Dublin; and John D’ Alton, Esq.
aal
The following letter was read :—
‘¢ Dusiin Castin, January 22, 1867.
‘‘ S$1r,-—Referring to the Royal Irish Academy Estimates for the
year 1867-8, transmitted in your letter of the 4th ult., I am directed
by the Lord Lieutenant to acquaint you, for the information of the Pre-
sident and Council of the Academy, that a communication has been
received from the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury,
stating that their Lordships are pleased to approve of an Estimate of
£700 for this service—being the same amount as that taken last
year—but they are not prepared to sanction the other items, amount-
ing to £800, which are inserted at foot of the Estimate.
‘“‘T am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
“Tomas A. Larcom.
‘To the Rev. JosrpH Carson, D. D.,
‘“« Treasurer, Royal Irish Academy.”
The following resolution was agreed to :—
That it be recommended to Council to take such prompt measures
as they may deem advisable to bring effectively under the notice of the
House of Commons the pressing need of the Royal Irish Academy for
an additional Annual Grant, which, to the extent of £800, was recom-
mended by the Parliamentary Committee on Scientific Institutions in
Dublin, and recently approved of by His Excellency the Lord Lieu-
tenant.
A paper ‘‘On the Forms of Ordeal anciently practised in Ireland”’
‘was read by William M. Hennessy, Esq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
Frprvary 11, 1867.
The Rigut Hon. Lorp Tarot pE Matantpe, President, in the Chair.
George Ellis, Esq., M.B.; John Hill, Esq., C. H., and Marcus
Keane, Esq., were elected Members of the Academy.
The following document was read :—
STATEMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS oF THE Royat IRnisn ACADEMY,
ADOPTED BY THE Councit, Frpruary 18, 1867.
Tux Royal Irish Academy was chartered in 1786, for the promotion of
the higher branches of Science, Polite Literature, and Antiquities,
in Ireland. It has long received Parliamentary aid towards carrying
out the objects of its foundation. As it advanced in importance, and
extended its sphere of action, the Annual Grant of £500 became alto-
gether inadequate; and its insufficiency was recognised by the Select
Committee of the House of Commons in 1864, on the Scientific Insti-
tutions of Dublin. That Committee strongly recommended the Academy
Vil
to the liberality of Parliament, and in their Report the following sums
were named as necessary to carry on the work of the Academy with
efficiency in its several departments :—
‘61, For the preparation of Scientific Reports on Irish Tides, Ter- £ s. d.
restrial Magnetism, Meteorology, &c., including costs of In-
struments and grants to observers, Ln, NARs, EE“, 200 0 90
2 Salary to an Irish Scribe, including cataloguing and printing
MipishwVieuseriptsaehn act) «erro isn es re hin Greet) 200,020
3. Salary to Museum Clerk, purchase of Antiquities, costs of
making Casts, and Photographs to be exchanged with other
BRCUNCCWOMNS Rete) Tio Toe a eit a eo oes eu he ZOOM 0 "0
4, Salary to Library Clerk, with cost of Books and binding, . 200 0 0
5. Printing and Illustrating the ‘‘ Transactions” and ‘‘ Proceed-
i Ea ie Sb bi lmalime igs fo died eo tay ne0O,, O.. 0
Total amount of required increase to present Annual im
Grant of £500, cial gisidtigh arm teehee eile } £1000 0 0
Of this amount a sum of £200 was in 1865 granted by the Govern-
ment, being that mentioned under No. 2, for ‘‘ the Salary of an Irish
Scribe, including cataloguing and printing Irish Manuscripts.” The
Academy subsequently applied for the remaining sum of £800; and a
Deputation appointed by the Council waited on His Excellency the Mar-
quis of Abercorn, on the 6th of December, 1866, to solicit the support
of the Irish Government for the application. His Excellency acknow-
ledged the justice of the claim, and promised to give the application his
best support. Since then a letter has been received from the Lords of
the Treasury, stating, without giving any reason, that they are not pre-
pared to sanction any further increase in the Annual Grant to the Aca-
demy. The present grant, amounting to £700 per annum, is totally
insufficient for carrying on the work of the Academy. Even if it were
increased by the additional annual sum of £800 named by the Select
Committee, we should still require special Grants, to enable us to put
several of our Departments into proper condition, and make them im-
mediately available for the public.
MUSEUM.
The Parliamentary Committee state in their Report, that the Museum
of the Academy is “the richest and most important in Europe in Celtic
Antiquities.” The subject of Celtic Archeology, independently of its
national importance to Ireland, is one which is every day attracting
more and more attention at home and abroad; and such a collection as
the Academy possesses can be best studied and appreciated in Ireland,
where alone there exists such traditional and manuscript information as |
is essential to illustrate its historical and scientific value. This collec-
tion is now placed in different parts of the Academy’s building, instead of
being, as has been proposed, arranged on a single floor. At present
the provisions for the custody of this valuable collection are so unsatis-
factory, that the Public cannot safely be permitted to inspect it; and
the Council, with a view to its preservation, have felt themselves con-
Vill
strained to refuse admission to the Public. A responsible Curator and
an Attendant will be absolutely necessary before the Public can again
be admitted; but the Academy have no funds applicable for these pur-
poses, and therefore the £200 per annum, recommended by the Com-
mittee under head No. 3, is indispensable.
The greater and more valuable portion of the collection has been
brought together by the contributions of private individuals, and the sub-
scriptions of Members of the Academy. The arrangement, registration,
and cataloguing, so far as they have advanced, have been in a great
measure gratuitously executed. To continue these works by private
energy would be impossible, in consequence of the growth of the col-
lection, and the increased desire of the Public for access to it, and in-
formation respecting it. The interests of Archeological Science demand
that the arrangement and cataloguing should be completed as promptly
as possible, and this cannot be expected when the work is done by vo-
luntary exertion.
From time to time private Collections of Irish Antiquities, of great
value, become available for purchase, which ought to find their place in
the Archeological Museum of Ireland. The Royal Irish Academy is
entitled to expect from the liberality of Parliament the funds required to
secure for permanent custody in their Museum such important illustra-
trations of our National History, which ought not to be removed from
this country, and could not with propriety be deposited elsewhere.
LIBRARY AND MSS. DEPARTMENT.
Under head No. 4, the Parliamentary Committee recommended—
‘Salary to a Library Clerk, with cost of Books and Binding, £200 per
annum.’ From want of means to provide such a Clerk, absolutely ne-
cessary for the safety of the Books and MSS., the Council have been
obliged to close the Library to the Public. The £200 recommended
would scarcely suffice to meet the current expenses of the Library—
including Salary to Clerk, Binding, purchasing Scientific and Archeo-
logical Journals, and completing, from time to time, the deficiencies of
special departments of the Library.
The Academy’s Library contains MSS. of high importance; the
Transactions of most of the learned Societies of the world; numerous
unpublished Maps and Drawings; and, through the recent Donation of
the valuable Library of the late Charles Haliday, the Academy now
possesses the most complete and extensive collection extant of works of
every class connected with Ireland and Irish affairs from early times to
our own day.
The Academy, as we have already stated, at present receives a
sum of £200 per annum, to be expended in the ‘Salary of an Irish
Scribe, and in cataloguing and printing Irish MSS.” Much valuable
work has been already done in preparing Irish texts and translations
for the press, and in continuing the Catalogue of Irish MSS.; but the
whole of the £200 is absorbed in transcribing, translating, and catalogu-
1X
ing; so that nothing remains for printing and giving to the world the most
important of the materials contained in our collection of Irish MSS.,
whilst at this moment there is an urgent demand by philologists in
every part of the world for the publication of such materials. We
therefore think that a special sum, to be spread over a certain number
of years, ought to be added to the Grant of £200 already allocated for
work on Irish Manuscripts. With such aid the Academy could print
the unique and invaluable vellum MSS., ‘‘ Leabhar na h-Uidhre,”’
‘‘Leabhar Leacan,’’ “‘Leabhar Breac,” and ‘‘ Book of Ballymote,”’
&c., with literal English versions, various readings and indexes. The
work of preparing these publications could now be done in a satisfac-
tory manner; whereas, if not at once proceeded with, in a few years
hence it might be impossible to find persons competent for the task, and
the MSS. would thus remain altogether sealed to Historians and Philo-
logists.
To render the contents of the Academy’s Library available to the
Public, it would consequently be requisite to make special allocations
for the following works, towards which nothing could be afforded from
the proposed £200 per annum under head No. 4 :—
1. Catalogue of the Academy’s Printed Books, Tracts, Broadsides, Miscellanea, En-
gravings and Maps.
2. Descriptive Catalogue of the Academy’s MSS. in English, Latin, &c., and unpub-
lished Maps and Drawings.
3. Descriptive Catalogue of the Academy’s MSS. in the Irish language.
4. For publication of the Irish MSS. above mentioned.
The printing of these works ought to be done, as in England and Scot-
land, through the instrumentality of the Stationery Office.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES.
A regular system of Tidal and Meteorological Observations round the
enfire coast of Ireland was instituted some years since by the Academy,
and continued ior more than twelve months. Valuable results were thus
arrived at; but, notwithstanding large assistance from individual
Members, it was long impossible, from want of funds, to complete the
reduction of the observations, a work of great importance to Navigation,
as well as of the highest scientific interest.* A Magnetic Survey of Ire-
land was commenced under the auspices of the British Association, but
has never been completed ; one half has not been entered upon, and but
two elements out of three in the other half have been determined. It is
the opinion of the Scientific Members of the Council that it would be ex-
tremely desirable to institute a complete set of Meteorological Observa-
tions at inland stations. We understand that the Government have at
present under consideration some plan for a system of Meteorological
a: See Report on Scientific Institutions, Dublin; Professor Jellett’s Evidence, Ques-
tion 5437, &c.
R. I. A. PROC.——VOL. X. b
x
Observations for the United Kingdom. If such a system were fully car-
ried out for Ireland, it would not be necessary for the Academy to take
any further steps for the purpose; but the sum of £200, named in the
Report of the Parliamentary Committee, would still be necessary for
other scientific researches, which individuals cannot be expected to un-
dertake.
TRANSACTIONS AND PROCUEDINGS.
The sum of £200 recommended by the Parliamentary Committee,
under head No. 5, for Printing and Illustrating the ‘‘ Transactions” and
‘* Proceedings’ is urgently required. The knowledge of the smallness
of the funds now available for these purposes prevents persons from
bringing forward Papers; and valuable communications are, for this
reason, either not produced at all, or presented to learned Societies
elsewhere. In the latter case, this country loses the advantage which,
if they were read and published here, would be derived from the encou-
ragement of a local interest in literary and scientific research. A spe-
cial difficulty exists with respect to the publication of Papers on Natural
Science and on Archeology, arising from the expense attending the ne-
cessary illustrations.
The foregoing details show that the £800 per annum, yet ungranted,
of the sum recommended by the Select Committee, is required for car-
rying on the ordinary work of the Academy, and that further Special
Grants are necessary for the objects above enumerated; namely, the
preparation and printing of Catalogues of the Museum and Library, and
the Publication of our most important Irish Manuscripts.
TaLBoTt py Matanipr,
President.
The following papers were read :—
On the Rudiments of the Common Law discoverable in the pub-
lished part of the Senchus Mor; by Samuel Ferguson, LL.D.
On Bicircular Quartics; by John Casey, A.B.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
FEBRUARY 25, 1867.
W. K. Surzivan, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following papers were read :—
On the Life and Labours of the late John D’ Alton, Hsq.; by J. R.
O’Flanagan, Esq.
On Transcripts of two Irish MSS. in the handwriting of Duald
Mac Firbis; by D. H. Kelly, Esq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
x1
Specrat Mrrrine, Marcu 4, 1867.
The Rigur Hon. Lorp Tatzor pr Matanips, President, in the Chair.
A letter was read from the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos,
President of the Council, requesting the loan of five objects from the
Museum of the Academy for the approaching International Exhibition
of Paris.
The following resolution of the Council of the Academy on this
subject was read and agreed to :——
That it be recommended to the Academy to comply with the re-
quest of the Lord President of the Council for the loan of Antiquities
for the Paris Universal Exhibition, with the exception of the Cross of
Cong, which is not in a condition to be moved with safety.
SrateD Mrrtine, Marcu 16, 1867.
Siz W. R. Wirpe, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Report of the Council was read and adopted :--.
REPORT.
Wiruin the past year the following papers have been printed in the
‘‘'Transactions’’ of the Academy:
In the Department of Science—
1. ‘‘On the Semidiurnal Tides of a number of Places in Ireland.”
By the Rev. Samuel Haughton, M. D.
2. “On a Collection of Fossil Vertebrata from the Jarrow Colliery,
County Kilkenny.” By Professor Huxley, and Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
In the Department of Polite Literature—
‘“On the Science of Language.’’ By the Rev. James Byrne (now
Dean of Clonfert).
In the Department of Antiquities—
1. ‘‘On the Circumstances attending the Outbreak of the Civil War
in Ireland, 1641-52.” By Mr. W. H. Hardinge.
2. ‘‘On an Unpublished Essay on Ireland, by Sir Wm. Petty.” By
Mr. W. H. Hardinge.
The following paper is printed, but has not yet been issued :-—
‘On a Previously Undescribed Class of Monuments.’’ By the Lord
Bishop of Limerick.
Of the ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ the 3rd and 4th Parts of Vol. IX. have been
issued since the date of the last Report; and some progress has been
made in printing Part I. of Vol. X.
We have had interesting and important communications brought
before us during the past year :—
Sete
In Science—By the Rev. John H. Jellett; Rev. S. Haughton, M.D. ;
F.R.S.; Dr. Thomas Hayden; Professor Hennessy, F.R.S. ; Mr. A. Mac-
alister; Mr. John Casey.
In Polite Literature—By the Rev. James Byrne; Mr. P. W. Joyce;
Mr. Wm. Hennessy; Mr. D. H. Kelly; Mr. 8. Ferguson, LL.D. ; Mr. J.R.
O’Flanagan.
In Antiquities—By Sir Wm. R. Wilde; Mr. Eugene Conwell; Mr.
G. H. Kinahan; Mr. Denis-Crofton; Mr. Du Noyer.
During the session the Library has been augmented by various pre-
sentations. We have to acknowledge a donation of rare value in the
important Library of Manuscripts, Books, and Tracts, chiefly relating to
Ireland, collected by our late esteemed member, Mr. Charles Haliday,
which his widow has with great liberality presented to the Academy.
The Council intend that the arrangements made for the accommodation
of the Haliday Library shall be such as will be suitable to its importance,
and will evince their appreciation of the enlightened liberality of the
donor in bestowing intact on the public of Ireland so inestimable a col-
lection.
We have to express our acknowledgments to the Marquis of Kil-
dare for an important MS. relating to the Irish Forfeitures of 1688, and
also for sixteen fine water-colour views of the principal Buildings of
Dublin, by the late George Petrie. These we value highly, not merely
for their great intrinsic merit, but also as an interesting memorial of
our late eminent colleague.
Mr. Du Noyer, in continuation of his former valuable donations, has
presented to us 100 drawings of Architectural Antiquities, from original
sketches by himself.
In the department of Irish MSS. and Catalogues, a large amount of
work has been done during the past year by Professor Connellan and
Mr. Joseph O’ Longan, under the personal superintendence of the Libra-
rian, in conjunction with a Committee appointed for the purpose.
We have the gratification of being able to announce that Professor
Connellan has with great labour prepared for the press an accurate
transcript of the Irish text, and has also nearly completed a literal Eng-
lish version, of that most important collection of ancient Gaelic compo-
sitions known as the ‘‘ Leabhar Gabhala,”’ or ‘‘ Book of Conquests.” A
translation of this difficult and obscure work has long been earnestly
desired by scholars, both at home and abroad; and the Council believe
that its publication would greatly tend to advance the Academy’s repu-
tation in this department.
An Alphabetical Index of the initial lines of all the Irish composi-
tions in the Academy’s MSS. catalogued by the late Professor O’Curry,
was also, during the past year, completed by Professor Connellan, Mr.
Paul O’Longan, and Mr. Joseph O’Longan, in 3 vols. folio. This work
has been found of the greatest utility, and will materially diminish the
labour of completing the Catalogues of ourIrish MSS. Mr. Joseph O’ Lon-
X1ll
gan, the Academy’s Irish Scribe, is now engaged in compiling an elabo-
rate and copious Index of Persons, Places, and Matters, in all the Irish
MSS. described in Mr. O’Curry’s Catalogues. It is in the highest de-
gree desirable that special funds should be placed by the Government
at the disposal of the Council, to enable them to give to the world the
contents of the chief Irish MSS. in the collection of the Academy, the
editing of which might now be executed in a satisfactory manner.
The collection of Antiquities has received considerable accessions
during the last year. We have obtained under the Treasure-trove regu-
lations 221 articles, and 407 coins and medals; by purchase, 438 articles
and 18 coins; and by presentation, 6 articles. A most valuable collection
of Scandinavian Antiquities, recently discovered at Islandbridge, in
the vicinity of the Metropolis, has, owing to the exertions of indivi-
dual members of the Council and the good feeling on the part of
the finders, been procured as a whole; and now, with kindred objects
discovered at Kilmainham and in the street-cuttings in Dublin, forms
one of the finest collections of so-called ‘‘ Danish” iron weapons in
Europe, containing also many valuable bronze specimens. .
A very large amount of work has been done in regard to the re-
gistration. All the Ecclesiastical Antiquities, the medals, and the hu-
man remains, collected since the formation of the Museum, have been
numbered and registered, as also all the articles of every description
received during the last two years. In addition, the articles entered in
the MS. Registry from Ist January, 1859, to 25th April, 1864, and
irrespective of coins, &c., amounting to 1048, have been identified and
numbered, so that every article at present in the possession of the
Academy is susceptible of identification.
The Museum is at present so full, and the cases so scanty, that some
hundred specimens are stored in old cases in a lumber room.
The application made for the removal of the Museum to the Tea
Room and Council Chamber is still under the consideration of the Go-
vernment.
The sale of the three published Parts of the Catalogue still con-
tinues, both in England and Ireland, and has produced the sum of
£5 19s. 8d., in addition to the former amount. But, although theillus-
trations for a Part descriptive of the silver articles have long since been
procured and the manuscript prepared, it has not been considered advi-
sable to produce a Fourth Part pending the rearrangement of the
Museum. -
The Academy, on the recommendation of the Council, has complied
with the request of the Government for the loan of certain articles in
our Museum for the Paris Universal Exhibition ; and we hope that ad-
vantage will be derived to Archzeological Science from the opportunity
thus afforded of comparing the early Antiquities of Ireland with those of
Continental Europe.
The Treasurer reports that all accounts furnished have been dis-
charged up to the present date, and that a small balance remains to the
credit of the Academy.
X1V
The amount of the Annual Public Grant to the Academy is more and
more felt in each succeeding year to be quite inadequate for carrying out
properly the objects of our institution. Not only do we find great ditticulty
in printing and illustrating the papers brought before us, but during the
past year, in consequence of our inability to provide payment for an
adequate staff, we have been obliged, with much regret, to close to
the public both our Library and our Museum. The necessity for an
increased Grant has been strongly urged upon the Government, both
by memorial and by a deputation to his Excellency the Lord Lieutenant.
We regret to say that our application has been hitherto unsuccessful.
We have thought it right to prepare a statement of the requirements of
the Academy, setting forth the further services which with sufficient
means we could render to the public, but which in the present state of
our finances it is impossible for us to perform. This statement has
been already laid on the table of the Academy.
We have lost by death within the year three Honorary Members,
V1Z. :—
1. Victor Cousin.
2. George Rennie.
3. C. J. Thomsen.
We have also lost nine Ordinary Members, viz. :—
. Richard Atkinson, Esq.; elected August 27, 1857.
. Edward J. Clarke, M.D.; elected January 9, 1837.
. Charles Davis, M.D.; elected March 16, 1830.
. Charles Haliday, Esq.; elected January 11, 1847.
. William Henry Harvey, M.D.; elected May 13, 1861.
. General Sir Harry D. Jones, G.C.B.; elected January 14, 1839.
. Rev. Richard Mac Donnell, D.D., Provost of Trinity College;
elected October 23, 1820. -
. James Magee, Esq.; elected February 13, 1843.
. Most Rev. Joseph Singer, D.D., Lord Bishop of Meath; elected
March 16, 1818.
Several of these names meet us in the records of the labours of the
Academy. The late Provost of Trinity College was for some time Se-
cretary of Council; the late Bishop of Meath was Secretary of the
Academy, and in that capacity contributed to our ‘‘ Proceedings” a
biographical notice of our distinguished President, Bartholomew Lloyd,
D.D, Mr. Charles Haliday was amember of the Council, and always
took the warmest interest in the labours of the Academy. He read, in
June, 1854, a paper ‘‘ On the Ancient Name of Dublin ;” and, in June,
1856, apaper “‘ On the Scandinavian Antiquities of Dublin,” the former
of which appears in our ‘‘ Transactions.’ Dr. Clarke brought before us
several communications on Electricity. William Henry Harvey was one
of the most eminent botanists of his time: several papers of his appear
in our ‘“ Transactions’ and ‘‘ Proceedings’’—some of them communica-
tions on scientific subjects, addressed to his friends at home, during a
SIO oP OS De
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a ee ie
.
!
4
XV
voyage to Australia and the Pacific. We observed in our last Report
how closely the fame of Hamilton and Petrie is linked with the history
of this Academy, the most important researches of both having been ~
first brought forward at its meetings, and first given to the world in its
‘‘Transactions.” A similar remark may be made respecting our late
distinguished fellow-countryman, the Rev. Dr. Hincks, who, though for
some years past not amember of our body, cannot be omitted in a Report
like the present. All his principal discoveries were announced through
the medium of the Academy, and were first published in its ‘‘ Transac-
tions’ and ‘‘ Proceedings.’”’ The Cunningham Medal of the Academy
was awarded to Dr. Hincks, for his researches in Egyptian and Assyrian
Philology.
The following Ordinary Members have been elected since the 16th
of March, 1866 :—
1. John A. Baker, Esq. 15. Rev. James Gaffney.
2. John Barrington, Esq. 16. Thomas Gallway, Esq.
3. Edward H. Bennett, Esq. 17. John Hill, Esq., C.F.
4, Sir Rowland Blennerhassett, 18. Thomas M. Hutton, Esq.
Bart., M.P. 19. Edward H. Kinahan, Hsq.
5. John A. Byrne, M.B. 20. Marcus Keane, Esq.
6. John Casey, Esq. 21. John O'Hagan, Ksq.
7. Archibald Collum, Esq., Jun. 22. Alexander J. More, Esq.
8. Lieut.-Colonel Edward Cooper, | 23. Rev. John O’Rourke. .
M.P. 24. Charles J. O’ Donel, Esq.
9. Francis R. Cruise, M.D. 25. J. Meredith Read, Brigadier-
10. Right Hon. F. P. Dunne, M.P., General.
Major-General. . 26. George F. Roughan, Esq.
11. David R. Edgeworth, Esq. 27. W. B. Smyth, Esq.
12. George Ellis, M.B. 28. Alexander Thom, Esq.
13. J. K. Forrest, Esq. 29. John Wilson, Esq., M.A.
14, William Frazer, Esq. 30. W. H. S. Westropp, Esq.
The following President, Council, and Officers were elected for the
year 1867-8.
PRESIDENT.
Right Hon. Lord Talbot de Malahide.
Councit.
Committee of Science.
Robert Mac Donnell, M.D., F.R.S.
W. K. Sullivan, Ph. D.
Joseph Beete Jukes, F.R.S.
Rev. George Salmon, D.D.
Rev. J. H. Jellett, M.A. |
Henry Hennessy, F.R.S.
Bindon B. Stoney, C.E.
Commuttee of Polite Literature.
Rev. Joseph Carson, D.D.
John F. Waller, LL.D.
John K. Ingram, LL.D.
R. R. Madden, M.D.
Rev. George Longfield, D.D.
Samuel Ferguson, LL.D.
D. ¥. Mac Carthy, Esq.
Committee of Antiquities.
J. T. Gilbert, F.S.A., R.HLA.
W. H. Hardinge, Esq.
Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D.
Colonel Meadows Taylor.
Denis H. Kelly, Esq.
Rev. J. H. Todd, D.D.
W. J. O’Donnavan, LL.D.
TrREASURER.—Rev. Joseph Carson, D.D.
SECRETARY OF THE AcapEMy.—W. K. Sullivan, Ph.D.
SECRETARY OF THE Councort.—John Kells Ingram, LL.D.
Liprartan.—John T. Gilbert, F.S.A., R.H.A.
SECRETARY OF ForEIGN CoRRESPONDENCE.—Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D.
Cierk, Assistant LIBRARIAN, AND CurAtToR oF THE Musrum.—Mr.
Edward Clibborn.
A vote of thanks was passed to the Rev. William Reeves, D. D.,
late Secretary of the Academy.
The following were elected Honorary Members of the Academy :—
In the Department of Science.
Adolphe Wurtz, Paris.
Charles Lyell, Bart.
In the Department of Polite Literature.
Theodor Mommsen, Berlin.
A. Tischendorf, Leipsic.
In the Department of Antiquities.
J.J. Worsaae, Copenhagen.
M. Didron, Paris.
Cavaliere G. B. de Rossi, Rome.
Commendatore P. E. Visconti, Rome.
XV1l
APRIL 8, 1867.
The Ricut Hon. Lorp Tatzor pr Matauipe, President, in the Chair.
The following were elected Members :—
Thomas A. Farrell, Esq., M.A.; James Sullivan Green, Esq. ;
Anthony Hannagan, Esq.; R.H. Jephson, Esq.; Michael Merriman,
Esq. ; and Alexander George Richey, Esq., LL. B.
Samuel Downing, LL. D., was elected a Member of Council in the
Department of Science, in the place of B. B. Stoney, C.E., resigned.
The President nominated the following Vice-Presidents for the en-
suing year :—
Rey. George Salmon, D.D.; Rev. J. H. Todd, D.D.; Sir William
R. Wilde, M.D.; Rev. J. H. Jellett, M.A.
The Rev. Joseph Carson resigned the office of Treasurer.
The following papers were read :—
On the Mesoplodon, or Xiphius Sowerbiensis, recently discovered
on the Coast of Ireland; by William Andrews, M.R.L.A.
On the Round Tower of Ardmore; by H. M. Westropp, M.R.I.A.
On the Formation of Ground Ice in the River Dodder; by Henry
Hennessy, M. R.I. A.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
APRIL 22, 1867.
The Rieut Hon. Lorp Tatsor pE Maraurpsg, President, in the Chair.
The following resolution was agreed to :—
That the Council be requested to submit to the next meeting of the
Academy a statement showing the Assets, Debts, and Liabilities of the
Academy on the 31st March, 1867, with a Report upon the measures
they would recommend for the discharge of such liabilities as may have
been embraced within the last financial year.
The following papers were read :—
On Antiquities found in Cairns in the Dekhan; by Colonel Meadows
Taylor.
On the Dunvegan Cup, and other Antiquities of the same Period
by J. H. Smith Esq.
On the Histology of the Test of the Palliobranchiata; by Professor
W. King.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
May 18, 1867.
The Ricur Hon. Lorp Tatzor pz Maxanipsz, President, in the Chair.
Rev. Maxwell H. Close, and Standish H. O’Grady, Esq., were
elected Members.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. X. ¢
XVlll
The following resolution was agreed to :—
That the President and Council be requested to take the necessary
steps for the election of a Treasurer at the next meeting of the Academy.
A paper ‘‘On Animal Heat’’ was read by W. H. O’Leary, Esq.
Sir W. R. Wilde made observations respecting Antiquities recently
acquired by the Academy.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
May 27, 1867.
J. T. Giipert, F.8.A., in the Chair.
W. H. Hardinge, Esq., was elected Treasurer of the Academy.
A paper, on the Origin of the South European Plants found growing
of the West and South-West of Ireland, was read by Henry Hennessy,
ER .S:, MRA:
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
JuNE 10, 1867.
J. T. Gizpert, F.S.A., in the Chair.
The O’Conor Don, M. P., was elected a Member.
The Chairman announced that, in compliance with the application
from the President and Council, the Treasury had authorized an ex-
penditure for the extension and refitting of the Museum.
A communication was read from M. Henri Gaidoz, on Irish Glosses
in the Library at Nancy.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
JUNE 24, 1867.
J. T. Gizpert, F.S.A., in the Chair.
Henry M. E. Crofton, Esq., was elected a Member of the Academy.
The following papers were read :—
‘“On Recent Discoveries in the Trastevere at Rome;’’ by Shake-
speare Wood, Esq.
‘‘On some Relationships of Inflorescenses ;”’ by G. Sigerson, M.D.
‘¢On a Souterrain at Curraghely, near Kilcrea, Co. Cork ;” by R. B.
Brash, M.R.LA.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
The Academy then adjourned to the 12th of November, 1867.
DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL IRISH
ACADEMY,
FROM NOVEMBER 30, 1866, TO JUNE 30, 1867.
Atronso X. Libros del Saber de Astronomia del Rey, Tom. ITV. From
the Spanish Government.
American Navticat Atmanac for 1867. From U. 8S. Bureau of
Navigation.
AsHBuRNER, J. Philosophy of Animal Magnetism, &c., 1867. From
the Author.
Astratic Society of Bengal, Journal of, for 1866-67. From the Society.
Barnes, J. K. Medical and Surgical History of U. 8. Army, Circular
No. 6, 1865. From the U. 8. Government.
Barnes, Rev. Wu. Glossary, &c. of Dialect of Forth and Bargy. From
the Author.
BereenrotH. Calendar of Papersrelating to the Negociations between
Spain and England, 8vo., London, 1866. From Lord Romilly.
Bertin, Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu, 1865.
. From the Academy.
Biscnorr, Tu. L. Ueber die Verschiedenheit in der Schadelbildung
des Gorilla, Chimpanse, und Orang-Outang vorziiglich nach Ge-
schlecht und Alter, nebst einer Bemerkung tiber die Darwinsche
Theorie, Miinchen, 1867. From the Royal Academy of Munich.
BomBay GrograpHicaL Socrety, Transactions of, Index to first 17
vols., by D. J. Kennelly. From the Author.
Borpraux, Mémoires de la Société des Sciences de, &c., Tom. I.-IV.
From the Society.
Bretstax, 8. Topographia fisica della Campania. Firenze, 1798.
From President R. I. A.
Brewer, J. 8S. Calendar of Carew MSS., 1515-1574. 1867. From
Lord Romilly.
Brucs, J. C. Roman Wall. 4to., London, 1853. From President
Ry. al, AC.
Canapa. Geological Survey of, to 1863. From Canadian Govern-
ment.
Casrett1, V. Fasti di Sicilia, Vols. I. and II. From President
R.A.
Curonicon Scotorum. By W.M. Hennessy. From Lord Romilly.
Crarxe, A. R. Comparisons of the Standards of Length of England, &c.
Ato. London, 1866. From the Right Hon. the Secretary of State
for War.
XX
Ciausius, R. Die Potentialfunction und das Potential; Abhandlun-
gen tuber die Mechanische Warmetheorie, 2%. Abth. From the
Author.
Cocxayns, Rev. Oswatp. Saxon Leechdoms, Vol. III., 8vo. London,
1866. From Lord Romilly.
Donvers, F.C. Constituents of Food, translated by W. D. Moore, M.D.,
M.R.LA. From the Translator.
Dusty, By-Lawes of the Cittie of. From Aq. Smith, M.D., M.R.I.A.
Dustin CatHoric Directory, 1865. From Rey. John O’Hanlon,
M.R.I.A.
DusBLin QUARTERLY JOURNAL oF SctencE, Nos. 21-24. From Rev. S8.
Haughton, M.D.
Forses, Jas., D.C.L. Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Con-
duction of Heat in Bars, &c., Parts 1 and 2. From the Author.
THE Wark oF THE GAEDHIL wiTtH THE GaitL. By the Rev. Dr. Todd,
S.F.T.C.D., M.R.LA., &c. London, 1867. From Lord Romilly.
Gray, Asa. Botany of the U. 8. Exploring Expedition, 1838 to 1842,
with Atlas. From Executors of W. H. Harvey, M.R.1.A.
Haripay CoLiection.—See page v. From Mrs. Haliday.
Hamitton, H.C. Calendar of the State Papers relating to Ireland, 1574
-1585. From Lord Romilly. :
Harereave, late Judge. An Essay on the Resolution of Algebraic
Equations. From Mrs. Hargreave.
Inp1a, Geological Survey of, Catalogue of Cephalopoda in Museum at
Calcutta. Annual Report, 1865-66. Catalogue of Meteorites in
Museum at. Memoirs, Vol. V., Parts 2 and 3. Paleontologica
Indica, Parts 10-138, of Series No. III. From Government of
India.
James, Con. Stk H. Facsimiles of National MSS., from William I. to
Anne. From H. M. Treasury.
Juxes, J. B. Additional Notes on the Grouping of the Rocks of South
Devon and West Somerset. irom the Author.
Jura, Société d’ Emulation du, Decouverte d’une fonderie Celtique (age
de bronze) dans Larnaud en 1865, Rapport, &c. 8vo. Lons-le-
Saunier, 1867. From the Society.
Jus PRIMATIALE, seu prerogative antique Sedes Armachane, &c., Latin
MS. about 1730, 12mo. From H.M. Crofton, M.R.LA.
Karstent, Sim, Simplicii Commentarius in iv. Libros Aristotelis de
Caelo. 4to. Traject. ad Rhenum, 1865. From Royal Society of Am-
sterdam.
Kennepy, Parrick. Legendary Fictions of Irish Celts, 1866. From
the Author.
LANCASHIRE AND CueEsHIRE, Transactions of Historical Society of,
N.S., Vol. V., 1864-65. From the Society.
Lonpon Boranicat Conersss, in May, 1866, Report of. From Hon.
Secretaries.
Lonpon, Society or AntTIquariEs. Archeologia, Vol. XL. (1866).
Proceedings, Vol. III., Nos. 1 and 2, Second Series. From the
Society.
XX1
Lonpon, Institution oF Crvit Eneineers, Proceedings of, Vols. XXIV.
and XXV. From the Institution.
Lonpon Gxoxogicat Society, Quarterly Journal of, No. 88. List of
Members, Noy. 1, 1866. From the Society.
Lowry, T. K. Hamilton MSS. 4to. Belfast, 1867. From D. R. Pigot,
M.R.I.A.
Mactear, Srr Tuos. La Caille’s Arc of Meridian, 2 vols., 4to. Lon-
don, 1866. From Lords of Admiralty.
Moors, D., and More, A. G., Cybele Hibernica, 8vo. Dublin, 1866.
From the Authors.
MS. Inise. A quarto, vellum, on Medicine. From H. M. Crofton.
ie i A small quarto, vellum, containing religious pieces. From
the same.
Muncuen, Sitzungsberichte der Akademie zu, II. Hefte II., IIL, IV.,
8vo, 1866. From Royal Academy of Sciences of Munich.
Narronat Academy of Sciences of the United States, Reports for 1863.
From the Academy.
New Yorx Homa@oraruic Mepicat Society, Transactions of, for 1865.
From the Society.
Noovi Lincer, Atti dell’ Accademia Pontificia de, Roma, Anno XIX.,
Nos. L.-VII. for 1865-66. From the Academy.
Pamputets, Thirty-seven Miscellaneous. From the President R.I.A.
Puysix. Die Fortschritte der, in Jahre 1864, Dargestellt vom der
Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin, 1. Abth. Berlin, 1866.
From Physical Society, Berlin.
Pitta, N. Geologia Volcanica della Campania. 4to (2 parts), Napoli,
1823. From President R.I.A.
Reap, J. M. Historical Inquiry concerning H. Hudson. From the
Author.
Riptzy, Rev. W. Australian Languages. From the Right Hon. Sir
John Young, Bart.
Rrecue, C.F. Ursprung und Namen der Stadte Berlin und Kolln an
der Spree. Der Volksmund in Deutschland. From the Author.
Stoxes, W. Goidilica. From the Author.
Surtees Society, Publications of, 17 vols. From the President R.I.A.
St. Prterspoure, Compte rendu de la Commission Impériale Archéolo-
gique, pour Vannée 1864; Recueil d’Antiquites de la Scythie.
Folio. St. Petersbourg, 1866. From Imperial Archeological Com-
mission of Russia.
St. Barsz, Cuartes. Records of New Lymington, From the Author.
STaRKEY, D. P., LU.D., M.R.LA. The Dole of Malaga. From the
Author.
Srrasspoure. Mémoires de la Société des Sciences Naturelles, Tom. 6™¢.
From the Society.
Stuart, J. The Sculptured Stones of Scotland, Vol. II. From Spald-
ing Club.
Sypvey. ‘Transactions of the Philosophical Society of New South
Wales, Vol. I., 1862-65. From Sir John Young, Bart.
Ge t.A, PROC.——-VOl, X d
XX1l
Sypyexy. Astronomical Observations for 1859, made at the Observatory
of. From Sir John Young, Bart.
WasHineron Opservatory, Astronomical and Meteorological Obser-
vations made at, for 1864. From Rear-Admiral Davis.
Witpe, Sir W. R. W.—Closing Years of Swift’s Life, 2nd Ed. Dub--
lin, 1849. |
Wricut, Tuomas.— Chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft. Vol. I., 8vo.
London, 1866. From Lord Romilly.
APPENDIX.
MINUTES OF THE ACADEMY
FOR THE SESSION 1867-68.
NovemBer 11, 1867.
Str Wittiam R. Witpe, Vice-President, in the Chair.
Tue following papers were read :—
“On an Ancient Irish MS. preserved in the Public Library at
Rennes ;”’ by the Rev. J. H. Todd, D.D.
“On a Collection of Original Drawings of Antiquities, lately pre-
sented to the Academy ;”’ by G. V. Du Noyer, Esq. -
“On the Investigation of the Pre-Celtic Period ;”” by Hyde Clarke,
Ksq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
StateD Mretine, NovemBer 30, 1867.
The Rev. James H. Topp, D.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following papers were read :—
“On the Book of Fermoy ;” by the Rev. J. H. Todd.
** On an Ogham Chamber at Drumlohan ;” by R. R. Brash, Esq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
DrcEMBER 9, 1867.
Rosert M‘Donnet1, M.D., in the Chair.
The following paper was read :—
‘¢On Muscular Anomalies in the Human Anatomy, and their bear-
ing upon Homotypical Myology ;” by Alexander Macalister, Ksgq.,
mo. Ce 8., &e.
Donations were received, and than s voted to the donors.
R.I. A. PROC.—VOL. X, é
XX1V
JANUARY 13, 1868.
The Ricur Hon. Lorp Tatzot pe Maraning, President, in the Chair.
The following were elected members of the Academy :—
Henry Oliver Barker, LL.D.; Right Hon. Colonel Fitz-Stephen
French, M.P.; George H. Kinahan, Esq.; Robert Edwin Lyne, Esq. ;
John Chaloner Smith, Esq.; Richard D. Urlin, Esq.; and J. Obins
Woodhouse, Esq.
The following papers were read :—
‘“On certain Frankish Antiquities ;” exhibited by the President.
“On the Occurrence of the Number Two in Irish Proper Names ;’’
by P. W. Joyce, Esq.
‘‘On the Rotation of the Moon;”’ by William Ogilby, Esq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
JANUARY 27, 1868.
Joun Krrus Ineram, LL.D., in the Chair.
The following Resolution was adopted :—
To lend to the Leeds Exhibition a selection of articles illustrative
of Irish Art from our Museum; such resolution and the conditions of
the loan to be arranged by the Committee of Antiquities.
The following Report of the Committee of Economy to the Council,
dated November 9, 1867, and read to the Council November 18, 1867,
was brought up, and read:—
“The Committee of Economy, in reference to the Council resolution
of the 4th inst., beg to report, for the information of the Royal Irish
Academy, as required by their resolution of the 22nd April last, that
upon careful investigation it appears to the Committee that the debts
and liabilities of the Academy on March 31, 1867, amounted to the sum
of £304 16s. 9d., and that, giving credit for a sum of £48 3s. 8d. then
in hands, there was due to the Academy’s tradesmen and others a sum
of £261 13s. 1d.
‘“‘ It appears by the Msenaece of Council of 20th May last, that this
Committee recommended that said debt should be paid out of the Aca-
demy’s funded stock, which recommendation the Council then referred
back to the Committee for reconsideration.
‘‘ Your Committee consequently prepared a modified estimate of the
expenditure of the Academy for the current year to 31st March, 1868,
limiting the amount usually esimated under every head, excepting per-
manent appropriations and salaries, and reducing that for printing
‘Proceedings’ and ‘ Transactions’ from an annual average expenditure
of £266 to a sum of £120.
AXV
“This estimate, if it be possible to carry it out in its integrity, will
at the close of the financial year produce tewards the liquidation of the
debt of £231 16s. 1d. a sum of £174 14s. 7d., leaving unpaid of the
debt a sum of £57 1s. 6d.
“ The Committee are of opinion, that as the Council have adopted this
modified estimate, it is better to defer to the end of the year any recom-
mendation in favour of or against a sale of Academy stock to clear off
liabilities.”’
A paper by William Frazer, M.D., ‘‘ On certain Chinese Seals found
in Ireland” was read.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
Frpruary 10, 1868.
Siz Witiiam R. Wixpe, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The Very Rev. Charles W. Russell, D.D., President of St. Patrick’s
College, Maynooth, was elected a member of the Academy.
George V. Du Noyer, Esq., read a ‘‘ Descriptive Catalogue of 101
Drawings of Coats of Arms, from original sketches, from Tombstones,”
&c., which he presented to the Academy.
A special vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Du Noyer for his valuable
donation.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
The following Letter from Sir THomas A. Larcom was read :—
( Copy.) ‘“‘ Dustin Castis, February 4, 1868.
‘‘ Srr,—In reference to your letter of the 5th December, enclosing
an estimate for the year 1868-9, I am directed by the Lord Lieutenant
to acquaint you, for the information of the Council of the Royal Irish
Academy, that the Lords Commissioners of her Majesty’s Treasury have
intimated to his Excellency that they are willing to sanction the follow-
ing items, now for the first time introduced; but only for the next finan-
cial year, as the whole question of financial Grants for the purposes of
Science and Art in Ireland is under the consideration of the Govern-
ment :—
““ No. 6. For Preparation of Scientific Reports, . £200
» 7. For Salary to a Library Clerk, with cost of Books and
Binding, eer 200
, 8. For Salary toa Museum Clerk, aad for other objects con-
nected with the study of Antiquities, aE. 200
,, 9. For Illustrating and Printing the ‘ Transactic zs’ “pad
PRESOCCEO MISE EP Eee rec eE dS oxh ‘fo dk seiner ola fees ud 200
‘‘T am, Sir, your obedient servant,
(Signed) ‘‘Taomas A. Larcom.
** To W. H. Harvinen, Hsq., Treasurer,
Royal Irish Academy.”
XXV1
Frsruary 24, 1868.
Deyis H. Ketty, Esq., D. L., in the Chair.
The following papers were read:—
‘On the Rotatory Motion of the Heavenly Bodies ;” by Rev. W. G.
Penny, M.A.
“On Irish Sponges,” No. I. By Edward Perceval Wright, M. A.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
StatED Meretine, Marca 16, 1867.
Sir Wittram R. Wipe, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Report of the Council was read, and adopted :—
Report.
THE past year has been an important and eventful one in the history
of the Academy. The Council, in the reports of recent years, took
occasion more than once to complain of the insufficiency of the public
grant to the Academy; and the same subject was brought by them
under the notice of successive governments. <A Select Committee of
the House of Commons, in 1864, had strongly stated the claims of the
Academy to more liberal aid, and had recommended an additional
grant of £1000. In consequence of that recommendation, a sum of
£200 annually was in 1865 placed at our disposal, to be expended in
the cataloguing and printing of Irish MSS. But several of our de-
partments remained in a very unsatisfactory state, for want of the
funds required for their efficient working. Her Majesty’s Government
have lately made the agreeable announcement that the sum of £800,
necessary to make up the entire additional annual grant of £1000
recommended by the Select Committee, would be included in the
estimates to be laid before Parliament in the present year. For this
increase of our resources we are, we believe, largely indebted to the
good offices of his Excellency the Marquis of Abercorn, who, when
the President and a deputation from the Academy waited on him,
kindly promised to use his infiuence with the Government on our
behalf. It will be desirable to make some changes in the organization
of our departments, for the purpose of deriving the utmost possible
advantage from the increased grant, and in particular, to make better
provision for the safety of our Library and Museum, and render them
more accessible and useful to the public. The consideration of these
improved arrangements will devolve on the new Council, and we are
sure they will lose no time in applying themselves to the task.
We have also much pleasure in stating, that the Government have
decided on purchasing the valuable collection of Irish antiquities in
the possession of the representatives of our late highly esteemed Vice-
XXVIl1
President, Dr. Petrie, with a view to its being deposited in the Museum
of the Academy. ‘They have also, in compliance with a request from
the Council, made through his Excellency the Lord Lieutenant, au-
thorized the purchase of the well-known specimen of ancient Irish
art, called the ‘‘ Tara Brooch,” which is also to be deposited in our
Museum.
Within the past year the following papers have been printed in
the ‘‘ Transactions” of the Academy :—
In the Department of Science—
‘On the Temperature of the Lower Regions of the Earth’s At-
mosphere.” By Professor Hennessy, F. R.S.
In the Department of Polite Literature—
‘‘ On the Rudiments of the Common Law discoverable in the
published part of the Senchus Mor.”” By Samuel Ferguson, LL. D.
The paper by the Lord Bishop of Limerick, ‘‘ On a Previously Un-
described Class of Monuments,” which was printed at the date of the
last Report, has, since then, been issued.
Of the ‘‘ Proceedings,’ the Ist and 2nd Parts of Vol. X. have
appeared in the course of the past year. The latter Part will contain
abstracts of all papers read before the Academy up to the 10th of
February last.
The Council have decided to commence the publication, in a size
and type uniform with those of the ‘ Proceedings,” of a series to be
composed of papers presented to the Academy on Irish Manuscript
texts and lexicography. It is believed that the volumes of this series
will find a considerable number of purchasers amongst that part of the
general public who are interested in ancient Irish literature. Two
papers of this new series are already in type, viz. :—
1. ‘‘Some account of the Irish MS. deposited by the President
De Robieu, in the Public Library at Rennes.’ By Rev. J. H. Todd,
D. D.
2. ‘A Descriptive Catalogue of the Contents of the Irish MS.,
commonly called the Book of Fermoy.’ By Rey. J. H. Todd, D.D.
Papers were brought before the Academy during the past year: —
In Science—By Mr. W. Andrews; Professor Hennessy, F.R.S.;
Professor W. King; Mr. W. H. O’Leary; Mr. W. Ogilby; G. Siger-
son, M.D.; Mr. A. Macalister; Rev. W. G. Penny, M.A.; and E.
Perceval Wright, M. D.
In Polite Literature—By Rev. J. H. Todd, D.D.; Mr. P. W.
Joyce; and M. Henri Gaidoz.
In Antiquities—By Mr. H. M. Westropp; Mr. J. Huband Smith ;
Hyde Clark, D. 0. L. ; Colonel Meadows Taylor; Mr. Richard R. Brash ;
Mr. S. Wood; Mr. G. V. Du Noyer; and W. Frazer, M.D.
XXVIll
The small amount of funds available for the Library Department
precluded any extensive progress in it during the year. We received,
however, some valuable presentations. We have to acknowledge, in par-
ticular, two donations of a highly interesting character, by Mr. G. V.
Du Noyer, in addition to those for which the Academy is already so
much indebted to that gentleman. One of these consisted of 100
original water-colour drawings of Irish Architectural Antiquities, in
continuation of those previously presented; and the other of 101
drawings of coats of arms, from original sketches from tombstones.
We received from the President of the Academy, besides other
gifts, seventeen volumes of the Publications of the Surtees Society.
We are also indebted to the Master of the Rolls, England, for a num-
ber of volumes, in continuation of those already presented by him, of
the Series of Calendars and other Historical Works published under his
superintendence.
A large amount of work has been executed by Professor Connellan
and Mr. Joseph O’Longan, in connexion with the department of Irish
MSS. and Catalogues.
Professor Connellan has been occupied in preparing for the press
a portion of the Irish text of the important work, known as the
‘Book of Conquests,” the publication of which, accompanied by the
translation, will, it is believed, be hailed with satisfaction by students
of Celtic literature both in this and other countries.
Mr. O’Longan has continued to be engaged in preparing elaborate
Indexes of Names, Words, and Matters, to Mr. O’Curry’s Catalogues of
the Academy’s Irish MSS.
Many additional articles of antiquarian interest have been obtained
for the Museum. Under the Treasure-trove regulations we have ac-
quired a great number of valuable gold articles from the north, south,
and west of Ireland, one of them being amongst the heaviest pieces of
antique manufactured gold known to have ever been discovered in this
country. Very few antiquities were offered for sale to the Academy ;
but we have obtained by presentation a considerable number of objects
illustrative of ancient Irish art. The Registration has been continued,
and will be completed when the Museum arrangements are in a more
advanced state.
In reply to an application of the President made in April last, the
Secretary of the Treasury wrote to his lordship on the 1st of June,
stating that the Lords of the Treasury had ‘‘issued their authority
to the Board of Works, Ireland, for the fitting up of a Museum on the
drawing-room floor of the Academy, as applied for, at an expenditure
not exceeding £250.”
A special meeting of the Council was called during the summer
recess, and thereat the plans for the said Museum prepared by the Archi-
tect of the Board of Works were examined, approved, and signed by the
President. The works were forthwith commenced under the supervision
of the Committee of Antiquities.
XX1X
In order to provide space in the old Museum for the Haliday Col-
lection of Books and Pamphlets, and at the same time to utilize
the glass cases, it was considered advisable to remove to, and store
in, the old Council Room (which is to form a portion of the new
Museum) the bronze and iron antiquities in the lower cases. Twenty-
nine glass doors and cases were thus made available for the new
Museum.
The following are the works which have been undertaken or com-
pleted by the Contractor of the Board :—A passage has been opened
from the new Museum into the gallery of the present Museum, the in-
tention being to retain this gallery in use; and a short staircase has
been attached. The marble chimney-pieces which were on the drawing-
room floor have been removed, and the proceeds of their sale will no doubt
be made available by the Board of Works towards meeting the expense
of the new Museum. Twenty of the glass cases of the old Museum have
been set up on the north and east walls of the drawing-room, and newly
polished. On the same space new pedestal glass cases have been
erected. The two fire-places, and one of the lobby doors, have been
bricked up. The woodwork of the windows has been painted, and
part of the upper portion of the walls coloured in distemper. The
heating apparatus of the old Museum has been continued in a very
elaborate manner into the new Museum; but its necessity, safety,
or efficiency has not yet been proved.
In reply to an inquiry addressed to the Board of Works, we have
been informed that the entire sum of £250 granted for the prepa-
ration of the new Museum has been already expended. But the fittings
of the room are far from being in such astate, with respect either to for-
wardness or security, as would justify the Council in transferring to it
any portion of our collection.
The sales of the Museum Catalogue from March, 1867, to the 29th
February last, produced a sum of £4 14s. 4d., which, added to the
amounts acknowledged in previous years, makes a total of £39 5s. 7d.
applicable to the continuation of the work.
The premiums payable upon the fire policies effected on the property
of the Academy, at the National and Patriotic Offices, having been
demanded, and it coming to the.Treasurer’s knowledge that those Com-
panies, in case of accident by fire, would not, unless coerced by law,
pay any portion of the sums insured, he called upon each Company to
state their objections, and the terms upon which they would continue
to insure the premises in their present condition. Substantially the
reply was, that, in consequence of the nature of the heating apparatus
now in use, they would decline toinsure. The Council have effected a
temporary insurance with another Company at a somewhat increased
rate of premium, and they have thought it proper, at the same time,
to call the attention of the Board of Works and the Lords of the Treasury
to the alleged insecure state of the premises of the Academy, with
a view to the removal of the objections brought against the existing
condition of the heating apparatus.
XXX
When the Treasurer entered on his office in the month of June last,
the debts and other liabilities of the Academy amounted to £250. By
systematic efforts for the reduction of expenditure, he has been enabled
to bring the financial affairs of the Academy into such a state that, at
the close of the year, it will be almost, if not altogether, free from debt ;
and he has succeeded in doing so without having recourse to the sale of
any part of the funded property of the Academy. To effect this object,
it was necessary to diminish the expenses of publication, especially by
withdrawing, for the present, some papers intended to be printed in the
‘«Transactions’—a necessity which is now happily removed by the in-
crease of our grant. The Treasurer has also reorganized the entire system
of accounts, and this without imposing on the Academy any additional
expense.
_ We have lost by death within the year five Honorary Members,
V1Z. i—
. August Boeckh.
. Franz Bopp.
. Sir David Brewster, K.H., LL. D., F.R.S., &c.
. Sir James South, Knt., F.R.S., &c.
. Lord Wrottesley.
We have also lost nine Ordinary Members, Viz. -—
. John Anster, Esq., LL. D.; elected February 12, 1838.
. W. E. Bolton, Esq.; elected November 30, 1836.
. Francis Codd, Esq.; elected May 12, 1851.
. Right Hon. Francis Blackburne, LL. D., Lord High Chancel-
lor of Ireland; elected January 8, 1855.
Charles Hanlon, Esq.; elected June 10, 1844.
. Samuel Hannah, M.D.; elected April 13, 1840.
. George Meyler, Esq.; elected June 11, 1860.
. Thomas Richardson, M. D.; elected January 12, 1863.
. Right Hon. The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S., LL.D; elected October
22,1822.
Or BOO Oe
He OS bo re
Two of these names are highly distinguished in the fields of litera-
ture and science respectively.
Dr. Anster will long be remembered as the author of what is now,
by the general verdict of competent judges, acknowledged to be the
best English translation of the ‘‘ Faust’’ of Goethe. He was born in
1798, and educated in Trinity College, where he obtained a Scholarship.
In 1817 he published a prize poem on the ‘‘ Death of the Princess
Charlotte;’’ and in 1819, ‘‘ Poems, with Translations from the German.”’
After having contributed to ‘‘ Blackwood’s Magazine’’ some specimens
of his translation of ‘‘ Faust,” he published the entire First Part
in 1835. In 1837 appeared a volume of minor poetical pieces, to
which he gave the title of ‘‘ Xeniola.”’ The translation of the Second
XXXI
Part of ‘‘ Faust”? was published in 1864. Dr. Anster was called to the
bar in 1824. He was elected Regius Professor of Civil Law in the
University of Dublin in 1850; and published in the same year an
Inaugural Lecture on the Study of the Civil Law, which he had
delivered from the Chair of that Professorship.
Dr. Anster’s amiable character and genial manners won for him
not merely the esteem, but the affection of those who knew him. He
was for many years a Member of our Council, and was on several
occasions nominated a Vice-President. There appears in Vol. II. of
our ‘“‘ Proceedings’ a communication made by him to the Academy on
a Letter of the Rev. Charles Wolfe, and in Vol. IV. some remarks on a
book which belonged to the Duke of Monmouth.
Lord Rosse’s name will always be known in the History of Astro-
nomy, as it now is throughout the civilized world, for his construction
of the great telescope, with a six-foot speculum, by means of which
s0 many new facts have been brought to light in relation to the
constitution and arrangement of the Nebule. One of the best de-
scriptions extant of this instrument, with an account of some of the
principal researches in which it was first used, was read before the
Academy by the Rev. Dr. Robinson in 1842 and 1845, and is printed in
Vol. II]. of our “ Proceedings.’ Lord Rosse was born in 1800, and
entered the University of Dublin in 1818. He did not, however,
proceed to a degree in that University, but graduated as M.A. at
Oxford in 1822, obtaining a First Class in Mathematics. He succeeded
to the title in 1841, and was elected one of the Representative Peers of
Treland in 1845. He was President of the Royal Society in 1849, and in
1862 was elected Chancellor of the University of Dublin, an office
which he held fill his death.
The following Ordinary Members have been elected since the 16th of
March, 1867 :—
1. H. O. Barker, Esq. 10. R. E. Lyne, Esq.
2. Rev. M. H. Close. 11. M. Merriman; Esq.
3. H. M. E: Crofton, Esq. 12. The O’Conor Don, M.P.
4, Thomas A. Farrell, Esq. 13. 8. H. O’Grady, Esq.
5. Right Hon. Col. Fitzstephen 14. Alexandr G. Richey, Esq.
French, M. P. 15. Very Rev. Chas. W. Russell,
6. J. S. Greene, Esq. ED):
7. A. Hannagan, Esq. 16. J. C. Smith, Esq.
8. R. H. Jephson, Esq. liek. D> Urimn; Esq:
9. G. H. Kinahan, Esq. 18. J. Obins Woodhouse, Esq.
The following President, Council, and Officers, were elected for the
year 1868-9 :—
R.1. A. PROC.—YOL. X. ef
XXXil
PRESIDENT.
Right Hon. Lord Talbot de Malahide.
CouncIL. Ee
Committee of Science.
Robert MacDonnell, M.D., F.R.S., &e.
William K. Sullivan, Ph. D., &c.
Rev. George Salmon, D.D., F.R.S., &e.
Henry Hennessy, Esq., F.R.S. ®
Samuel Downing, LL.D.
Sir Robert Kane, M.D., F.R.S., &c.
William Stokes, M.D., &c.
Committee of Polite Literature.
John Kells Ingram, LL.D., &c.
Robert R. Madden, M.D., &c.
Rev. George Longfield, D.D., &ec.
Samuel Ferguson, LL.D, &e.
Sir Bernard Burke (Ulster), LL.D., &e.
Very Rev. Charles W. Russell, D.D., &e.
The Archbishop of Dublin, D.D., &c.
Committee of Antiquities.
John T. Gilbert, Esq., F.S.A., &c.
W. H. Hardinge, Esq., &c.
Sir William R. Wilde, M.D.
Dennis H. Kelly, D.L.
Rev. James H. Todd, D.D., &c.
William J. O’ Donovan, LL.D.
The Earl of Dunraven, F.R.S., &ce.
TREASURER.— William H. Hardinge, Esq.
SECRETARY oF THE AcApEMy.—W. K. Sullivan, Pa.D.
SECRETARY OF THE Councrt.—John Kells Ingram, LL.D.
Lrprartan.—John T. Gilbert, F.S.A., R.H.A.
SECRETARY OF ForEIGN CoRRESPONDENCE.—NSir W. R. Wilde, M.D.
CLERK, ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN, AND CURATOR oF THE Museum.—Mr.
Edward Clibborn.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors. |
Aprit 138, 1868.
As there was no business, Chair not taken.
XXX11
Apri 27, 1868.
Sire Wittram R. Wipe, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair,
James Little, M. D., was elected a Member of the Academy.
A paper ‘‘On a Cave in County of Fermanagh, containing Pagan
and Christian Devices,” by W. F. Wakeman, Esq., was read.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
May 11, 1868.
Str Wiittiam R. Witpe, M.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Recommendations of the Council of May 4, 1868,
were unanimously adopted :—
I. ‘‘ To recommend the Academy to adopt the recommendations made
in the Report of the Committee of Science on the subject of the
allocation of the proposed Parliamentary Grant for the prepara-
tion of Scientific Reports and Researches ; and that it be required
that such investigations be reported on within the next twelve
months, and the Reports become the property of the Academy.”
II. ‘‘To recommend to the Academy to grant the sum of Fifty Pounds
for the purchase of Antiquities and Museum arrangements.”
The following papers were read :—
‘*On Rock Carvings,’ by Hodder M. Westropp, Esq.
‘‘On the Geology of the County of Antrim, Part I. (Stratified
Rocks),” by John Kelly, Esq., C. E., &e.
Donations were presented, and thanks returned to the donors.
May 25, 1868.
Sirk Wituiam R. Witpr, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
It was moved and seconded—
“That sixteen Members of the Academy, including the Chairman,
should, under the words of the Charter, be present before the commence-
ment of the Academy business’”’ be entered on the Minutes.
Whereupon it was moved, as an amendment—
‘¢ That it be referred to Counsel to ascertain, and inform the Aca-
demy on the subject of the number legally requisite to be present for
business at Quarterly Meetings of the Academy.”
The Chairman, having put the amendment, declared the Ayes had
it. A division having been taken, it appeared that there were ten in
fayour of the amendment, and three against it.
XXX1V
The following papers were read :—
‘‘On the Geology of the Antrim (Part II.) Igneous Rocks,” by
John Kelly, Esq., C. E.
“On the Inscribed Caverns at Loughnacloyduff, County of Ferma-
nagh,”’ by W. H. Wakeman, Esq.
Donations presented, and thanks returned to the donors.
June 8, 1868.
Dents H. Katty, Esq., D. L., in the Chair.
The following recommendations of the Council were adopted :—
I. ‘To grant the sum of £21 for the purchase of two Copperplates of
an ancient Bell, known as the ‘ Berrnan Cuilnean.’
II. ‘To grant the sum of £42 for a Portrait of the late Charles Halli-
day, Esq., M.R.I.A., by Mr. Catterson Smith, to be placed in
the Academy House.”
The following papers were read :— :
““On Geological Climate” (Part I.), by Henry Hennessy, Esq.,
F.RB.S., &c.
‘‘ On some recent Excavations at Howth,” by the Rev. J. F. Shear-
man.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
JUNE 22, 1868.
Sir Witt1am Witpz, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following papers were read :—
‘(On Urns containing Human Remains recently found at Palmers-
town,” by William Frazer, M.D.
‘¢On Geological Climate” (Part IT.), and also “‘On Two Streams
flowing from the same source in opposite directions,” by Henry Hen-
nessy, Esq., F.R.S.
“On the Antiquities of Tullagh, near Cabinteely, county of Dublin,”’
by Henry Parkinson, Esq.
‘‘On certain Gold Ornaments said to have been found near Clon-
macnoise, and now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,” by the
Rey. James Graves.
It was Resolved,—‘“‘ That the paper by the Rev. James Graves be
referred to Council for consideration.”
Donations were presented, and thanks returned to the donors.
The Academy then adjourned to November 9, 1868.
XXXV
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APPENDIX.
MINUTES OF THE ACADEMY
FOR THE SESSION 1868-69.
NovEemBeER 9, 1868.
Lorp Tatsot p—E Matanrpez, President, in the Chair.
Tue President, under his hand and seal, appointed the following Vice-
Presidents :—
Sir Robert Kane, M.D., F.RS., &e.
Rey. George Salmon, D.D., F.R.S., &c.
Rev. James H. Todd, D.D.
Sir William R. Wilde, M.D.
The followmg Papers were read :—
‘On the Imaginary Roots of Numerical Equations, with an Investi-
gation and Proof of Newton’s Rule ;” by J. R. Young, Esq.
‘On a recently discovered Cave called ‘ Gillies’ Hole,’ near Derry-
gonelly, Co. Fermanagh ;” by W. H. Wakeman, Esq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
Sratep Mertine, NovemBer 30, 1868.
Lorp Taxnot pE Mataninr, President, in the Chair.
The following recommendation of the Council was adopted :—
“‘ That the security in form of Bond required from the Treasurer be
fixed at one thousand pounds instead of at two thousand (£2000), as
per Resolution of the Academy on 27th April, 1857.”
A letter from the Right Hon. the Earl of Charlemont was read,
offering for the acceptance of the Academy a series of seventy-four
Terra Cotta busts of the Roman Emperors and their families, modelled
after the original antiques in the Capitoline Museum at Rome by an
eminent Roman statuary named Simon Vierpyle.
The special and marked thanks of the Academy were given to the
Earl of Charlemont for his valuable donation.
The following Papers were read :—
‘‘On the Occurrence of Bones and Wood in Mineral Lodes;” by
W. K. Sullivan, Ph. D.
‘On Cromleachs and Megalithic Structures ;’? by Hodder M. West-
ropp, Esq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
R. I. A. PROC.—-VOL. X.
XXXVI
DrcemMBer 14, 1868.
Lorp Tatzot pe Maranip#, President, in the Chair.
The following Papers were read :—
‘* Contributions to the Flora of the Seychelles,” Part I.—‘‘ On new
and rare Species, ” by Professor E. Perceval Wright.
‘*On the Early English Public Records relating to Ireland ;” by
H. S. Sweetman, Hsq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
JANUARY 11, 1869.
Joun T. Gitpert, Esq., F.S.A., Librarian, in the Chair.
The following Papers were read :—
CAN ecrological Notice on the late George Victor Du Noyer, Esq. ;’
by Alphonse Gages, Esq.
‘Contributions to the History of the Terebenes :’—I. “ On Colo-
phonine and Colophonic Hydrate ;’’ by Charles R. C. Tichborne, Esq.
«* Some Remarks on the Scientific Labours and Memory of August
Schleicher ;”” by Dr. Lottner.
‘“* Notes on Ogham Stones ;” by Hodder M. Westropp, Esq.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
JANUARY 25, 1869.
Sir W. R. Wizoz, M.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Paper was read :—
“On the Goddess of War of the Ancient Irish ;” by William M.
Hennessy, Esq.
Fesruary 8, 1869.
Lorp Tarsot pE Mananipe, President, in the Chair.
Very Rev. Patrick F. Moran, D.D. ; and William MacCormac, M.D.,
were elected Members of the Academy.
The following Address to His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant,
adopted by the Academy at its last Meeting, and His Excellency’s
answer thereto, were read :—
May it Prrasr Your ExceLLency,—
*‘ We, the President, Council, and Members of the Royal Irish
Academy, beg leave to present to your Excellency our sincere congra-
tulations on your appointment, by Her Most Gracious Majesty, to the
high office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. We address your Excellency
with the greater pleasure as being the possessor of one of the noblest
XXX1X
literary collections ever formed in these countries by a single indivi-
dual, and as the inheritor of those cultivated tastes in which that col-
lection originated.
‘This Academy was chartered in the year 1786, for the promotion
of scientific, literary, and antiquarian research. It has numbered
amongst its members many of the distinguished men whom our country
has produced since its foundation, and we think we may venture to
affirm that it has in various ways done good service to the cause of
science and learning in Ireland.
“Tt has devoted itself with special zeal to the illustration of our
National History and Archeology. It has brought together a valuable
collection of the ancient manuscript literature of Ireland, the use of
which it freely offers to students of the subject. It has also formed a
Museum of Irish Antiquities, which has been declared by competent
judges to be one of the best existing national collections of its kind.
This Museum is open to the public, and we have printed a descriptive
catalogue of several of its departments with a view to make its contents
generally known, and enable visitors to understand and appreciate them.
‘« Your Excellency will find in our Transactions a number of origi-
nal memoirs on the various branches of mathematical, physical, and
natural science, by which important discoveries and inventions were
for the first time brought under public notice.
‘¢ At the meetings of the Academy, cultivators of science and litera-
ture, of different creeds and parties, are brought together oa common
grounds, and the lesson of mutual forbearance and respect—so valuable
in a country like ours—is practically, and, we are happy to add, success-
fully taught. :
‘«‘ By virtue of the high office your Excellency now holds, you are
Visitor of the Academy. Its labours have been encouraged and aided
by several of your predecessors in the Government of Ireland, and we
hope that your Excellency will find time, in the intervals of more
urgent occupations, to make yourself acquainted with our proceedings,
and that you will use the influence of your exalted position to further
our exertions for the public good.
‘¢ We trust that the period of your Excellency’s administration may
be one marked by the happiest results for our country, in the increase
of social harmony and industrial activity, and in the progress of those
scientific and literary studies which it is the office of this Academy to
foster and promote.”
Mr. Presipent, Mempers or tHe Councir, anpD Mumprrs or THE
Royat Irish AcapEMy,—
««T receive with much pleasure the Address which you have just
presented to me as representative of the Queen.
‘‘T value the important work which a Society lke yours performs
in carefully collecting, arranging, and developing the scientific, literary,
and antiquarian riches of a country.
xl
‘No labours can be too great which make known to a people its
national history. Ireland is rich in the monuments of the past. They
are a source of just pride and abounding interest to the student.
“ The cultivation of the Arts and Sciences is a happy bond of union
between men of different creeds and parties. I earnestly hope that the
spirit of mutual forbearance and respect which the meetings of learned
societies tend to promote, may extend itself even to those who are
charged with the consideration of questions affecting the general wel-
fare of the people of this country.
‘‘T feel pride in having inherited the library to which you refer.
I have always learnt from my predecessors that the possession of books
or other works of historical interest is in some sense a public trust, and
if I am led to believe that any of the rarer works at Althorp would
interest the members of your Society, it will be a pleasure to me to
place them at your disposal. |
‘¢ Tt will afford me gratification to visit the interesting collection of
Trish Antiquities of which you speak, and to make myself acquainted
with the proceedings of your Society.”
A draft of Regulations for the office of Treasurer, and for the dis-
bursements of the funds of the Academy, was brought up, and referred
to Council for reconsideration.
The following Papers were read :—
**On the Names of Irish Rivers;”’ by Owen Connellan, LL. D.
‘(On Ancient Sepulchral Monuments in the County of Galway ;”
by Michael Brogan, Esq.
FEBRUARY 22, 1869.
Lorp Tatzot pE Matanrps, President, in the Chair.
The following Paper was read :—
‘‘On an ancient Chalice and Brooches lately found at Ardagh in the
County of Limerick,” by the Right Hon. the Earl of Dunraven.
The following Regulations for the Office of Treasurer, &c., pro-
posed by the Council, and referred back to them for re-consideration,
were adopted and confirmed by the Academy :—
Regulations for the Office of Treasurer, and for the Disbursement of the
Funds of the Royal Lrish Academy, recommended by Council for adop-
tion by the Academy.
Of the Duties of the Treasurer.
I, The Treasurer’s duty shall be to keep an account of the income
and expenditure of the Academy ; to lodge all moneys received to the
account of the Academy; to notice such members as may be in arrear of
xli
their subscriptions, and to receive all subscriptions and other payments
due to the Academy.
[This as the existing Section 8 of Chapter VI. of By-laws of Academy,
page 26. |
IJ. The Treasurer shall, on his election, give security in form of
‘bond for £1000, or such other amount as the Academy may deem fit.
III. The Treasurer shall keep a set of account books, exhibiting
the receipts and expenditure of the Academy in such form as may from
time to time be approved of by the Council.
IV. The Treasurer shall prepare a statement of receipts and expen-
diture, to be presented annually, in such form, and at such time, as the
Council shall direct. .
V. Immediately after the close of each financial year, the Council
shall appoint a Committee to audit the Treasurer’s accounts.
[ This is Section 10 of Chapter VI. of existing By-laws, page 26. |
VI. Payments shall be made by the Treasurer's draft on the Bank,
countersigned by one of the following Officers of the Academy, viz. :—
The Secretary of the Academy, the Secretary of Council, or the Libra-
rian.
[ This would supersede Section 9 of Chapter VI. of existing By-laws,
page 26. |
VII. In the absence or illness of the Treasurer, such other Member
of Council as the Treasurer may propose, and the Council approve, shall
be authorized to act for him, and sign drafts on the Bank.
Of Receipts of Payments.
T.. An estimate shall be annually prepared, and submitted to Council
by the Treasurer, exhibiting the probable income and expenditure of
the Academy for the ensuing financial year, under the different heads
of account.
II. Amounts derived from Life Compositions, Interest of Life Com-
position Stock, and of the Cunningham Fund Stock, shall be invested
from time to time in such Public Securities as Council may direct.
TIT. The Council may delegate to its Committees the expenditure
of the sums allocated by Parliament to special departments.
IV. No sum of, or exceeding, £10 shall be granted by any Com-
mittee, except that of publication, without previous notice having been
given. at a meeting, and inserted on the summonses sent to each member
of that Committee for the meeting at which the money is proposed to
be voted.
Y. Amounts voted in due form by Committees to whom the expen-
diture of allocated sums has been delegated, may be paid by the Trea-
surer without being brought before Council.
xli
VI. Any money grant by the Committee of Science of, or over, £20
shall be subject to approval of Council and of the Academy.
VII. The salaries and wages of officers and persons employed, under
sanction of the Council, as also postages and contingencies, may be
paid from time to time by the Treasurer as they become due, without
order from Council or Committees.
VIII. The sanction of the Academy shall be requisite for the
expenditure of any sum exceeding £20 not included in the Estimate for
the year.
[ This will supersede the following Section 4, of Chapter VIT., page 27,
which it 1s proposed to repeal :—
Provided always that if any sum or sums of money, not exceeding
£20, shall be disposed of by the Council, between any two meetings of
the Academy, the act of Council shall be definite. |
IX. No portion of the Academy’s funded or other property shall
be transferred, sold, or disposed of, except upon recommendation of
Council, sanctioned by vote of the Academy.
Of the Corporate Seal of the Academy.
I. The Corporate Seal of the Academy shall be in the joint custody
of the President and Treasurer for the time being.
Il. The President, and during his absence, such Vice-President as
he may authorize in due form, and the Treasurer, or such other Officer
as the Council may appoint, shall be the parties to attest the affixing of
the Corporate Seal of the Academy to documents.
ItI. The Corporate Seal of the Academy shall not be affixed to any
instrument for sale or transfer of any of the Academy’s funded or other
property, unless by vote of the Academy, on recommendation of
- Council.
READ :— ee
A letter from the Honorary Secretaries of the Royal ‘Geological
Society of Ireland, requesting the co-operation of the Academy inmak-
ing an application to the Government in behalf of the widow and
orphans of the late George V. Du Noyer, with a view of obtaining for
them a pension from the Civil List for Literary Pensions; whereupon
it was resolved :—
‘‘That the President and Vice-Presidents of the Academy, with
power to add to their number, be requested to act as a Committee to
communicate with the Royal Geological Society and other bodies, with
reference to a memorial to the Government on behalf of the widow and
children of the late George V. Du Noyer.”’ |
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors,
xl
StaTeD MreErinc, Marca 16, 1869. ,
Lorp Tatzor pe Matanrpe, President, in the Chair.
The following Report of the Council was read, and adopted :—
Report.
Since our last Report was submitted to the Academy, the following
Paper has been printed in our ‘‘ Transactions ”’ :—
On Ziphius Sowerbyi. By Mr. W. Andrews.
The three following are nearly ready for issue :—
On the Histology of the Test of the Palliobranchiata. By Pro-
fessor W. King.
On Bicircular Quartics. By Mr. John Casey; and
Contributions to the History of the Terebenes, Part I. By Mr.
C. R. C. Tichborne.
The printing of Part III. of the Tenth Volume of the ‘‘ Proceedings ”’
is almost completed, and it will very soon be in the hands of Members.
We have received communications in the past year
In Science, from Mr. John Kelly, Professor Hennessy, Mr. J. R.
Young, Professor W. K. Sullivan, Professor EH. Perceval
- Wright, and Mr. Charles R. C. Tichborne. Ed
In Polite Literature, from Mr. H. 8. Sweetman, Professor
Lottner, Mr. W. M. Hennessy, and Professor Connellan.
In Antiquities, from Mr. W. H. Wakeman, Mr. H. M. Westropp,
_ Rey. J. F. Shearman, Dr. William Frazer, Mr. Henry Par-
kinson, Rev. James Graves, Mr. R. R. Brash, Mr. G. V.
Du Noyer, Mr. Michael Brogan, and the Karl of Dunraven.
The year which has now come to a close has been a very laborious one
for the Council and Officers of the Academy. In consequence of having
obtained a large addition to our annual grant, we have been led to
adopt measures for improving the condition of our several departments,
and reorganizing our system in various important respects; and this
has made necessary an unusual amount both of joint deliberation and
of individual effort.
The necessity of appointing a Library and a Museum Clerk had
been long felt, and had been again and again urged on the Government
as one of the reasons for increasing the amount of our grant. A portion
of the additional sum voted by Parliament having been allocated to this
purpose, the Council proceeded to take steps for the selection of persons
to fill these offices. After repeated discussion of the subject and much
correspondence, it was decided to open the appointments to general
competition, without nomination. It was also judged expedient, after a
correspondence with the Civil Service Commissioners, to place the exa-
mination of Candidates in their hands, the Council prescribing the qua-
lifications to be required. The examination has already taken place,
xliv
and we have received a communication announcing the results, which,
however, are as yet only provisional, inquiries having still to be made,
as to the age, health, and character of the successful Candidates. The
Council have had under consideration a body of regulations respecting
the duties of the Library and Museum Clerks. In consequence of the
increased labours recently thrown on the Treasurer’s department, it is
recommended that the salary of the Assistant Accountant should be
raised to an equality with those proposed to be paid to the Clerks above
mentioned.
The additional grants (amounting to £1000) being given for special
objects, and being incapable of diversion from those objects, their ex-
penditure stands on a different footing from that of the ordinary funds
of the Academy. In order to simplify the management of those grants,
and to facilitate their judicious outlay, as well to improve our general
financial system, it was thought desirable that a new code of laws
should be enacted with respect to the duties of the Treasurer and the dis-
bursement of our funds. Such a code has been drawn up after very
careful consideration, and has recently received the sanction of the
Academy.
A sum of £200 out of the additional grant is to be annually devoted
to the assistance of persons engaged in conducting scientific inquiries
of such a nature as to involve expenditure on instruments or materials,
with the understanding that the results of such researches are to be
brought before the Academy, and published in its ‘‘ Transactions” or
‘Proceedings.’ A distribution of this fund was made, for the first
time, in the past year, after careful examination into the claims of the
several applicants. We have had the first fruits of this new arrange-
ment in avaluable paper, read at one of our recent meetings ; and other
papers, produced under similar circumstances, will soon be ready for
presentation to the Academy. The Council invite gentlemen proposing
to undertake scientific researches during the coming year, and desiring
to obtain aid from this fund, to send in their applications at the earliest
possible date.
The late period of the year 1868 at which the Parliamentary allo-
cation for the Library became available necessarily delayed the ap-
pointment of a Clerk, and also diminished the time for the execution
of work in the Library department. At the request of the Council, how-
ever, the Librarian undertook, and by procuring temporary assistance,
has carried out some important operations. A Catalogue of the printed
books in the Haliday Collection has been prepared, and upwards of
15,000 of the Haliday pamphlets have also been catalogued. A
new and more precise system of Library registration has been introduced
from the commencement of the present year, and many deficiencies
which had caused inconvenience have been supplied. Tables and desks
for readers have been provided; but it is found difficult, in the space
now available, to meet satisfactorily the requirements of the Library, or
provide for the accommodation of those who have occasion to consult
its collections.
xlv
In the Irish MSS. department, Professor Connellan has continued
his labours on the Book of Conquests. A volume of the Catalogue of
the Academy’s Irish MSS., by him and Mr. O’Longan, in continua-
tion of that by O’Curry, has been completed, and another is in progress.
The compilation of the English Index to O’Curry’s Catalogue, and to
the Academy’s Irish MSS., which has been for some time in progress,
is completed, and volumes of it, embracing letters A to D (inclusive)
are already bound and available for use. It is gratifying to the Council,
that this work, with its companion Index to initial lines of Irish com-
positions, is found to be a most valuable aid to investigators in this
department. All the Irish MSS. in the possession of the Academy have
been examined in detail, and such as were not in good order have been
bound and repaired. A local inventory of the collection is in progress,
and Tables have been carefully prepared, indicating the present and
previous location of every MS. which had formerly a place in the Library
different from that which it now occupies.
As regards the Museum, we have to report that the number of objects
of antiquarian interest, procured within the past year, has been below
the usual average. Amongst those obtained under the Treasure Trove
Regulations is a handsome gold torque, weighing 8 oz. 5 dwts.
On the 8th of December last we were informed that the Board of
Works was empowered to expend £171 in forwarding the completion
of the New Museum, and a Special Committee was appointed to com-
municate with that Board with respect to the works to be carried out.
Three iron doors have been completed and put up, and locks, keys, and
velvet edgings supplied for the doors of the cases in the Drawing-room.
The old Council-room is to be fitted up as a Museum for the gold and
ecclesiastical antiquities, and, with a view to this, the Board of Works
will soon commence the necessary operations for rendering it fire-proof.
In the meantime, such of our antiquities as had been stored in that
room for some time past have been placed, but without any attempt
at arrangement, in the cases in the Drawing-room.
A portion of the £200 allocated by Parliament for ‘‘ objects con-
nected with the study of antiquities’ has been expended in the purchase
of some valuable works of reference, which seemed indispensable aids
in studying the contents of our Museum, especially that portion of them
illustrative of ancient Irish art.
The Petrie collection has been deposited with us by the Government,
_ but in consequence of the incomplete state of the arrangements relating
to our Museum, it cannot at present be exhibited to the public.
We have to acknowledge a munificent donation, presented to the
Academy within the last year, by the Right Hon. the Earl of Charle-
mont, consisting of a series of finely executed busts of Roman Emperors
and Empresses, by Vierpyle, which formerly adorned the Library of his
lordship’s illustrious grandfather, the first President of the Academy.
Through the influence of Lord Dunraven, and by the kindness of the
Right Rey. Dr. Butler, the Academy has had an opportunity of inspect-
ing the beautiful chalice and other interesting antiques lately discovered
R, I. A. PROC.—VOL, X. . cone 1
xlvi
in the county of Limerick. It is hoped these admirable specimens of
ancient Irish art will ere long find a permanent place in our National
Museum. 3
In testimony of gratitude for the noble gift of the Haliday Library,
the Council, acting on a resolution of the Academy, have had a portrait
of Mr. Haliday executed by Mr. Catterson Smith, as a lasting memorial
of the liberality and public spirit exhibited in the presentation to the
Academy of that valuable collection.
Appended to this Report will be found a detailed statement of the
income and expenditure of the Academy for so much of the financial
year as has already elapsed. It will appear from this statement that we
have funds adequate to discharge all liabilities already incurred, and that
there remains a balance sufficient to meet expenditure up to the end of
the present month.
The Treasurer has called the attention of the Council to the cireum-
stance that the interest of the Cunningham Fund continues to be
annually applied to the increase of our stock, and that no successful
scheme has been devised for its appropriation to the encouragement of
learning, by offering prizes for essays, or bestowing rewards on deserv-
ing authors. We agree with him in thinking that the Council should
take into consideration the question how the interest of the fund can
best be applied for its legitimate objects, and we recommend the subject
to the attention of our successors.
The balance of the fund arising from sales of the Museum Catalogue,
on the 1st April, 1868, amounted to £39 5s. 7d., and the produce of those
sales during the past year, to £3 7s. 8d., making a total of £42 13s. 3d.
This money is, by a resolution of the Academy, appropriated to the
expenses attendant on a continuation of the Catalogue. As no progress
in this work requiring aid from the fund has been made for some time,
the Council have resolved that the amount accruing from the sales should
be invested from time to time in Bank of Ireland Stock, there to remain
available whenever any portion of it may be required for the purpose to
which it has been devoted. The sum in hand has accordingly been
invested.
We have lost, by death, the following Members within the past
year :—
1. Hon. Judge Berwick, elected 8th April, 1861.
2. Geo. V. Du Noyer, Esq. ; elected 24th August, 1857.
. Sir Thomas Esmonde, Bart. ; elected 12th April, 1847.
. Baron Farnham, elected 11th November, 1844.
Samuel L. Hardy, M.D. ; elected 8th February, 1858.
Sir John Kingston James, Bart. ; elected 9th January, 1837.
F. Thomas Jessop, Esq.; elected 30th November, 1835.
. General Sir H. D. Jones ; elected 14th January, 1839.
. Hon. Thomas D’Arcy M‘Gee ; elected 11th April, 1864.
10. Joseph M. O’Ferrall, M.D.; elected 30th November, 1832.
11. Thomas Richardson, M.D.; elected 12th January, 1863. —
12. James West, Esq.; elected 11th February, 1856.
O OID No
xlvit
In this list are to be found the names of several persons who practically
manifested a warm interest in the increase of our Museum. Lord Farn-
ham was an earnest student of Irish antiquities, and presented to us
many valuable articles from his private collection. Mr. West, it will
be remembered, was the donor of the electrotype model of the Shrine
of St. Molaise, the original of which has since become the property of
the Academy. General Sir Harry Jones was always ready to use the
influence of his official position to secure for our Museum, such objects
of interest as were brought to light by the operations of the Board of
Works or the Shannon Commission. But of all the Members whom the
Academy has lost during the year, there is none to whom our grateful
acknowledgments are due in the same degree as to George Victor Du
Noyer. After the graceful and touching notice which we have had of
him from the pen of one of his most intimate friends, it is not necessary
here to describe the incidents of his career, or to dwell on the features
of his character. Competent judges have borne testimony to the value
of his official labours, and to his remarkable powers in the artistic treat-
ment of geological scenery. But we cannot soon forget in this Academy
the assiduity with which he applied his pencil to the illustration of our
national antiquities, and the liberality with which he presented to us
the fruits of his skill and his industry. He has left a permanent memo-
rial of himself in the eleven folio volumes in our Library, which are
filled with sketches, from his hand, of Irish architectural and monumental
antiquities. ‘The Academy showed its sense of the value of these gifts,
by electing him a Life Member ; and, since his death, it has publicly ex-
pressed the desire, in which the Council cordially unite, that the Govern-
ment, in recognition of his various services to the public, would make a
suitable provision for his bereaved family.
The following Ordinary Members have been elected since the 16th of
March, 1868 :—
1. James Little, M.D.; April 27, 1868.
2. Wm. Mac Cormac, M.D.; February 8, 1869.
3. Very Rev. Patrick F. Moran, D.D.; February 8, 1869.
The following President, Council, and Officers were elected for the
year 1869-70 :—
PRESIDENT.
The Right Hon. Lord Talbot de Malahide, F.R.8.
CouNCcIL.
Committee of Science.
W. K. Sullivan, Ph. D.
Rev. George Salmon, D.D., F.R.8.
Henry Hennessy, F.R.S.
xlvi
Samuel Downing, LL.D.
Sir Robert Kane, M.D., F.R.S.
William Stokes, MD., F.R.S.
A. Searle Hart, F.T.C.D.
Committee of Polite Interature.
J. Kells Ingram, F.T.C.D.
R. R. Madden, M.D.
Rev. George Longfield, F.T.C.D.
Samuel Ferguson, LL.D.
Very Rev. C. W. Russell, D.D.
Rev. John H. Jellett, M.A.
Alexander George Richey, LL.B.
Committee of Antiquities.
J. T. Gilbert, F.S.A.
W. 4H. Hardinge, Esq.
Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D.
Denis H. Kelly, Esq.
W. J. O’Donnavan, LL.D.
Right Hon. the Earl of Dunraven, F.R.S.
Colonel Meadows ‘Taylor.
TREASURER.—W. H. Hardinge, Esq.
SECRETARY oF AcADEMy.—W. K. Sullivan, Ph. D.
SECRETARY OF CounciL.—John Kells Ingram, LL.D.
SECRETARY OF ForREIGN CoRRESPONDENCE.—oSir W. R. Wilde, M.D.
Liprarian.—John T. Gilbert, F.S.A.
AssIsTANT LIBRARIAN, CurAToR oF Muszum, AnD CiLERK.—Edw.
Clibborn, ‘Esq.
The President, under his hand and seal, appointed the following
Members of the Council Vice-Presidents for the ensuing year :
VicE-PRESIDENTS.
Right Hon The Earl of Dunraven, F.R.S.
Sir Robert Kane, M.D., F.R.S.
Rev. George Salmon, D.D., F.R.S.
Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D.
‘The following gentlemen were elected Honorary Member of the
Academy :—
In the Department of Scvence.
Victor Carus ere. )) 4 seelnerpelcs
Joseph Dalton Hooker, M.D.,. . Kew.
M. Daubrée, COO BENGE, Aeris
Prof. Bunseny, 12%. ine 4 oeidel bers:
xlix
In the Department of Polite Literature.
Prof. Lassen, a OLEAN MRR: Bonn.
Don Pascual de Gayangos y Arce,. Madrid.
In the Department of Antiquities.
Don Antonio Benavides, President Royal
PMCAGETINY san ceat tk ae, Madrid.
Major-General Sir Thomas A. Larcom,
BRO OC... Sn Ieee yt orain AaOndons
Aprit 12, 1869.
Denis H. Katty, Esq. D.L., in the Chair.
Maurice Lenihan, Esq., J.P. ;
Ambrose More O’Farrell, Esq. ;
Rev. John O’ Hanlon ;
Rev. James O’ Laverty ;
George Sigerson, M.D. ;
Charles R. C. Tichborne, Esq. ;
were elected Members of the Academy.
A Paper ‘‘On a Modification of Regnault’s Condensing Hygro-
meter, with Observations on the Psychrometer,’’ by Michael Donovan,
Ksq., was read.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the donors.
Apri 26, 1869.
Lorp Tatsot pE MaLauripe, President, in the Chair.
The President read the following papers :—
No. 1. ‘‘On Megalithic Remains in the Department’ of the Basses
Pyrenées.”’
No. 2. ‘‘ Notes on Prehistoric Remains in various Parts of Spain.”
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
May 10, 1869.
Lorp Tatsor pz Maztaurpe, President, in the Chair.
_ The following papers were read :—
““On ‘Esparto,’ with Botanical Descriptions of the Plants from
which it is obtained,” by W. Frazer, M.D. The author described its
general uses, especially for preparing pulp for Paper Manufacture, and
gave statistics of its importation into the British ports for some years
past.
I
‘‘On the Development of the Affections, Hei and Moral Senti-
ments,” by the late Rev. Dr. Wills.
May 24, 1869.
Lorp Tatzot pE Matauipz, President, in the Chair.
The following papers were read :—
‘“‘On an Agreement, in Irish, between the Mac Rannalls and Gerald,
Ninth Earl of Kildare, executed at Maynocth in 15380, and sealed with
the seal of the College of Maynooth,” by the Very Rev. Charles W.
Russell, D. D.
‘On the Fohn of the Alps, considered with reference to the De-
velopment of Glaciers,” by Henry Hennessy, Esq., F. R.S.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
JUNE 14, 1869.
Str Witi1am R. Witz, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
Very Rev. James Kavanagh, D. D.;
James H. O’Brien, Esq. ;
John C. O’Callaghan, Esq. ;
Sir Thomas Tobin, D. L. ;
were elected Members of the Academy.
The following papers were read :—
‘On the Duties upon Irishmen in the Kildare Rental Book, as
illustrated by the Mac Rannall Agreement,’’ by the Very Rev. C. W.
Russell, D. D.
“‘ On the English Language spoken in Ireland,” by the Rev. A.
Hume, LL. D.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
JUNE 28, 1869.
Str Ropert Kane, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The death of the Rev. James Henthorne Todd, D. D., ex-President
of the Academy, having been announced,
It was unanimously Resotven,—“ That the Academy do now ad-
journ for a fortnight, as a mark of respect to the memory of the de-
ceased.’?
a ieee al S
hi
ADJOURNED MzrtInG, Juiy 12, 1869.
W. J. O’Donnavan, LL. D., in the Chair.
The following Recommendation of the Council, of June 21, 1869,
was unanimously adopted :—
‘‘ That the seal of the Academy be affixed to the Deed between the
Corporation of Dublin, the Commissioners of Public Works, and the
Royal Irish Academy.”
It was ResoLvep,—‘“‘ That the President, or a Vice-President, and the
Treasurer be empowered to affix the seal of the Academy to a power of
attorney executed to the Secretary and Assistant Secretary of the Bank
of Ireland, to receive and give receipts for all interest or dividends
that are now due, or hereafter shall become due or payable, for our
share or interest in the New Three Consolidated per Cent. Bank and
other Stocks, in order that the same shall be carried to the credit of
the Account of the Academy.”
The following papers were read :—
‘‘ Part I. of his Report on Cohnheim’s Researches on Suppuration,”’
by J. M. Purser, M.B.
«©Qn the so-called Hozoon Canadense, a Mineral Pseudomorph,”’
by Professors King and Rowney.
Donations were presented, and thanks voted to the several donors.
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GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNT OF W. H.}
FROM 3lsr MARCI
RECEIPTS.
Ledger ] Receiptsin | Gross Amount | ‘
page Heads of Accounts. Detail, of each Class, | ie
SPECIAL RECEIPTS. Boe a OE
6 | Vote of Parliament for preparation of Scientific Reports, | 200 0 0
120 | Vote of Parliament for a Museum Clerk and for other ob-
jects in aid of the study of Antiquities, . 200 8 0 ik
116 | Vote of Parliament for a Library Clerk and for cost of Pie
Books and Binding, . 200 0. 0 aay
126 | Vote of Parliament for Illustrating «i Transactions” and my
‘* Proceedings,” 200 0 0 qh
110 | Vote of Parliament for Salary of an Irish Scribe and for
Catalogueing and Printing Irish Manuscripts, . ./| 9200 0 O
150 | Interest of the Cunningham Bequest and unappropriated
Savings, funded in New 3 per cent. Stock (gross
Stocks, £2176 18s. 3d.),. . 62 3 11 ill...
130 | Life Compositions for Annual Subscriprions (Consols, Hh"
£1904 14s. dd.) ne ae 60 18 0
161 | Prduce of Sales of Museum Catalogue, THe S. a
CGElz 5s Od), a reir sho) 15-9 |
———_—| 1160 15 2
RECEIPTS FOR GENERAL PURPOSES,
Cash balance on 1st April, 1868, . . Snes 79 303
1 | Vote of Parliament in aid of General Funds, a ke) SoS LOO bi §
15 | Annual Subscriptions, . area 028) 114 (0 | MY)
70 | Interest of Life Composition Consol Stock, ot ake goes 54 9.58 jill
60 | Entrance Fees, . oy Neate Osage Te 15 15 0 aH
80 | ‘‘ Transactions” sold by Booksellers, DS rahees tee 1:15 4 |
90.) * Proceedings” sold by Booksellers, ty Pha’ permed 6 9.0
310 | ‘ Proceedings” soid in the Academy, Flat Gareanee 012 0 l.
100 | Other Publications sold, . . Bey Fare hat een os Beaters O-=7 0 he
350 | Miscellaneous Receipts, Bae OnilGuas }"
- -| 921 12 ae,
Tuts AccouNT AND BANK BALANCE RECONCILING ABSTRACT, V1Z.:— i
Balance per Bank Certificate, . -.. . . . « «Sie ee Oe lee r
Deduct outstanding drafts viz.,
No. 185, to W. H. Fitch, ai dee ade. ts Col tes aeO
Moe. 187, to W. and A. K. Johnston, . . 1410 9
——— 2810 9
17> 16;=9
Add cash in Mr. Clibborn’s hands :—
For Incidents, AS ike BMRB Mey RONGE Pome Ce Oe 2 4 0
Ditto, in Mr. Hodges’ hands : —
For Postage, Bi, eRe te ee LC etGae ce
This account balances tL ree an eerie At) 19/ -ak
£2087 7 11)
|
v
I solemnly and sincerely declare that the above Account is just and true, according to the b)G_
true,
Declared before me at Dubl,_.
(Signed)| 5,
=
GE, TREASURER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,
E ist APRIL, 1869,
PAYMENTS.
Ledger Paymentsin | Gross Amount
page Heads of Account. | Detail. ee Pevench ieee)
| |
SPECIAL APPROPRIATIONS. | SN Se) a
|| 30 | For preparation of Scientific Reports, . . . . . | 200 0 0
faced 6) Hor Museum objects, as contra, . . . . . % « {200 0 0 |
|| 246 | For Library objects, ascontra,a . . . . . . . | 200 0 0
| es For: Illustrating ‘‘ Transactions” and ‘‘ Proceedings,” . 12000; <0
| 261 | For Salary of Irish Scribe, &c., as per contra, . 5 BOO). CO
| 325 | For equivalent of 3 per cent. Stock, £66 16s 10d., . 62 V3aetl
300 | For equivalent of Consol Stock, £65 2s. 2d., : 60) 180
420 | For equivalent of Bank of Ireland Stock, £17 5s. 9d., (4003) 7
-——_-——-| 1163 15 6.
| ‘i GENERAL PuRPOSsES APPROPRIATIONS. |
| 246 In aid of Parliamentary Grant for cost of Books and
Binding, . (ea OOP 10) at
184 } In aid of Parliamentary Grant for ‘publication of « Trans-
159 actions” and ‘‘ Proceedings,” . . ln Srl Die” 6
250 | In aid of Parliamentary Grant for objects connected ‘with
the study of Basi sives, CU ee eh ci sails or con eles 43 8 8
6 walaries;-| <. : Rea cfr 30 Ae Vt ALB OSE aO) 0
364 | Wages and Liveries, : Siew et a oy bay abt 8
226 | Stationery, ee oC ay, CUR Ge Ors Sage gece eR Gil i 8}
_ 208 | Miscellaneous Printing, : ot Ee Meee haar 24 3 6
431 Portrait of the late Charles Halliday, a eee eee 42 0 0
fee) | Copperplate of Irish Bells, ©. 2. wwe es Pal (0) 0)
Fae a (Oe Ow ied
CONTINGENCIES,
One fee ws ke ef 28519 0
74 | Gas, eee eres akWer se” elites Zo: sor 10
_ 83 | Taxes and Insurance, jo geise Teer an Ramee oe leno) 145-4
100 | Furniture and Repairs, . Se op dss Sues des 6
_ 462 | Bank of Ireland, discounts on Cheques, ee OTE OF 29
443 | Incidents, per Mr. Clibborme cto bf) oh a sme 47-1 5
m2) Encidents, per Booksellers, . 3 . . .-. . . ) OO
aces) Pastaze, per Mr. Hodges, . =... . « « + W217 2
——-—| 148 9 0
2066 10 7
Balance to credit of Year’s Account, 1869-70, . . . . .. . 20 17 4
This balance is carried forward as follows, viz., |
To credit of Museum Catalogue, . . 119 8
To credit of general purposes, . . . 1817 8
52.0 1774
£2087 7 11
wledge and belief; and I make this solemn declaration, conscientiously believing the same to be
W. H. Harprnes, Treasurer, R. 1, A.
9th day of April, 1869,
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INDEX
TO VOLUME X. OF THE PROCEEDINGS.
= ¢ s
ABERCORN, Marquis of, his services to
the Academy, Append., p. xxvi.
Abhainn-beg, the river Awbeg, 444.
Abhainn-da-loilghech, the Cow River,
448.
Abhainn-mhor, the Blackwater, 444.
Abhainn-na-buraighe, 447.
AcApvEmyY, RoyAu IxRisu,
Accounts :
‘Statement to 31st March, 1867, or-
dered, Append., p. xvii; Abstract of
monthly accounts, 1st April, 1866, to
31st March, 1867, Append., p. xxxv;
from ist April, 1867, to 31st March,
1868, Append., p. xxxvi; General
Abstract of Treasurer’s account, from
3ist March, 1868, to 1st April, 1869,
Append., at end; financial arrange-
ments for Treasurer, Append., p. xl;
arrangement with Bank of Ireland,
Append., p. li.
—— Address:
Of Academy to Earl Spencer, Lord
‘Lieut., Append., p. xxxviii; his Ex-
cellency’s Reply, ib., xxxix.
Adjournment :
On announcement of Dr. Todd’s death,
Append., p. 1.
—— Clerk:
Edward Clibborn, Append., pp. xvi,
XXxii, xlviii.
Committee. See Council.
Council :
Committee of Science—
Downing, Sam., LL. D., Append., pp.
Xvii, xxxii, xlvili; Hart, A. Searle,
LL. D., Append., p. xlviii; Hennessy,
Henry, F.R.S., Append., pp. xvi,
mexxi, 'Xlvi; “sellett; “Rev. :J: “H.,
Append., p. xvi; Jukes, Joseph B.,
Append., p. xv; Kane, Sir Robert,
M.D., Append., pp. xxxii, xlviii;
R.I. A. PROC.—VOL. X.
M‘Donnell, Robert, M. D., Append., pp.
XV, xxxii; Salmon, Rev. Geo., D.D.,
Append., pp. Xv, xxxli, xlvii; Stokes,
William, M. D., Append., pp. xxxii,
xlviii; Stoney, Bindon B., Append.,
Oe Eig Siig hs Ayo dk se ee Bom Dy.
Append., pp. xv, xxxil, xlvii.
Committee of Polite Literature—
Burke, Sir Bernard, LL. D., Append., p.
xxxii; Carson, Rev. Joseph, D. D.,
Append., p. xvi; Dublin, the Arch-
bishop of, Append., p. xxxii ; Ferguson,
Samuel, LL. D., Append., pp. xvi;
Xxxi, xlviii; Ingram, J. Kells,
LL. D., Append., pp. xv, XxXxil,
xviii; Jellett, Rev. J. H., Append., p.
xlviii; Longfield, Rev. George, D. D.,
ANY NING. [DOo MEAs | MSSratiy lo oxI by
Mae Carthy, D. F., Append., p. xvi;
Madden, R. R., M.D., Append., pp.
Xvi, xxxii, xlvili; Richey, Alex. G.,
Append., p. xlviii; Russell, Very Rev.
CC: W:,; BD. D., Append., pp. xxxii,
xviii; Waller, John “F.)” LL,.D.,
Append. p. xvi.
Committee of .Antiquities—
Dunraven, Earl of, Append., pp. xxxii,
xlvili; Gilbert, John T., Append., xvi,
XXxii, xlviii; Hardinge,W.H., Append.,
XVi, Xxxil, xlviii; Kelly, Denis H.,
Append., xvi, xxxii, xlviii; O’ Donna-
van, W.J., LL.D., Append., xvi, xxxii,
xlviii; Taylor, Col. Meadows, Append.,
xvi, xlviii; Todd, James H., D.D.,
Append., iii, xvi, xxxii; Wilde, Sir W.
R., M. D., Append., xvi, xxxii, xlviii.
Recommendations of Council, Ap-
pend., xxxli,x xxvii; Reports of: see Re-
port; Report of Committee of Economy
to, Append., xxiv.
Donations :—
Append., xix, xlv.
AcADEmMY, RoyAt IrIsH :—
Election of Council and Officers :
In 1867, Append., pp. xv, xvi; in 1868,
XxXxii; in 1869, xlvii, xlviii.
Finances :—
Report on, Append., p. xxiv; Grants to,
Append., p. vi, insufficient, p. xiv; appli-
cation for enlargement of Grant, Ap-
pend., pp. iv, vi, vil; additional Grant of
£800 a year, Append., pp. xxv, XXVi.
—— Librarian:
Gilbert, John T., Append., pp. xvi,
XxXxli, xlviii.
Library :
Statement concerning, Append., p. viii;
proposal to print the choice MSS., 2b., p.
ix; cataloguing of the MSS., 7b., pp. xii,
xlv ; augmentation by the Haliday Col-
lection, 2b., p. xii, and consequent ar—
rangements, 2b., p. xxix; cataloguing
of the Haliday Pamphlets, 2b., p. xliv;
donations to, 2b., pp. Xix-xXxXll, xXxvi;
improved arrangements of, ib., p. xlv ;
appointment of a Clerk for, 7b., p. xliii.
— Meetings:
March Stated, in 1867, Append., p. xi;
in 1868, Append., p. xxvi; in 1869,
Append., p. xviii. November Stated,
in 1866, Append., p. iii; in 1867, Ap-
pend., p. xxiii; in 1868, Append., p.
XXXVii. Ordinary, the quorum of Mem-
bers for, Append., p. xxxiii; an adjourn-
ment on death of an ex-President,
Append., p. 1; special, Append., p. xi.
Members, Ordinary:
Elected in 1866-7, Append., p. xv; in
1867-8, Append., p. xxxi; in 1868-9,
Append., p. xlvi; lost by death, in 1866-
7, Append., p. xiv; in 1867-8, Append.,
p. XXx; in 1868-9, Append., p. xlvi.
Members, Honorary:
Elected in 1867, Append., p. xvi; in
1869, Append., p. xlviii; lost by death,
1866-7, Append., p. xiv; in 1867-8,
Append., p. Xxx.
Minutes:
Nov. 12, 1866, to June 24, 1867, Ap-
pend., pp. iii-xviii; Nov. 11, 1867, to
June 22, 1868, Append., pp. xxiii-
xxxiv; Nov. 9, 1868 to July 12, 1869,
Append., pp. xxxvii-li.
Museum -;
Statement concerning, by Parliamentary
Committee, Append., p. vii; proposed al-
terations, in Append., p. xiii; new ar-
rangement of, Append., pp. XVIii, xxviii,
xxix, xlv; additions to, Append., pp.
xiii, xxviii, xlv ; sale of Catalogue, pp.
xill, xxix, xlvi; appointment of Clerk
for, Append., pp. xliii, xliv.; grant to,
Append., p. xxxiii; five articles lent
lvi
from to Paris International Exhibition,
Append., p. xi; articles lent to Leeds
Exhibition, Append., p. xxiv.
Premises:
Insurance of, Append., p.xxix; deed with
Corporation of Dublin, Append., p. li.
President :
Lord Talbot de Malahide, Append., pp.
XV RR VAs
Publications :
Statement concerning, Append., pp. ix,
K, KKVIIe
Report:
Annual,of 1867,Append.,p. xi; of 1868,
Append., p. xxv; of 1869, Append.,
p. xliii. See Accounts.
Seal:
Corporate Seal, Append., p. xlii.
Secretary :
W. K. Sullivan, Ph. D., Append., pp.
Xvi, XXxXii, xlviii.
Secretary of Council :
John Kells Ingram, LL. D., Append.,
pp. XVi, Xxxiil, xlviil.
Secretary of Foreign Correspondence :
Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D., Append., pp.
XVi., Xxxii, xlviii.
Transactions :
Papers printed in, Append., p. xliii.
Treasurer :—
Rev. Joseph Carson, D.D., Append.,
p. Xvi; resignation of, Append., p. xvii ;
order for new election, Append., p. xviii ;
W.H. Hardinge, Append., pp.xvili,xxxii,
xlvili; security required from, Append.,
p. Xxxvii; regulations for, Append.,p.x];
statements of, see Accounts.
—— Vice-Presidents :
Earl of Dunraven, Append., p. xlviii;
Rev. J. H. Jellett, Append., p. xvii;
Sir Robert Kane, Append., pp. xxxvii,
xlviii; Rev. George Salmon, D. D.,
Append., pp. xvii, xxxvyii, xlviii ; Rey.
James H. Todd, D. D., Append., pp.
XvVli, xxxvii; Sir W. R. Wilde, Append.,
pp. XVii, XxxVii, xlviii.
Adair family, arms of, 402, 405.
Adamnan, his Life of St. Columba, cited,
165.
Aderavoher, in the Co. of Sligo, 167.
Aghadoe, origin of the name, 167.
Aghindaiach, derivation of, 170.
Ahaness, silicified wood found at, 322.
Ailech-Neit, origin of the name, 424.
Ainge, the Nanny Water, 453.
Airgidin, the river, 444.
Airgiodluing, the Arglin River, 444.
Airisem ic altoir, waiting at an altar—
a mode of ordeal, 43.
Albite, found in the Co. of Antrim, 324.
Allen family, arms of, 179, 181.
lvl
Allo, the river, 2,10, 11.
Althorp, library of, Append., x1.
Alumina, sulphate of, found in Co. of An-
trim, 327.
Ana, who, 425.
Analcime, found in Co. of Antrim, 324.
Andrews, William, on Ziphius Sowerbi-
ensis, 51, Append., pp. xvii, xliii.
Animal Heat, W. H. O’Leary on, 65.
Annsbrook, wayside cross at, 98.
Anster, John, LL. D., his death, Append.,
p. xxx; obituary notice of, Append.,
pp. XXX, XXXi.
Antiquities. See Museum under Academy.
Antrim, Co. of, on the geology of, by John
Kelly, 235; geography and orography
of, 235; bays on north coast of, 298, 299;
names and measurements of headlands of,
298; dislocations on north coast of, 314 ;
ages of igneous rocks of, 313 ; granite of,
316 ; trap formations of, 301 ; geological
map of, Plate xxii ; map of elevation of
north coast of, Plate xxv.
Antrimolite, found in Co. of Antrim, 324.
Apatite, found in Co. of Antrim, 324.
Apophyllite, in Co. of Antrim, 324.
Arago, his theory of ground ice, 58.
Aran Isles, ancient villages in, 25.
Ardagh, Co. of Limerick, antiquities found
at, 458, lent to Academy, Append., p. xlv.
Ardagh, Co. of Longford, Church of St.
Mell at, 99.
Ardecath, old church of, drawing of, 96.
Ardihannon, peculiar conformation of
trap, at, 312.
Ardillaun, Co. of Galway, account of, 551;
ruins on, 554.
Ardmore, round tower of, 60.
Ard-saileach, Ardsallagh, 91.
Ardsallagh, old church, drawings of, 91.
Arglin, the river, derivation of the name,
444,
Arigideen, the river, 444.
Arlo, the hill of, now Galtymore, 2; called
from Aherlow, 3.
Arms, coats of, 101 drawings of, presented
by G. V. Du Noyer, 179.
Arragonite, found in the Co. of Antrim,
324.
Artynes compressa, a sponge, 223.
Aryan race, dispersion of, 63.
Asroe, or Eass-Ruaidh, 444.
Asturian district in Ireland, 67, 68; Astu-
rian Flora, 67.
Ath-Firdia, Ardee, 448.
Atkinson, Richard, a Member, death of,
Append., p. xiv.
Attychraan stream, 4.
Aubeg, or Mulla, the river, 3, 5.
Aubrian, the river, 1; unidentified, 12.
Aughnabrough, quarry of, 274, 275:
drawing of whin dykes and pillars of
dolomite in chalk, at, 275.
Augite, in Co. of Antrim, 324.
Auniduff, or Blackwater, 1, 9, 10.
Avonmore, the river, 444.
Awbeg, the river, 444.
Awin-gorm, the river, 445.
Awin-ure, the river, 445.
Axe-head, floating, 42.
Badb, meaning of the word, 422, 424;
examples of the name, 426; wife of
Neit, 424; of Sidh Femhin, 429; Badb-
catha, the Irish goddess of war, 421.
Badhurn, Leastar or vessel of, 39.
Baile-na-sean, village in Aran island of
Inishmore, 25 ; map of, Plate i.
Baillie fami!y, arms of, 179, 181.
Baker, John A., elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Balleng, in Co. of Antrim, 285.
Ballinrobe, derivation of the name, 454.
Ballycastle, collieries of, 242, 244, whin
dykes in, 318; basaltic pillars at, 311.
Ballycloghan quarry, Co. of Antrim, 295.
Ballycollin, where the Collin Well quarry,
275.
Ballyemin Glen, Co. of Antrim, 284.
Ballygally Head, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Ballyhome and Urbalreagh, basaltic pillars
at, 311.
Ballyhoura mountains, 2.
Ballymoney, Co. of Antrim, whin dykes in
chalk at, 277.
Ballymote, Book of, tract in, cited, 36.
Ballysadare, derivation of name, 445.
Ballytober, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Balmer’s Glen, or Ballynalargy, quarry at,
273.
Balogh, Professor, of Pesth, 504.
Baltray, near Howth, 330.
Bandon, the river, 2, 445.
Bank of Ireland, Academy arrangement
with, Append., p. li.
Bann, the river, 1, 445.
Barker, Henry Oliver, elected a Member,
Append., pp. xxiv, XxXi.
Barnewal, Alexander, tombstone of, at
Robertstown, 99.
Barnewall family, arms of, 402, 405.
Baronstown, cross of, near Slane, 95.
Barrington, John, elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Barrow, the river, 2, 7, 445.
Barrows, found in Central India, 64.
Barton, on the natural history of Lough
_ Neagh, 322.
Basalt, of the Co. of Antrim, 300; columnar
formation of, 308; in various localities
lviii
of the north of Ireland, 311; underlying
tabular basalt, 313; curved at White
Head, 300; onion, 302.
Basques, the, an Iberian race, 100.
Basses Pyrenees, the megalithicremains at,
472.
Bathe, William, monument of, at Duleek,
97, 98; Bathe and Dowdall families,
wayside cross of, 98.
Bathybius, a formation in deep sea mud,
543.
Battle-axe, Scandinavian, 20.
Bearbha, or Barrow, the river, 445.
Bearnan Cuileawn, a bell, grant for pur-
chase of copperplates of, Append., p.
XXXIV.
Behanagh, the river, 4, 5.
Bell, copperplates of an ancient, grant for
purchase of, p. ¥XXiv.
Bell family, arms of, 402, 405.
Bellew family, arms of, 402, 405.
Bellewe, Sir John, of Bellewstown, 97.
Bellewstown, drawings of antiquities at,
Nee
Benavides, Don Antonio, elected an Hon.
Member, 1869, Append., p. xlix.
Ben Croaghan, Co. of Antrim, 284.
Be-Neid, i.e. Neman, wife of Neid, 423,
424,
Bengore Head, Co. of Antrim, 297; geo-
logical description of, 304, 306; drawing
of, Plate xxiv.
Bennett, Edward H., elected a Member,
Append., p. Xv.
Berger, Dr., his description of whin dykes,
near Ballycastle, 318.
Berwick, Judge, a Member, death of,
Append., p. xlvi.
Bicircular Quartics, John Casey on, 44,
Append., p. xliii.
Bifurcation of rivers, 336.
Bird of valour, 437, 438.
Birds, two, places frequently named from,
1695-£70.
Blackburne, Rt. Hon. Francis, a Member,
death of, Append., p. Xxx.
Blackey family, arms of, 402, 405.
Black Head, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Black mail, or Black rent, exacted, 487.
Blackwater, various rivers of the name, 2,
9) 10%
Blair family, arms of, 179, 181.
Blennerhasset, Sir Rowland, Bart., M. P.,
elected a Member, Append., pp. v,
XV.
Bligh family, arms of, 402, 405.
Blomius, @ quo Slievebloom, 2, 7.
Bodb, or Badb, the goddess of war, 424;
Bodb Derg, who, 436.
Boeckh, August, an Hon. Member, death
of, Append., p. xxx.
Boinn, the Boyne, 446.
Bole, or Ochre. See Ochre.
Bolton, William E., a Member, death of,
Append., p. Xxx.
Boneyclassagh, basaltic pillars at, 311;
whin dyke in brecciated trap at, 312.
Bopp, Franz, an Hon. Member, death of,
415, App., p. xxx.
Borings near Ballycastle, journal of, 251.
Bowerbank, Dr., on sponges, 221, 222.
Boyce, James, Governor of Maynooth
Castle, 485.
Boyd family, arms of, 179, 182, 402, 405.
Boyne, the river, 1, 446.
Brackbawn river, 4, 5.
Brady family, arms of, 402, 405.
Brague, the termination, signifying pseudo,
Brannion family, arms of, 179, 182.
Brash, Richard Rolt, account of a souter-
rain at Curraghely, 72, App., p. xviii;
account of an Ogham chamber at
Drumloghan, App., p. xxiii; on an
Ogham stone in Glen Fais, 384.
Brea, who, 429.
Bregoge, the river, 2, 5.
Brenan family, arms of, 179, 182.
Brewster, Sir David, an Hon. Member,
death of, App., p. Xxx.
Brewsterite, found in Co. of Antrim, 324.
Brice family, arms of, 402, 405.
Broadwater, or the Blackwater, 10, 11.
Brogan, Michael, on ancient sepulchral
monuments in Co. of Galway, 440,
Append., p. xl.
Bronze antiquities found in Indian cairns,
61.
Brooch, mammillary, Scandinavian, draw-
ing of, 21; Tara Brooch, purchase of,
App., XXvii; ancient brooches found at
Ardagh, Co. of Limerick, 458.
Brosnach, the river, 446.
Brough, Mr., his borings in Co. Antrim,
249,
Brown, Very Rev. Eugene, ancient cro-
zier deposited in Museum by, App., iii.
Brown Devonian grit, in Co. of Antrim,
7438).
Browne family, arms of, 179, 182, 402,
405.
Bryan family, arms of, 179, 182.
Brynnan family, arms of, 179, 182.
Buas, the river Bush, 447.
Buchanan family, arms of, 179, 182.
_ Buckingham and Chandos, Duke of, letter
| of, Append., p. xi.
| Buckle, Scandinavian, drawing of, 22.
lix
Bull family, arms of, 179, 182.
Bunanadan, origin of name, 446.
Bundoran, origin of name, 446.
Bunsen, Professor, elected an Hon. Mem-
ber, 1869, App., p. xlviii.
Burach, the river, 447.
Burial places, ancient, called Killeens and
Cealluraghs, 103.
Burke, Sir Bernard, on Council (Com. Pol.
Lit.), Append., p. xxxii.
Burney family, arms of, 179, 182.
Burns family, arms of, 179, 182.
Bush, the river, 447.
Bushmills, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Busts, seventy-four, in terracotta, presented
by the Earl of Charlemont, Append., p.
XXXVIi.
Butler family, arms of, 402, 405.
Buttevant, formerly Kilnamullah, 3, 4.
Byrne family, arms of, 179, 182.
Byrne, John A., M. B., elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Cahan family, arms of, 179, 182.
Cahirconree, origin of name, 388.
Cain Cainbrethach, 43.
Cain family, arms of, 180, 185.
Cairn at Hyat Nugger, in the Dekhan,
60; antiquities found in cairns of the
Dekhan, 62.
Calcite, found in the County of Antrim, 324.
Caldwell, or Callwell, family, arms of 179,
182.
Calendar, the, fragment of Irish glosses
on, 71.
Callan Mountain,
found at, 105.
Callann, the river, 451.
Camog, the river, 447.
Camowen, the river, 447.
Campbell family, arms of, 179, 182.
Carboniferous rocks of Ireland, 240.
Carey, in the County of Antrim, coal
measures of, 249.
Carn-in-en-fir, at Moy Tura, 23.
Carnkirk, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Carn-meeneen-uisge, 23.
Carpenter, Dr., on Eozoon Canadense, 507.
Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., on Council
(Com. Pol. Lit.), Append., p. xvi; Trea-
surer, Append., p. xvi.; resigned, Ap-
pend., p. xvii.
Cartesian Ovals, properties of, 44.
Carus, Victor, elected an Hon. Member,
Append., p. xlviii.
Cary family, arms of, 179, 182.
Casey, John, elected a Member, Append.,
p. Xv; on Bicircular Quartics, 44, Ap-
pend., pp. x, xliii.
Ogham inscriptio.
Cashen River, ancient name of, 452.
Castle Dexter, on the Boyne, 95.
Catalogue. See Museum, Library, under
Academy.
Cath Mag Tuiredh, MS. of, 24.
Cathubodve, the Gaulish form of the
Irish Badb-catha, 421.
Caulfeild family, arms of, 402, 406.
Cavern, lettered, at Knockmore, 229.
Cavern, called Gillie’s Hole, carvings in,
395; inscribed, at Lough Nacloyduff, 327.
Caves, artificial, at Curraghely, 72; in
Spain, with archzological remains, 476,
478.
Cealluragh, an ancient burial place, 103.
Celtic and Latin languages, close affinity
of, 420.
Cement for mending broken urns, 337.
Cetacean, a very rare genus of, 51.
Chabasite, in Co. of Antrim, 324.
Chad family, arms of, 179, 182.
Chalcedony, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Chalice, ancient, found at Ardagh, Co. of
Limerick, 458.
Chalk district of North-East of Ireland,
260; chalkin Co. of Antrim, 267 ; table
of heights of, in Co. of Antrim, 268 ;
converted into granular marbles, 276 ;
rate of inclination of chalk in Co. of
Antrim, 288.
Chalmers family, arms of, 402, 406.
Charlemont, Earl of, his donation of 74
terra cotta Busts, Append., pp. xx xvii,
xlv.
Chapter House at Mellifont, 90.
Cheevers family, arms of, 402, 406.
Chichester family, arms of, 179, 183.
Chinese: porcelain seals found in Ireland,
172; probable age of, 176; list of, 177 ;
Chinese porcelain bottles found in
Egypt, 174.
Chloropheite, found in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Chrysolite, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Cich- Anand, the Paps in Kerry, 425.
Cill-na-mullach, or Buttevant, 4.
Circles of stones, at foot of the Pyrenees,
473.
Cladach, the Claddy river, 447.
Clady, the river, 447.
Clan, an entire, parties to a covenant, 488.
Clark family, arms of, 179, 183.
Clarke, Edward J., M.D., a Member,
death of, Append., p. xiv.
Clarke, Hyde, Note on the investigation
of the Pre-Celtic epoch in Ireland, 100,
Append., p. xxiii.
Clibborn, Edward, Clerk, Assistant Li-
brarian, and Curator of Museum, Ap-
pend,, pp. Xvi, Xxxii, xlviil.
Climate, physical conditions of, during
different geological epochs, 334.
Cloedach, the river, 13.
Cloghauns, in Aran, 25, 30; remains of,
at Slane, 92; or beehive cells, figure of.
Plates ii. vi.
Cloghaun-a-carriaga, 29.
Clonalvy, in Co. of Meath, names of, 167.
Clondagad, origin of the name, 171.
Clongill church, Trynch monument in, 98.
Clonmacnois, Rev. James Graves on the
gold ornaments said to have been found
at, Append., p. xxxiv.
Cloondara, origin of name, 167.
Cloonyhurke, derivation of name, 170.
Close,-Rev. Maxwell H., elected a Mem-
ber, Append., pp. xvii, xxxi.
Cloyfin, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Cnocans in Aran, 25, 30; figures of, Plates
LVeg Ve
Coal Measures, in Co. of Antrim, 242.
Coalpit at Ballycastle, 243.
Coal wood, or lignite, Co. of Antrim, 320.
Coats of Arms, on tombstones, drawings
of, 101, 402.
Cochrane family, arms of, 179, 183.
Codd, Francis, a Member, death of, Ap-
pend., p. Xxx.
Cohnheim, Herr, his researches’ on inflam-
mation and suppuration, 499. See Purser.
Coimde, the river, 448.
Cole family, arms of, 402, 406.
Colla-da-chrich, meaning of name, 166.
Collieries in Co. of Antrim, 243, 260.
Collingwood family, arms of, 402, 406.
Collum, Archibald, elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Colophonic hydrate, C.R.C. Tichborne
on, 415; Colophonine, discovery of, 415.
Columnar basalt, formation of, 308; list
of places where found, 311; its form
at the Giant’s Causeway, 309.
Colvill family, arms of, 402, 406.
Cong, Cross of, not allowed to be removed
to Paris, Append., p. xi.
Connellan, Owen, on the Rivers of Ireland,
443, Append., p.xl.; employed by the
Academy, Append., pp. xii, xxviii.
Connemara marble, abounding with Ko-
zoon Canadense, 509.
Constantine, coins of, found at Ireland’s
Eye, 332.
Cooper family, arms of, 179, 183, 402,
406.
Cooper, Lt. Col. Edward, M. P.,
Member, Append., p. xv.
Coracow, derivation of name, 167.
Corcair, the river, 448.
Cordalea, origin of the name, 172.
elected a
lx
Cordierite, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Cormac’s Glossary, cited, 423.
Corporation of Dublin, Deed of, with the
Academy, Append., p. li.
Cousin, Victor, an Hon. Member, death
of, Append., p. xiv.
Cow River, Abhainn-da-loilgech, 448.
Cragballywee, village in middle island of
Aran, 29.
Craig family, arms of, 179, 183.
Craigahulliar, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Craiganee, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Crannchur Seanchai, a mode of ordeal,
39.
Cranog in Lough Naneevin, description of,
31; construction of huts in, 31; re-
stored ideal sketch of, 31.
Crich-na-Morrigan, in Co. of Wicklow, 440.
Croaghmore, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Crofton, Henry M. E., elected a Member,
Append., pp. xviii, xxxi.
Cronach River, 448.
Cros-figell, meaning of, 35.
Cross, rude inscribed forms of, 230.
Crosses, drawings of, from Meath, 96, 97,
98; inscribed on walls of a cave, 329.
Crow, or Badb, superstitions concerning,
422, 423.
Crozier, ancient, deposited in Museum of
Academy, Append., p. iii.
Cruicetown, Co. of Meath, monument in
churchyard, 99.
Cruise, Francis R., elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Cruise, Walter, tomb of, at Cruicetown,
Sie
Cuach Cormaic, Cormac’s cup, 40, 48.
Cuchullain, the hero, 429; his i, 432-5;
his death, 435, 436.
Cueva de la Pastora, an ancient subter-
raneous gallery, 476.
Cueva de los Murcielagos, in the province
of Granada, 478.
Cueva de Mengal,
monument, 477.
Culimacari, the rock, carvings on, 232.
Cumerford family, arms of, 402, 406.
Cumuskey family, arms of, 402, 406.
Cunningham fund, report and recom-
mendation concerning, Append., p.
xlvi.
Cuppage family, arms of, 402, 406.
Curigh mac Dari, alleged monument of,
388; Curoi mac Daire, 387.
Curraghely, souterrain at, 72.
an ancient Spanish
Da and Dha,
165.
Dabrona, or Dubrona, the river, 444.
“two,” pronunciation of,
Da-cich-na-Morrigna, in Kerry, 440.
D’ Alton, John, death of, Append., p. v; ac-
count of his life and labours, 46, of his
publications, 47.
Danes, weapons of, found at Islandbridge,
13
Daoil, the name of various rivers, 448.
D’Arbois de Jubainville, M., Irish MS.
found by, 70.
Darcy family, monuments of, 95.
Darlinstown, Co. of Meath, old castle of,
98.
Daubrée, M., elected an Hon. Member,
Append., p. xlviii.
Davis family, arms of, 402, 406.
Davis, Charles, M.D., a Member, death
of, Append., p. xiv.
Dawson family, arms of, 180, 183.
Dee, the river, 448.
Deeds or covenants, in Irish, very scarce,
482.
Deel, the river, 448.
Dego maqi mucoi, Ogham inscription of,
A:
De Gua, ‘‘ the condition of,’’ 343.
Dekhan, the cairns and antiquities of, 62.
Delamar family, arms of, 402, 407.
Delphinorhyncus Dalei, 51.
Derg, the river, 448.
Dermid, a poem by John D’ Alton, 47.
De Rossi, Cavaliere G. B., elected an Hon.
Member, Append., p. xvi.
Desmacidon A®gagrophila, a sponge, 227.
Didron, M., elected an Hon. Member,
Append., p. xvi.
Dilar, in Spain, antiquarian remains at,
478.
Dillon family, arms of, 402, 407.
Dinnsenchas, the legends of only four
rivers in, 443.
Disco Teodosiano, a silver lanx found at
Merida, 474.
Dislocations, geological, in Co. of Antrim,
314.
Dodder, formerly Dothair, the river, 448 ;
its source, 335; ground ice in bed of,
52.
Doddington family, arms of, 402, 407.
Dog, metal figure of a, found at Island-
bridge, 17.
Dolmens, in Spain, 479.
Dolomite, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Donagh, parish of, old name of, 168.
Donalaitis, Christian, the Lithuanian
poet, 118.
Donald family, arms of, 180, 183.
Donations. See Library, Museum, under
Academy.
Donel family, arms of, 180, 183.
lxi
Donn Cuailnge, the, 431.
Donore, old church of, 98.
Donovan, Michael, on a modification of
Regnault’s Condensing Hygrometer,
459; Append., p. xlix.
Doon Point, basaltic columns at, 314.
Doranite, found in County of Antrim,
325.
Dowdall, Janet, monument of, at Duleek,
975, 98.
Downing, Samuel, LL.D., on Council
(Com. Science), Append., pp. xvii,
XXXil, xlviii.
Dowth, old church of, 96.
Drawings, presented by G. V. Du Noyer,
89, 402.
Dromanna Bregh, 429.
Drowes, the river, 7.
Drumahaire, derivation of name, 171.
Drumahitt, near Ballycastle, 250;
of, Plate xxiii.
Drumederglass, in Co. of Cavan, 167.
Drumloghan, in Co. of Waterford, Ogham
chamber at, 103; plan of, Plate xiv;
drawings of, Plates xv, xvi, xvii,
XVili, Xix.
Drus, or Drobhais, the river, 449.
Dubh, followed by da, in the formation of
personal names, 166.
Dublin, Archbishop of, on Council (Com.
Pol. Lit.), Append., p. xxxii.
Dubourdieu, Statistical Survey of Antrim
cited, 320, 321; his description of
pitchstone porphyry, 294.
Duff, or Dubh, the river, 449.
Duleek, ecclesiastical remains at, 96, 97;
crosses at or near, 96, 98.
Dunboe, hill of, at Howth, 331.
Duncrue, salt mines at, 262.
Dun-da-en, now Duneane, 169.
Dundareirke, derivation of name, 169.
Dunlop family, arms of, 180, 183.
Dunmoe, castle of, on the Boyne, 95.
Dunmore, castle of, 95.
Dunne, Major-Gen. the Rt. Hon. F.
Plunkett, M. P., elected a Member,
Append., pp. v, Xv.
Du Noyer, George V., 100 original draw-
ings presented by, Append., p. xii;
catalogue of 101 drawings presented by,
89, Append., p. xxiii; catalogue of
101 drawings of coats of arms pre-
sented by, 402; acknowledgment of his
valuable presentations, Append., pp.
xXvViii, xlvii; his death, 402, Append.,
pp. xlvi, xlvii; biographical or necro-
logical notice of, 413, Append., pp.
xxxvili, xlvii; resolution regarding a
memorial to, Append., p. xlii.
map
xu
Dunraven, the Earl of, on Council (Com.
Antiqq.), Append., pp. xxxii, xlvili; a
Vice-President, Append., xlviii; on an
ancient cup and brooches found at
Ardagh, in the Co. of Limerick, 458,
Append., p. xl.
Dunsmore, Mr., his borings in Co. of An-
trim, 254.
Dunvegan, cup of, paper on, by J. H.
Smith, Append., p. xvii.
Dur, the river, 449.
Duties upon Irish natives, 490.
Ealla, the river, 11.
Easkey, lascaigh, the river, 449.
Eas-ruaidh, Asroe, 444.
Economy, Committee of, Report
Append., p. xxiv.
Edgeworth, David R., elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Eithne, now Inny, the river, 451.
Ellis, George, M.B., elected a Member,
Append., pp. vi, Xv.
Eoir, the Nore, 454.
Eozoon Canadense, Professors King and
Rowney on, 506; a mineral pseudo-
morph, 506-551, Append., p. li.
Eozoonal ophite, 519.
Epidotite, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Ere mac Cairpre, slays Cuchullin, 437.
Erne, Lough, origin of name, 450.
the river, 444; formerly Samair,
449,
Esmonde, Sir Thomas, a Member, death of,
Append., p. xlvi.
Esparto, the uses of, Append., p. xlix.
Evered family, arms of, 402, 407.
Fahan, in Co. of Kerry, antiquarian re-
mains at, 393.
Fair Head, geological description of, 304,
305; debris of, 305; and Murlough
Bay, geological section of, Plate xxvi.
Fais, a qua Glen Fais, 390.
Fanchin, or Funcheon, the river, 2, 5.
Fannin family, arms of, 180, 183.
Farney Bridge, river, 450.
Farnham, Lord, a Member, death of,
Append., pp. xlvi, xlvii.
Faroelite, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Farrell family, arms of, 403, 407.
Farrell, Thomas A., elected a Member,
Append., pp. xvii, xxxi.
Fathan, the river, origin of name, 450.
Faughan, the river, 450.
Fea, the name, meaning of, 424.
Feale, the river, 450.
Fear-da-chrich, meaning of name, 166.
Fear-da-ghial, ‘meaning of name, 166.
Fear-da-liach, meaning of name, 166.
Felspar, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Fenix, the river, 454.
of,
|
Fennéga, scald crows, 424.
Fennog-liath na gragarnaith, the royston
crow, 422.
Fennor, castle of, 94; old church of, 95.
Fergus, the river, 450.
Ferguson, Samuel, LL.D., on Council
(Com. Pol. Lit.), Append., pp. xvi,
XxXxii, xlviii; paper on the rudiments
of the Common Law discernible in the
Senchus Mor, Append., p. x.
Fermoy, the Book of, Dr. Todd on, Ap-
pend., pp. xxiii, xxvii.
Feudal acknowledgments by the Irish,
487.
Fielding family, arms of, 403, 407.
Find, Scandinavian, at Islandbridge, 13.
Finglas, the river, 450.
Finn, the river, 450.
Fioddn, a rivulet, 443; the river, 446.
Firbolgs, or Belge, battle of, 22.
Fir Flatha, truths of sovereignty, 36.
Firt, a likely depository of Ogham inscrip-
tions, 120.
Fisher family, arms of, 180, 183.
Fitzgerald family, arms of, 403, 407.
Flannan, St., chapel of, at Killaloe, 99.
Fleming family, arms of, 408, 407.
Flesk, the river, 450.
Fohn, the, origin of, 496; its connexion
with the Glacier theories, 496.
Font, old, at Killaloe, 100.
Forrest, J. K., elected a Member, Append.,
p. XV.
Fosleac, a cell of flagstones, 25-30; figures
of, Plate iii.
Fossil wood, account of, 323.
Fossils found in Ballycastle limestone,
241; found at Portrush and Skerry
Islands, 319 ; the Eozoon Canadense an
alleged fossil, 507.
Fox family, arms of, 403, 407.
Frankish antiquities, exhibited by the
President, Append., p. xxiv.
Frazer, William, elected a Member, Ap-
pend., p. xv; on Chinese seals found in
Ireland, 172, Append., p. xxv; on the
discovery of earthen urns at Palmers-
town, 336, Append., p. xxxiv; paper
on Esparto, Append., p. xlix.
Fregabail, the Ravel Water, 454.
French, Right Hon. Col. Fitz Stephen,
M. P., elected a Member, Append., pp.
XEN KOR:
Froude, his description of the Pale, 486.
Fubna, the river, 450.
Fulacht-na-morrigna,
Hearth,’’ 439.
Funcheon, the river, 4, 5.
“the Morrigan’s
Gaedhil, the supposed introducers of the
Ogham, 118.
lxiil
Gafiney, Rev. James, elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Gages, Alphonse, biographical notice of
the late G. V. Du Noyer, 413, Append.,
p. XXxXviii.
Gaidoz, Henri, note on the Irish glosses
lately discovered at Nancy, 70, Append.,
p. XViii.
Gall-gan-eagla, motto on a shield, 99.
Gallway, Thomas, elected a Member, Ap-
pend., p. xv.
Galt family, arms of, 403, 407.
Galtymore, the mountain, 2; called Arlo
Hill by Spenser, 31.
Galway, Co. of, sepulchral remains in, 440.
Gardiner family, arms of, 180, 184.
Garron Point, Co. of Antrim, 282; forma-
tion of, 296.
Gaulish inscription, 421.
Gavin family, arms of, 180, 184.
Gayangos y Arce, Don Pascual, elected an
Hon. Member, Append., p. xlix.
Geltach, or lunacy, caused by the Badb,
430.
Genio-hyo-glossi muscles, action of, 84;
drawing of, Plate xiii.
Geological Society of Ireland, letter of,
regarding the late G. V. Du Noyer,
Append., p. xlii.
Geraldines, their exactions from the Irish
outside the Pale, 495.
Getty family, arms of, 180, 184.
Getty, Edmund, on Chinese seals, 173.
Giant’s Causeway, description and forma-
tion of, 309 ; the columns of, 309 ; names
of portions of, 310; Giant’s Loom, 310.
Gilbert, John T., on Council (Com. An-
tiqq.), Append., pp. xvi, x xxii, xlviii ;
Librarian, 7d., pp. Xvi, XXxii, xlviil.
Gillie’s Hole, the cavern, 395.
Given family, arms of, 180, 184.
Glacier theories in connexion with the
Fohn of the Alps, 496.
Glaisi Bearamain, or the Inny, 451.
Glasgow family, arms of, 180, 184.
Glenaish, or Glen Fais, 384.
Glenarm, chalk formations at, 281.
Glenavy, fossil wood at, 323; basaltic
pillars at the mouth of the river, 311.
Glencullen, stream of, 335.
Glendalough, origin of name, 168.
Glendavagh, origin of name, 168.
Glendoo, in the Dublin mountains, 335.
Glen Fais, in Kerry, Ogham inscription
at, 117, 384.
Glen-na-ngealt, in Kerry, origin of name,
430.
Glen Scothian, 392.
Glenstaghey, basaltic pillars at, 311.
R.I. A. PROC.—vVOL. X.
Gleoir, the river, 451.
Gleorach, meaning of, 451.
Gmelinite in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Goddess of War of the Irish, 421.
Gormanstown, old church of, 95.
Government, increased grant of, to Aca-
demy, p. Xxvi; purchase of the Petrie
Museum by, p. xxvii.
Graham family, arms of, 403, 407.
Graig family, arms of, 180, 184.
Granite of the County of Antrim, 316.
Grant, Parliamentary. See Finances un-
der Academy.
Graves, ancient, at Ireland’s Eye, 332.
Graves, Right Rev. Charles, observations
on an Ogham paper, 119; on a pre-
viously undescribed class of monuments,
Append., p. xi.
Graves, Rev. James, on gold ornaments
alleged to have been found at Clonmac-
nois, Append., xxxiv.
Gray family, arms of, 403, 407.
Gray, J. E., on British sponges, 222.
Green, James Sullivan, elected a Member,
Append., pp. xvii, xxxi.
Green-earth, in Co. of Antrim, 325..
Greensand, in Co. of Antrim, 266.
Greenstone, nature of, in Co. of Antrim,
303; of Fair Head, 304; protrusions
of, at Skerries, 320.
Grenu, who, 429.
Grey-man’s path, at Fair Head, 306.
Gudomain, meaning of, 424.
Gweedore, Gaeth-dobhair, 447.
Gypsum, in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Haddan family, arms of, 180, 184.
Halichondria, a sponge, 226.
Haliday, Charles, a Member, death of,
Append., p. xiv.; grant fora Portrait of,
Append., pp. xxiv, xlvi; his collection
of Irish Pamphlets, presented by his
widow, Append., pp. v, xii, and their
disposal, Append., p. xxix, catalogue
of, Append., p. xliv.
Haliday, Mrs., her presentation of the
Haliday Collection, Append., p. v ; vote
of thanks returned, 70.
Halisarca, a sponge, 226.
Haller, de fabrica et usu lingue, 85.
Hamilton family, arms of, 180, 184.
Hanlon, Charles, a Member, death of,
Append., p. Xxx.
Hannagan, Anthony, elected a Member,
Append., pp. xvii, xxxi.
Hannah, Samuel, M. D., a Member, death
of, Append., p. xxx.
Hardiman, James, Irish deeds described
by, 482.
m
lxiv
Hardinge, W.
Antiqq.), Append., xvi, xxxii, xlviii;
elected Treasurer, 7., XViii, Xxxli,
xlviili; general abstract of account,
Append., at end; on the outbreak of
the civil war in Ireland in 1641-52,
Append., p. xi; on an unpublished essay
by Sir W. Petty, Append., p. xi.
Hardy, Samuel L., M. D., a Member,
death of, Append., p. xlvi.
Harmatome, found in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Harringtonite, found in Co. Antrim, 325.
Hart, Andrew Searle, LL. D., on Council
(Com. Science), Append., p. xlviii.
Harte family, arms of, 403, 408.
Harvey, William H., M.D., a Member,
death, and obituary notice of, Append.,
p. Xiv.
Hay family, arms of, 180, 184.
Hayden, Thomas, M.D., on the physio-
logy of protrusion of the tongue, 83.
Headlands of the Co. of Antrim, names
and heights of, 298.
Heat, animal, W. H. O’Leary on, 65.
Heavenly bodies, the, rotatory motion of,
189.
Hematite, found in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Hennessy, Henry, F. R. S., on Council
(Com. Science), Append., pp. xvi, xxxii,
xlvii; on the formation of ground ice
in the bed of the Dodder, 52, Append.,
p.- Xvii; on the origin of the South
European plants found growing in
Ireland, 66, Append., p. xXvili; on
the physical condition of climate dur-
ing differents geological epochs, 334,
Append., p. xxxiv; note on two
streams flowing from a common source
in opposite directions, 355; on the
Fohn of the Alps, 496, Append., p. 1;
‘on the distribution of temperature,.
Append., p. v.
Hennessy, William M., on the forms of
Ordeal in Ireland, 34, Append., p. vi;
on the Goddess of War of the ancient
Trish, 421, Append., p. xxxvViii.
Heulandite, found in Co. of Antrim, 325.
Heyland family, arms of, 403, 408.
Hill, John, C. E., elected a Member,
Append., pp. vi, Xv.
Hincks, Rev. Edward, D. D., the Presi-
dent’s observations on the death of,
Append., p. iii; obituary notice of,
Append., p. Xv.
Hitchcock, Mr. Richard, Ogham and
Antiquarian researches of, 105, 393.
Holliday family, arms of, 180, 184.
Holmes family, arms of, 180, 185.
Hondaas de las Hadas, Spring of the
Fairies, 472.
H., on Council (Com. ; Hooker, Joseph Dalton, M. D., elected an
Hon. Member, Append., p. xlviii.
Hore family, arms of, 403, 408.
Hounds, two, places called from, 170.
Houston family, arms of, 180, 185, 403,
408.
Howth, excavations at, 330.
Humboldt, his account of rock carvings
on the Orinoco, 232, 233.
Hume, Rev. A., LL. D., on the English
Language spoken in Ireland, Append.,
pad.
Hunt, Dr. Sterry, 531, 535.
Hutton, Thomas M., elected a Member,
Append., p. Xv.
Huxley, Professor, his theory of the, posi-
tion of the limbs, 144.
Hyat Nugger, in the Dekhan, cairn at,
60
Hyderabad, cairns near, 60.
Hydrophane, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Hygrometer, Daniell’s, 459, 470.
Hymeniacidon, a genus of sponge, 225.
Hymeraphia verticillata, a sponge, 225.
Tarn Luchta, Luchta’s iron, a mode of
ordeal, 42.
Iascaigh, Easkey, the river, 449.
Iberian race, the ramifications of, 100.
Ice, ground, formed in the Dodder, 52.
Igneous rocks, ages of, 316.
Igu, son of Dag, alleged Ogham inscrip-
tion of, 109.
Imaginarity, the term, 346.
Imaginary roots of numerical equations,
T. R. Young on, 343.
Index to O’Curry’s Catalogues of Irish
MSS., Append., pp. xii, xiii.
India, cairns in, 60.
Inflammation and
Cohnheim on, 499.
Inflorescences, some relations of, Dr.
Sigerson on, 75.
Ingram, John Kells, LL. D., on Council
(Com. Pol. Lit.), Append., pp. xvi,
XXxli, xlviii; Secretary of Council,
Append., pp. xvi, xxxii, xlviii.
Inis Faithlenn, now Ireland’s Eye, 334.
Inishmore, map of Baile-na-sean in, Plate
if
Inis-iarther, or Ardillaun, Co. of Galway,
551.
Inny, Eithne, the river, 451.
Inscribed stone in Tullagh churchyard,
340.
Interment, Christian, relative position of
clerical and lay in, 333.
Ireland, rivers of, Spenser’s list, 1 ; origin
of names, 101; note on the pre-Celtic
epoch of, 100; South European plants
Herr
suppuration,
found growing in, 66; its ancient inter-
course with Spain, 69; language of,
MS. glosses found at Nancy, 70.
Ireland’s Eye, ancient names of, 334;
finds at, 332.
Irish Forfeitures of 1688, MS. regarding,
presented, Append., p. xii; Trish glosses
at Nancy, 70, 71.
‘Iron, weapons of, found in Indian cairns,
61.
Irvine family, arms of, 180, 185.
Irwin family, arms of, 180, 185.
Island-bridge, find of Scandinavian anti-
quities at, 15.
Islandmore Upper, basaltic pillars at,
311.
Isodictya, a genus of sponge, 227.
Ivora Bridge, near Howth, 330.
Jaffray family, arms of, 180, 185.
James, Sir John K., Bart., a Member,
death of, Append., p. xlvi.
Jasper, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Jellett, Rev. John H., on Council (Com.
Science), Append., p. xvi, (Com. Pol.
Lit.), ib., xlviii; a Vice-President,
Append., p. xvii.
Jephson, R. H., elected a Member, Append.,
pp. XVii, Xxxi.
Jessop, F. Thomas, a Member, death of,
Append., p. xlvi.
Johnston family, arms of, 180, 185.
Johnston, George, his history of British
sponges, 222.
Jones, General Sir H. D., a Member,
death of, Append., pp. xiv, xlvi,
xlvii.
Joyce, P. W., paper on Spenser’s rivers,
1, Append., p. iii; on the occurrence of
‘the number ¢woin Irish proper names,
164, Append., p. xxiv.
Jukes, Joseph B., F. R. S., on Council
(Com. Science), Append., p. xv.
Kain family, arms of, 180, 185.
Kane, Sir Robert, M. D., on Council
(Com. Science), Append., pp. xxxii,
xlviii; a Vice-President, Append., pp.
XXXVii, xlvilii.
Kavanagh, Very Rev. James, D. D.,
elected a Member, Append., 1.
Keane, Marcus, elected a Member, Append.,
pp. vi, Xv.
Kein family, arms of, 180, 185.
Kelly, Denis H., on Council (Com. An-
tiqq.) Append., pp. xvi, xxxii, xlviii;
on two MSS. of Duald Mac Firbis,
Append., p. x.
Kelly, John, on the geology of the County
{
Ixv
of Antrim, 235, Append., pp. xxxiii,
XXxiv.
Kenane, St., of Duleek, 97.
Kenbane Head, County of Antrim, 287;
trap and chalk at, 288.
Kenmare, called Maire by Spenser, 8.
Kenramer, basaltic columns at, 314.
Kenwan, name on inscription at Slane, 93.
Kilbeheny, 4.
Kilbride, Rev. W., of Aran, 25.
Kilcolman Castle, Spenser’s residence, 1.
Kildare, Earls of, their power, 489; ren-
tal of, 490; Gerald, 9th Earl of, a grant
from, 480; founder of the College of
Maynooth, 481.
Kildare, Marquis of, presentation by, to
the Library, Append., p. xii.
Kildaree, derivation of name, 171.
Killaloe, St. Flannan’s chapel of, 99:; old
font of, 100.
Killederdaowen, meaning of name, 166.
Killeen, an ancient burial place, 103.
Kilnemullah, now Buttevant, 3, 4.
Kilroy family, arms of, 403, 408.
Kiltymorris, pits of lignite at, 321.
Kinahan, Edward H., elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Kinahan, George H., elected a Member,
Append., pp. XXiv, XXxi; on some
ancient villages in the Aran Isles, 25,
Append., p.iv; onacranoge in Lough
Naneevin, 31, Append., p. iv; on the
ruins on Ardillaun, Co. of Galway, 551.
Kincaid family, arms of, 180, 185.
King, Professor W., on the histology of
the test of the class Palliobranchiata, 64,
Append., pp. xvii, xliii; on Eozoon
Canadense, 506, Append., p. li.
Knockcommon, old church of, 96.
Knocklayd, in Co. of Antrim, 285.
Knockmore, carvings in cave on, 229,
Gillie’s Hole, cavern at, 395; inscrip-
tions on, Plate xxi.
Knocksoghey, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Knox family, arms of, 180, 185.
Labrann, the river, 452.
Lackagh, the river, 451.
Lady’s Chair, at Giant’s Causeway, 310.
Lagan, the river, 451; anameof various
districts, 451.
Langford Lodge, specimen. of fossil wood
at, 323.
Lanx, silver, found at Merida, 474.
Laoi, now the river Lee, 452.
Larcom, Sir Thomas A.., letters of, on the
Academy Grant, Append., pp. vi,
xxv; elected an Hon. Member, Ap-
pend., p. xlix.
lxvi
Larrybane Head, Co. of Antrim, 287.
Lassen, Professor, elected an Hon. Mem-
ber, Append., p. xlix.
Latin, close affinity of, to the Celtic, 420.
Laumonite, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Laune, or Leamhain, the river, 451.
Lea, or Laoi, the river, 452.
Lea family, arms of, 403, 408.
Leaba Diarmada agus Ghrainné, 104, 441.
Leabhar Gabhala, prepared for the press by
Professor Connellan, Append., p. xii.
Leamhain, now the Laune, 451.
Leanan, the river, 452.
Learmouth family, arms of, 180, 185.
Lecky family, arms of, 180, 185.
Lee, or Laoi, the river, 2, 425.
Leeds Exhibition, antiquities lent to, Ap-
pend., p. xxiv.
Legg family, arms of, 180, 185.
Legge, Rev. James, account of Chinese
seals, 175.
Lenihan, Maurice, elected a Member, Ap-
pend., p. xlix.
Letha, or Brittany, 42.
Leuconia, a sponge, 223.
Leucosolenia, a sponge, 223.
Levyne, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Lias, occurrence of, in Co. of Antrim, 264.
Liath Macha, Cuchullin’s horse, 436.
Librarian, Library. See under Academy.
Liffer, the river, 2; now the Foyle, 6.
Liffey, the river, 1, 452.
Lifford or Liffer, Leithbhearr, 3.
Lignite, or wood.coal, 320; found in Co.
of Antrim, 326; its relation to silicified
wood, 822; places where found, 322,
323.
Ligurians, the, distribution of, 102.
Limbs, theories of the position of, 144;
bony correspondences of, 146.
Limestone, white, in N. E. of Ireland,
267.
Lincol family, arms of, 403, 409.
Lis-baha, near the Paps, 440.
Lisdaulan, derivation of name, 170.
Lithomarge, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Lithuanian language, Schleicher’s re-
searches in, 418.
Little, James, M. D., elected a Member,
Append., pp. xxxiii, xlvii.
Loan family, arms of, 180, 185.
Loch-da-damh, in Oriel, 170.
Loch-da-gedh, in Co. of Sligo, 169.
Loch Gile, derivation of name, 456.
Loch Luighdheach, now Corrane Lough,
450.
Loch Melvin, legend of, 7.
Logan, Sir William E., Director of the
Geological Survey of Canada, 506.
Londonderry, mountains of, 236.
Longfield, Rev. George, D. D., on Council
(Com. Pol. Lit.), Append., pp. xvi,
xxxii, xlviii.
Longwood family, arms of, 403, 409.
Lon Laith, ‘‘ Bird of Valour,” 438.
Lord Lieutenant, Earl Spencer, Address
of Academy to, Append., p. xxxviii;
his reply, ib., XXXix.
Lottner, Dr., biographical notice of
August Schleicher, 415, Append., p.
XXXVI. z
Lough Nacloyduff, inscribed cavern at,
327; inscriptions, Plate xxvii.
Lough Naneevin, Co. of Galway, cranoge
in, 31; map of, Plate vii.
Loughridge family, arms of, 180, 185.
Luachair-monetir-dainbher, 167.
Luchta, the Druid, 42.
Lurrig, or Lurgethon, Co. of Antrim,
283.
Lutwidge family, arms of, 403, 409.
Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., elected an Hon.
Member, Append., p. xvi.
Lyndsay family, arms of, 403, 408.
Lyne, Robert Edwin, elected a Member,
Append., pp. xxiv, XxXxi.
Macalister, Alexander, on the muscular
anomalies in human anatomy, 121,
Append., p. xxiii.
MacCarthy, Denis F., on Council (Com.
Pol. Lit.), Append., p. xvi.
Mac Cormac, William, M.D., elected a
Member, Append., pp. xxviii, xlvii.
Mac Culruadh, Conchobhar, 483.
Mac Donnell, Rev. Richard, D. D., Pro-
vost of Trinity College, Dublin, his
death, Append., p. v; obituary notice
of, 2b., xiv.
M‘Donnell, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., on
Council (Com. Science), Append., pp.
KVieyp KONO
M‘Donnell, Dr., of Belfast, his observa-
tions, 273, 274.
MacFirbis, Duald, transcripts of two Irish
MSs. of, Append., p. x.
Macha, sister of the Badb, 422, 424.
Maclise, his theory of the position of the
limbs, 144.
Mac Main, or Moran, collar of, 37.
Mac Rannall, deed between him and Earl
of Kildare, 480; his pedigree, 483; his
connexion with the Geraldines, 484 ;
his tribute entered in the Kildare Ren-
tal, 494; the name anglicised Rey-
nolds, 484.
Macrauchenia Boliviensis, 398.
Madden, R. R., M. D., on Council (Com.
lxvil
Pol. Lit.), Append., pp. xvi, xxxii,
xlviii.
Magee, James, a Member, death of, Ap-
pend., p. xiv.
Magennis, Mr. P., his copy of Knockmore
inscriptions, 231.
Magh Fubna, in Airgialla, 451.
Magh Itha, Slemna of, 429.
Magh Tuiredh, battle of, the Badb, Macha,
and Morrigan at, 428; of the Fomo-
rians, or the northern, 428, 429.
Magill family, arms of, 180, 185.
Magnetite, found in County of Antrim,
326.
Magradhnaill, or Mac Rannall, 480.
Maine, the river, 453.
Maire, the river, 2; Kenmare river, 8.
Mammalian remains, found in mineral
veins, 397.
Manannan Mac Lir, of Tir Tairrngiri, 455.
Manfod family, arms of, 180, 186.
Mang, the river, 453.
Manu, son of Unoga, supposed inscription
of, 107.
Magi, form of word in Ogham inscrip-
tions, 106; attention first drawn to the
form Magi by Bishop Graves, 120.
Marranos, what, 475.
Martin family, arms of, 180, 186, 403,
409.
Maynooth, College of the B. Virgin of, 481.
M‘Cabe family, arms of, 403, 409.
M‘Donachy family, arms of, 180, 183.
M‘Donald family, arms of, 180, 183.
M‘Gee, Hon. Thos. D’Arcy, a Member,
death of, Append., p. xlvi.
M‘Gill family, arms of, 403, 407.
M‘Kenna family, arms of, 403, 409.
M‘Key, of Munterolis, 494.
M‘Kieran family, arms of, 403, 409.
M'‘Knight family, arms of, 180, 185.
M‘Munn family, arms of, 180, 186.
M‘Neal family, arms of, 181, 186.
M‘Sparran family, arms of, 181, 187.
Meares family, arms of, 403, 409.
Meeneen uisge, a well, 23.
Meeting. See under Academy.
Mell, St., church of, at Ardagh, 99.
Mellifont Abbey, drawing of, by Du Noyer,
89, 91; chapter house of, 90.
Members. See under Academy.
Merriman, Michael, elected a Member,
Append., pp. xvii, Xxxi.
Mesole, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Mesoplodon, or Xiphius Sowerbiensis, W.
Andrews on, Append., p. xvii.
Mesotype, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Meyler, George, a Member, death of, Ap-
pend., p. xxx.
Mica slate, in different parts of Ireland,
237.
Micaceous iron ore, found in Co. of Antrim,
326.
Microciona armata, a sponge, 224.
Milesians, or Scoti, their alleged place of
landing, 389, 392.
Mineral veins, mammalian and other re-
mains in, 897; age of, 398.
Minutes of Academy. See uuder Aca-
demy.
Mitchell family, arms of, 180, 186.
Mivart, M., his theory of the position of
the limbs, 145.
Modhorn, the Mourne river, 453.
Molaise, shrine of, electrotype copy, Ap-
pend., p. xlvii.
Molanna river, 2, 5; a fictitious name, 4.
Mole, the range of Galties and Bally-
howra, 3.
Mommsen, Theodor, elected an Hon. Mem-
ber, Append., p. xvi.
Montgomeri family, arms of, 180, 186.
Montgomeri, Margaret, wife of Rev. Jac.
Trynche, 98.
Montgomery family, arms of, 180, 186,
403, 409.
Moon, the, rotation of, 217, Append.,
Pp: XXIV.
Moore family, arms of, 180, 186, 403, 409.
Moortown church, monuments in, 98.
Moran, son of Cairbre Cinn-cait, 37; Mo-
ran’s Collars, virtues of, 37, 38.
Moran, Very Rev. Patrick F., elected a
Member, Append,, pp. xxxviii, xlvii.
More, Alexander J., elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Morrigan, the, daughter of Ernmas, 432,
435; sister of the Badb, 422, 424;
account of, in the Tain Be Aingen, 431 ;
identified with Ana, 425, 427; three
Morrigna, who, 424; the name in local
composition, 439, 440.
Motto, Irish, “‘ Gall-gan-Eagla,”’ 99.
Mountains of Antrim and Derry, heights
of, 236.
Mourne, or Modhorn, the river, 453.
Moy, the river, 453.
Moynterolys, or Mac Rannall’s Country,
494,
Moytura, battle of, Sir W. R. Wilde on, 22.
Muc, occurrence of the word in Ogham
inscriptions, 112.
Molla, the river, 2-5.
Munies, basaltic mountain of, 282.
Murlough Boy, coal measures at, 247.
Mur-na-Morrigna, 440.
Muro, or Munroe, family, arms of, 180,
186.
Ixvi
Muscles, anomalies of, in the human sub-
ject, 121; where most frequent, 121,
122; typical, 124.
Museum. See under Academy.
Myology, human anomalies in, 121.
Nancy, library at, MS. with Irish glosses
found in, 70.
Nannywater, an Ainge, 453.
Natrolite found in Co. Antrim, 326.
Necklace of shells found in Indian cairn,
62.
Neit, the husband of Neman, 423; son of
Indu, 424; the god of battle, 424; ex-
planation of the name, 423.
Neman, that is, the Badb, 429; wife of
Neit, 422.
Neptur, a Fomorian, 424.
Newre, the river, 2.
New Red Sandstone in Co. of Antrim,
260.
Newton's rule regarding imaginary roots
in an equation, proof of, by D. R. Young,
349.
Nickelson family, arms of, 403, 409.
Nine, mystic number of the Pagan Irish,
37, 38; a prevalent number in rivers,
446, 455.
Nith, the river, 448.
Nore, the river, 454.
O’Brien, James H., elected a Member,
Append., p. 1.
Obsidian, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
O’Callaghan, John C., elected a Member,
Append., p. lL.
Ochre, red, or boles, occurrence of, in Co. of
Antrim, 303; condition of its formation,
307.
O’Conor Don, The, M. P., elected a Mem-
ber, Append., pp. xviii, xxxi.
Octahedral iron ore, found in Co. of An-
trim, 826.
O’ Curry’s Catalogues, indexes to, Append.,
p. XXViii.
Odafe, son of Denafe, supposed Ogham in-
scription, 111.
O’ Dempsey family, arms of, 403, 410.
O’ Donaghy family, arms of, 180, 183.
O’Donel, Charles J., elected a Member, Ap-
pend., pp. v, XV.
O'Donnavan, W. J., LL.D., on Council
(Com. Antiqg.), Append., pp. Xvi,
Xxli, xlviii.
O'Farrell, Ambrose Moore, elected a Mem-
ber, Append., p. xlix.
O’Ferrall, Jos. M., M.D., a Member,
death of, Append., p. xlvi.
O’Flanagan, J. R., on the Life and La-
bours of John D’Alton, 46, Append., .
Dis
Ogham monuments, where prevalent, 114,
115, 394; preserved in forts, 120;
theory as to the introduction of the
character, 115, 116; general nature of,
106; difficulties in reading and inter-
preting, 121; the symbol for ea, 385;
translation of, 105; proposed transla-
- tions, 385, 386; chamber at Drum-
loghan, 103; description of, 114,
drawings of, Plates xv, xvii, xviii,
xix; Bishop Graves’s observations on
Mr. Brash’s paper, 119; Ogham stone in
Glen Fais, 384.
Ogilby, William, on the rotation of the
moon, Append., p. xxiv.
Ogle family, arms of, 403, 410.
O’Grady, Standish H., elected a Member,
Append., pp. Xvii., XxxXi.
O’Hagan family, arms of, 180, 184.
O’Hagan, John, elected a Member, Ap-
pend., p. Xv.
O’Hanlon, Rev. John, elected a Member,
Append., p. xlix.
Ointegh, a stone hut, 25, 30.
O’Laverty, Rev. James, elected a Mem-
ber, Append., p. xlix.
Old Red Sandstone, in Co. of Antrim, 240.
O’Leary, W. H., on animal heat, 65,
Append., p. xviii.
Olivine, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
O’Longan, Joseph and Paul, employed by
the Academy, Append., pp. Xll, xxviii.
O’Neill family, arms of, 403, 410.
Onyx, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
Opal, found in Co. of Antrim, 326.
O’Quin family, arms of, 403, 410.
Ordeal, oldest forms of, 34; instance in
Scripture, 43; twelve forms of, in Ire-~
land, 34, 36; of fire and water, 35.
O’ Reilly family, arms of, 403, 410.
O’Rourke, Rev. John, elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
O'Sullivan family, arms of, 403, 412.
Oure, the river, 2; Glenmalure, 8, 9.
Owen, Professor, his theory of limbs, 144.
Pachymatisma Johnstonia, a sponge, 223.
Paine family, arms of, 403, 410.
Pale, the, Mr. Froude’s description of, 486.
Palliobranchiata, Professor W. King on,
64, Append., p. xliii.
Palmerstown, earthenware
306.
Palstaves, with two loops, found in Spain,
A478.
Paps, the, in Kerry, ancient name of, 171,
440.
found at,
lxix
Paramoudras, supposed fossil sponges, 272.
Paris, International Exhibition of, five ar-
ticles of the Museum applied for, Ap-
pend., p. xi; loan to, Append., p. xiii.
Parke family, arms of, 181, 186.
Parkinson, Henry, on an inscribed stone
in Tullagh churchyard, 340, Append.,
p. XXxXiv.
Pasqual de Gayangos, the Arabic scholar,
474.
Paterson family, arms of, 181, 186.
Patrick family, arms of, 181, 186.
Patterson family, arms of, 403, 410.
Paul, St., epistle of, worn round Mo-
rann’s neck, 38.
Penny, Rev. W. G., on the rotatory mo-
tion of the heavenly bodies, 189, Ap-
pend., p. Xxvi.
Percy family, arms of, 181, 186.
Perse family, arms of, 403, 410.
Petrie, George, LL.D., sixteen water-
colour drawings by, presented, Append.,
p- xii; his Museum purchased by Go-
vernment, Append., p. xxvil; deposited
in the Academy, Append., p. xlv.
Phillipsite, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Phinisk river, 454.
Physeter bidens, or Ziphius Sowerbiensis,
51.
Pictet, Adolphe, Gallo-Roman inscription
published by, 421.
Pitchstone porphyry, in Co. of Antrim,
224, 327.
Plain of the Hurlers, at Moy Tura, 22.
Plants of Southern Europe growing in
Ireland, 66.
Plunket family, arms of, 99, 403, 404,
410.
Plunket, Francis, monument of, in Ro-
bertstown churchyard, 99.
Porcelain seals, Chinese, 175.
Porphyry, occurrence of, at Cushendall,
291; and at Sandy Brae, 292; Pitch-
stone, 294.
Port family, arms of, 404, 410.
Porter family, arms of, 404, 410.
Portrush, rocks at, 319.
Pottery found in Indian cairns, 638.
President, see under Academy.
Psychrometer, or wet-bulb Thermometer,
465.
Purser, J. M., report on Herr Cohnheim’s
researches on inflammation, 499, Ap-
pend., p. li.
Pus, corpuscles of, 499.
Pyrenees, Basses, Megalithic remains at,
472.
Quartz, in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Quartzite, 236.
Rammage family, arms of, 181, 187.
Rathlin, columnar basalt in, 314,
Rathmichael, inscribed stones at, 341.
Ravel Water, the, 454.
Raven, a Norse banner, 439.
Rea family, arms of, 181, 187.
Read, Brig.-General J. Meredith, elected a
Member, Append., pp. v, xv.
Recht Maoisi, Moses’ Law, 43.
Red bole, or ochre, of Co. of Antrim, 307.
Redg, who, 429.
Red Hall, Co. of Antrim, salt mine at, 264.
Reeves, Rev. William, D. D., late Secre-
tary, Append., p. xvi.
Regnault, M., description of his hygro-
meter, 459; Mr. Donovan’s modifica-
tion of it, 459.
Reilly family, arms of, 404, 410.
Rennes, Irish MS, at, Append., pp. xxiil,
XXVii.
Rennie, George, an Hon. Member, death
of, Append., xiv.
Report. See under Academy.
Reports, Scientific, grants for, Append., p.
XX Xiil.
Retannsnody family,arms of, 179, 183.
Reynolds, Anglicised form of Mac Rannaill,
484.
Reynolds, George Nugent, of Letterfian,
485.
Rheusa, of Spenser, 7.
Rhodalite, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Riastartha, a name of Cuchullain, 438.
Richardson, Dr., his account of whin-
dykes, 318.
Richardson, Thomas, M. D., a Member,
death of, Append., pp. xxx, xlvi.
Richey, Alexander George, elected a
Member, Append., pp. xvii, xxxi; on
Council (Com. Pol. Lit.), Append., p.
xlviil.
Righe, the Rye Water, 455.
Rittias, a name of frequent occurrence in
Oghams, 120.
Rivers, giving name to towns, 6; generally
feminine in Irish, 454, their gender in
Spenser, 7, 8; origin of their names,
101, 443; often called from trees, 444.
Robe, or Rodhba, the river, 454.
Robertstown, Co. Meath, Barnewal monu-
ment at, 99.
Robinson family, arms of, 181, 187.
Robinson, Dr., acccunt of coal pit in Co.
of Antrim, 242.
Rock-basin, a kind of monument, 104.
Rock carvings, H. M. Westropp on, 232.
Rock Salt, in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Rosnaree, mill at, with a Sheela-na-gig
built into the wall, 99.
Ross, the river, 454.
Ross family, arms of, 404, 411.
Rossdanean, derivation of the name, 169.
Rosse, Earl of, a Member, his death, Ap-
pend., p. xxx; obituary notice of, 2b.,
p- XXxi.
Rosseponte, 2.
Roughan, George Francis, elected a Mem-
ber, Append., pp. v, Xv.
Roughty, the river, 454.
Round tower of Ardmore, account of, 60.
Rowan, the late Archdeacon, notice of the
Ogham stone of Glen Fais, 384.
Rowley family, arms of, 404, 411.
Rowney, Professor, Thomas H., on EKo-
zeon Canadense, 506.
Royston crow, the, superstitions regarding,
422.
Ruachtach, the Roughty river, 454.
Rue-na-Scarce, basaltic columns at, 314.
Ruireach, or Liffey, the river, 453.
Russell, Very Rev. Charles W., D.D.,
elected a Member, Append., pp. xxv,
xxxi; on Council (Com. Pol. Lit.),
Append., pp. xxxii, xlvili; on an
agreement (in Irish) between the Earl of
Kildare and Mac Rannall, 480, Append.,
p. 1; on the duties upon Irishmen,
490, Append., p. 1.
Kyefield, rock of, 230.
Rye Water, or Righe, the river, 455.
Sacrifice, human, in various countries, evi-
dence of, 63.
Saetad maai Ini, supposed Ogham inscrip-
tion, 108.
Saimer, now the Erne river, 449.
Sallagh Braes, in Co. of Antrim, description
of; 279.
Salmon, Rev. George, D. D., on Council
(Com. Science), Append., p. xv, xxxii,
xlvii; a Vice-President, Append., p. xvii,
xxxvii, xlviii.
Salt beds, in Co. of Antrim, 262.
Salt pans colliery, in Co. of Antrim, 245,
Samoir, or Saimer, the Erne river, 449.
Santander, on the mineralogy of, 399.
Santa Rosa mine, in Bolivia, remains
found at, 398.
Sarsfeld, Dame Janet, monument of, 98.
Savage, family, arms of, 404, 411.
Scald crow, a bird of omen, 438.
Scales and weights, of metal, Danish, found
at Islandbridge, 17, 18.
Scandinavians, incursions of, into Ireland,
14; antiquities of, found at_Island-
bridge, 13.
lxx
1
|
Schleicher, August, biographical notice f, —
415; his literary works, 418, 419.
Schmidt, Professor Oscar, on the sponges
of the Adriatic, 221, 222.
Scirtach, the river, 456.
Scohey family, arms of, 404, 411.
Scorings in cave of Knockmore, 229.
Scoti, the origin of, 391; their alleged
place of landing, 389, 392.
Scouler, Dr., his description of the lignite
of Ahaness, 322.
Sculptures, incongruous, 92.
Seal, corporate, of Academy, Append.,
p. xlii.
Seals, Chinese porcelain, found in Ireland,
172.
Seancha Mac Aililla, 39.
Seancrand Sin, “‘ charmed branch of Sen,”
41.
Secretary. See under Academy.
Sen Mac Aige, a judge, 41.
Senchus Mor, Dr. Samuel Ferguson on,
Append., p. x.
Seychelles, Islands, Flora of, 413.
Shane’s Castle, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Shannon, the river, derivation of the name,
455.
Shaw family, arms of, 181, 187, 404, 411.
Shearman, Rev. J. F., on some excava-
tions at Howth, 330, Append., p. xx xix.
Shee family, arms of, 404, 411.
Sheela-na-gig, a, in mill of Rosnaree, 99.
Shenan, or Shannon, the river, 1.
Sheridan family, arms of, 404, 411.
Shure, the river, 2.
Shutter family, arms of, 181, 187.
Sidh Arfemhin, near the Suir, 39.
Sidhe Femhin, 429.
Sigerson, George, M.D., elected a Mem-
ber, Append., xlix; on some relation-
ships of inflorescences, 75, Append.,
p. Xviii, Plates xi, xii.
Silicified wood, at Ahaness, 322.
Silures, remains of the [berians, 100.
Simpson, Sir James, on rock carvings,
232, 233.
Sinann, the Shannon, 455.
Singer, Most Rev. Joseph H., a Member,
death of, and obituary notice, Append.,
p. Xiv.
Skerries, Islands, geological peculiarities
of, 319; greenstone protrusions in lias
of, 320.
Skirt, the river, 456.
Skydi family, arms of, 404, 411.
Slaine, the river, 1, 456.
Slane Abbey, drawings of, 92.
Slemish mountain, substance of, 303.
Slemna Maighe Itha, 429.
lxxi
Sliabh-da-en, near Collooney, 169.
Sliabh Mis, or Slemish, in Co. of Antrim,
303; in Co. of Kerry, 390.
Sliabh Smoil, 429.
Slieve Gallion, Co. Londonderry, 290, 291.
Sligo, or Sligeach, the river, 456.
Smith family, arms of, 181, 187, 404, 411.
Smith, John Chaloner, elected a Member,
Append., pp. xxiv, xxxi.
Smith, Joseph H., on Chinese porcelain
seals, 172; on the Dunvegan cup, Ap-
pend., p. Xvii.
Smyth, Warrington W., on Eozoon, 509.
Smythe, W. Barlow, elected a Member,
Append., pp. v, xv.
Snamh-da-en, in the Shannon, 169.
Soighead, a dart-head, 30.
Soponite, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Sonterrain, at Curraghely, account of, 72:
at Drumloughan, 103-119; near Kil-
crea, Plate x.
South, Sir James, an Hon. Member, death
of, Append., p. xxx.
Spain, intercourse between, and Ireland,
69 ; archzology of, 474 ; encouragement
of archzological study in, 475 ; double-
looped celts found in, 475.
Specular iron,. found in Co. of Antrim,
327.
Spenser, Edmund, his settlement in Ire-
land, 1; the Irish rivers of, 1.
Sponges, Irish, 221; bibliography of
British, 222.
Spongionella pulchella, a sponge, 228.
Spurs, in columnar basalt, 309, 310.
Srubh Brain, the river, 456.
Stackallan church, monuments in, 95.
Stanley family, arms of, 404, 411.
Steele family, arms of, 181, 187.
Stephens, Professor George, on Knock-
more inscription, 231.
Stephenson family, arms of, 181, 187.
Stewart family, arms of, 404, AT2,
Stilbite, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Stirling family, arms of, 404, 412.
Stokes, William, M. D., on Council (Com.
Science), Append., pp. xxxii, xlviii.
Stoney, Bindon B., on Council (Com.
Science), Append. ., Pp. XVi; resignation,
Append., p. xvii.
Streams, diverging from a common source,
385.
Suck, the river, 457.
Suileach, the Swilly, 457.
Suir, the river, 457.
Sullivan, William K., Ph. D., on Council
(Com. Science), " Append., pp. XV,
Kxxii, xviii ; Secretary, Append.,
pp. Xvi, xxxii, xlviii; on the occur-
R.I, A. PROC.—VOL. X
j
|
rence of mammalian bones, &c., in
mineral veins, 397, Append., p. xxxvii.
Sweetman, H. §S., on the early English
public records relating to Ireland, Ap-
pend., p. xxxviii.
Swilly, or Suileach, the river, 457.
Swords, Norwegian, ofiron, 13, 14; Scan-
dinavian, ornamented, 16.
Symington family, arms of, 181, 187.
Tain-bo-Cuailnge, the tale, referred to, 429.
Talbot de Malahide, Lord, President, Ap-
pend., pp. xv, xxxii, xlvii; on the
megalithic remains of the Basses Pyre-
nees, 472; notes on Spanish archeology,
474, Append., p. xlix. ; on some Frank-
ish antiquities, 7b., p. Xxiv.
Talc, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Talland Etar, in Book of Leinster, 331.
Tal Mochta, Mochta’s adze, used in ordeal,
36.
Tamlaght, Co. of Antrim, 283.
Tara Brooch, purchased by Government,
Append., p. xxvii.
Tardree quarry, Co. of Antrim, 293.
Taste, on the development of, by Rev. Dr.
Wills, Append., p. 1.
Taylor, Col. Meadows, on Council (Com.
Antigq.), Append., pp. xvi, xlviii; on
the Cairn at Hyat Nugger, 60, Append.,
p. XVii.
Temair of Cuailnge, 432.
Temperature in large towns, 53.
Templesaghtmaree, in Aran, 29.
Templeton family, arms of, 181, 187.
Teratology, necessary correction of, 121.
Terebenes, the, contribution to the history
of, 415, Append., p. xliii. ©
Termonfechin churchyafd, plinth of cross
in, 99.
Terry glass, in Co. of Clare, 166; in Co.
of Tipperary, 165.
Tethmoy, derivation of name, 168.
Thi-vigh, basaltic columns at, 314.
Thom family, arms of, 181, 187.
Thom, Alexander, elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Thompson family, arms of, 181, 188.
Thomson, C. J., an Hon. Member, death
of, Append., p. xiv.
Thomson, Dr. Wyville, on British sponges,
222. *
Thomsonite, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Three, the number, prevalent in names of
‘rivers, 448, 450 ter., 456, 407 ter.
Tichborne, Charles R. C., elected a Mem-
ber, Append., p. xlix ; contributions to
the history of the Terebenes, 415,
Append., pp. xxxXvili, xliii.
wh
lxxii
Tieveara Hill, composition of, 303.
Tinel, who, 429.
Tir-da-ghlas, now Terryglass, 165.
Tirree-worrigan, in Co. of Armagh, 440.
Tir Tairrngiri, Land of Promise, 455.
Tischendorf, A., elected an Hon. Member,
Append., p. xvi.
Toberdornan, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Tobin, Sir Thomas, elected a Member,
Append., p. 1.
Todd family, arms of, 181, 187, 404,
412.
Todd, Rev. James H., D. D., on Council
(Com. Antiqq.), Append., pp. iii, xvi,
Xxxli; a Vice-President, Append., pp.
Xvii, xxxvii; on book of Fermoy, Ap-
pend., p. xiii; account of Irish MS. at
Rennes, Append., pp. xxiii, xxvii ;
adjournment on his death, Append., p. 1.
Tomb, coffin-shaped, at Stackallan, 95.
Tonduff, basaltic pillars at, 311.
Tongue, the physiology of its protrusion
and deviation, 83; action of the genio-
hyo-glossi muscles, 84.
Toomore, origin of the name, 171.
Torach, the river, 457.
Torann, the river, 451.
Toras de Guisando, what, 475.
Townley family, arms of, 404, 412.
Trail, Rey. Robert, letter on lignite, 320.
Transactions. See under Academy.
Trap, formation of, in Co. of Antrim, 296 ;
in alternate layers with ochre, 296;
amorphous, 301; brecciated, 301; con-
cretionary, or onion basaltic, 302; ta-
bular, 303; columnar, 302 ; formation
and development of, 308; various ex-
amples of, 311; trap rocks of Antrim,
conditions of their formation, 307 ; pe-
culiar form of, at Ardihannon; alleged
occurrence of fossils in, 319.
Treasurer. See under Academy.
Treasury, Lords of the, additional grant of,
Append., pp. XxXv, XXVi.
Trelia Mothair, three stones of blackness,
a mode of ordeal, 40.
Trench, Most Rev. Archbishop, on Council
(Com. Pol. Lit.), Append., p. xxxii.
Tresin Moraind, triple collar of Moran, 37.
Trowis, or Drowes, the river, 2, 7.
Trynch, or Trench, James, tomb of, at
Clongill, 98.
Tuatha-de-Dannans, the three goddesses
of, 426.
Tubino, Don Francisco, a Spanish anti-
quary, 476.
Tullagh churchyard, inscribed stone in,
340.
Tullagh-an-trir, at Moy Tura, 23.
Two, the number, frequent occurrence of,
in Irish proper names, 164, 166.
Ucnainn, the Leanan river, 452.
Uinsionn, the name of several rivers, mean-
ing of, 457.
Union Wood, Co. of Sligo, origin of the
name, 457.
Unofic, supposed Ogham name, 107, 108.
Urlin, Richard D., elected a Member,
Append., pp. xxiv, xxxi.
Urn, sepulchral, found at Moy Tura, 24.
Urrin, the river, 458.
Urtheil, ‘ judgment,’ 34,
Varini, of Tacitus, who, 102.
Verner’s Bridge, deposit of lignite at,
322.
Vice-Presidents. See under Academy.
Vieg d’ Azyr, his theory of the position of
the limbs, 144.
Vierpyle, collection of terra cotta busts
executed by, Append., pp. xxxvii, xlv.
Visconti, Commendatore P. E., elected an
Hon. Member, Append., p. xvi.
Volatiles, or gealta, 431.
Wacké, occurrence of, in Co. of Antrim,
304.
Wakeman, W.F., on the inscriptions in
the cave of Knockmore, 229, Append.,
p. Xxxiii. ; on the inscribed cavern at
Lough Nacloyduff, 327, Append., p.
xxxiv;on the cavern called Gillie’s Hole,
395, Append., p. xxxvii.
Waller, John F., LL.D., on Council
(Com. Pol. Lit.), Append., p. xvi.
Walsh family, arms of, 404, 412.
War, Irish goddess of, 424, 440.
Wate or Watt family, arms of, 181, 188.
Watsou family, arms of, 181, 188.
Websterite, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Weights and scales, Danish, 18.
Welsh, Richard, Esq., letter relative to the
Haliday Collection, Append., p. v-
West, James, a Member, death of, Ap-
pend., pp. xlvi, xlvii.
Westropp, W. H. S., elected a Member,
Append., p. xv.
Westropp, Hodder M., on round tower
of Ardmore, 63, Append., p. xvii; on
rock carvings, 232, Append., p. xxxiii;
notes on Ogham stones, Append., p.
XXvili; on cromleacs and megalithic
structures, Append., p. xxxvii.
Whin-dykes, various, 273; in Co. of An-
trim, 275, 277, 318; in brecciated trap,
312; formation of, 317; examples of,
317; fourteen described by Dr. Richard-
son, 318.
Ixxuli
White family, arms of, 404, 412.
Whitehead, Co. of Antrim, curved ba-
saltic colums at, 300, 308, 311.
Whitepark, Co. of Antrim, thick forma-
tion of chalk at, 268.
Wiety family, arms of, 404, 412.
Wilde, Sir William R., M. D., on Council
(Com. Antiqq.), Append., pp. xvi,
xxXxii, xlviii; Secretary of For. Corresp..
Append., pp. Xvi, xxxii, xlviii; a Vice-
President, Append., pp. Xvil, XxXxil,
xlviii; on Scandinavian Antiqq. found
at Islandbridge, 13, Append., p. iii; on
antiquities recently acquired by the
Academy, Append., p. xviii; on the
battle of Moytura, 22.
Wilie family, arms of, 181, 188.
Williams, William, of Dungarvan, 104.
Wills, Rev. Dr., on the development of the
affections, taste, and moral sentiments,
Append., p. I.
Wilson family, arms of, 181, 188.
Wilson, John, M. A., elected a Member,
Append., pp. v, Xv.
Wollastonite, found in Co. of Antrim, 327.
Wood, fossil, account of, 323.
Wood, Shakespeare, on recent discoveries
in the Trastevera at Rome, Append., p.
XVili.
Woodhouse, J, Obins, elected a Member,
Append., pp. xxiv, XxxXi.
Woodside family, arms of, 404, 412.
Worsae, J. J., elected an Hon. Member,
Append., p. xvi.
Wright, Edward Perceval, notes on Irish
sponges, 221; contributions towards a
knowledge of the Flora of the Seychelles
Islands, 413, Append., p. xxxvili.
Wrottesley, Lord, an Hon. Member, death
of, Append., p. xxx. :
Wurtz, Adolphe, elected an Hon. Mem-
ber, Append., p. xvi.
Youghal, derivation of the name, 444.
Young family, arms of, 181, 188.
Young, J. R., on the imaginary roots of
numerical equations, &c., 343, Append.,
p. KXXVii.
Zetacism, Schleicher on, 417.
Ziphius Sowerbiensis, Mr. Andrews on,
51, Append., p. xliii.
END OF VOLUME X.
ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.
ee See
aotesident,
THE RIGHT HON. LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F. Rk. 8.
Vice-Bresiwdents.
RIGHT HON THE EARL OF DUNRAVEN, F.R.S,
SIR ROBERT KANE, M.D., F.B.S.
REY. GEORGE SALMON, D. D.
SIR W. R. WILDE, M.D.
COUNCIL ELECTED MARCH, 1869.
Gommittee of Science :
W. K. SULLIVAN, Px. D.
REV. GEORGE SALMON, D. D.
HENRY HENNESSY, F.B.S.
SAMUEL DOWNING, LL.D.
SIR ROBERT KANE, M.D., F.R.S.
WILLIAM STOKES, M.D., F.B.S.
A. SEARLE HART, F.T.C. D.
Committee of Dolite Literature:
J. KELLS INGRAM, F. T.C. D.
R. R. MADDEN, M.D.
REV. GEORGE LONGFIELD, F.T.C. D.
SAMUEL FERGUSON, LL. D.
VERY REV. C. W. RUSSELL, D. D.
REV. JOHN H. JELLETT, M. A.
ALEXANDER GEO. RICHEY, LL. B.
Committee of Antiquities :
J. T. GILBERT, F.S. A.
W. H. HARDINGE, Esa.
SIR W. R. WILDE, M.D.
DENIS H. KELLY, Esa.
W. J. O’DONNAVAN, LL. D.
RT. HON. THE EARL OF DUNRAVEN, F.R.S.
COLONEL MEADOWS TAYLOR.
This Council will continue till March 16, 1870.
TRBASURER, = . weet Ss) US WL AR DINGE,. Eso:
SECRETARY OF AcADEMY, & Ate a OWE Khe SUE PVAN, | Pa 1D,
SECRETARY OF CoUNCIL, . . JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
SECRETARY OF FoREIGN Connesrospaxcs, SIR W. R. WILDE, M. D.
LIBRARIAN, .. . JOHN T. GILBERT, F.S. A.
ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN, Curator OF. } EDWARD CLIBBORN, Esa.
Museum, AND CLERE, Soy yee f
a2
MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.
Asterisks are prefixed to the names of Life Members.
Date of Election.
1861.
1866.
18368.
1843.
1839.
1842.
1828.
1851.
1862.
1815.
1865.
1863.
1866.
1840.
1842.
1868.
1851.
1836.
1868.
1847.
June 10
Jan. 8
April 9
April 10
Jan. 14
Jan. 10
April 28
June 8
April 14
Jan. 13
April 14
Jan. 25
Jan. 13
May 10
ABRAHAM, George Whitley, Esq., LL. D. 2, Avoca-
terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Adams, Rev. B. W., D. D. Drumcondra, Co. Dublin.
*Adams, Robert, Esq., M.D. 22, Stephen’s-green,
North, Dublin.
*Allman, George James, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.E. 21,
Manor-place, Edinburgh.
Andrews, ‘Thomas, Esq., M. D., F. R. 8., Vice-Presi-
dent, and Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s College,
Belfast. Queen’s College, Belfast.
*Andrews, William, Esq. Ashton, The Mill, Monks-
town, Co. Dublin.
*Apjohn, James, Esq., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Mineralogy and Chemistry, T.C.D. South Mill,
Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Armagh, Most Rev. Marcus G., Lord Archbishop of,
D. D., Primate of all Ireland. The Palace, Armagh.
*Armstrong, Andrew, Esq. Claddagh-terrace, Bray,
Co. Wicklow.
*Ashburner, John, Esq., M. D.
Cumberland-gate, London.
7, Hyde-park-place,
Babington, Thomas H., Esq., M. D.
street, Londonderry.
*Bagot, C. Neville, Esq. Aughrane Castle, Ballygare.
Baker, J. A., Esq., F.C.S.1. 4, Clare-street, Dublin.
*Ball, John, Esq. 24, South George’s-road, London.
*Banks, John T., Esq., M.D. 10, Merrion-square,
East, Dublin.
Barker, Henry O., Esq., LL. D.
Dublin.
*Barker, John, Esq., M.D. 48, Waterloo-road, Dublin.
*Barker, William, Esq., M.D. 21, Hatch-street, Dublin.
*Barker, W. Oliver, Esq., M.D. 6, Gardiner’s-row,
Dublin.
*Barnes, Edward, Esq. Ovoca Lodge, Ovoca, Co. Wicklow.
13, Pump-
6, Gardiner’ s-row,
Date of Election.
1833.
1865.
1863.
1866.
1825.
1846.
1849.
1843.
1843.
1867.
1838.
1854.
1849.
1832.
1865.
1858.
1864.
1851.
1854,
1855.
1866.
1838.
1862.
1836.
1866.
1866.
Jan. 8
May 14
June 24
sane 9
April 27
June 11
Nov. 30
April 13
Jan. 8
Dec.
Jan. 9
Jan. 14
Feb. 12
April 10
April 9
Feb. 27
April 10
April 12
April 11
J a 13
April 10
Jan. 8
April 9
Feb. 10
April 14
Feb. 22
Barry, Rev. T. D. F. 47, Westland-row, Dublin.
Barrington, Sir John, D.L. Bellville, Rochestown-
avenue, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Beatty, Thomas E., Esq., M.D.
North, Dublin.
*Beauchamp, Robert H., Esq.
Dublin.
*Belmore, Right Hon. Somerset R. Lowry Corry, Earl
of. Castile Coole, Knniskillen.
Bennett, E. H., Esq., M. D., F.R.C.8. 1. 2, Fitewil-
ham-street, Upper, Dublin.
Benson, Charles, Esq., A. M., M.D., F.R.C.S.1I.,
Professor of the Practice of Medicine, R. C. S.
42, Litewilliam-square, West, Dublin.
“Beyan ehilip, sq. M.D LC. Dy Hen C: Ss. 0.
52, Litzwilliam-square, West, Dublin.
*Bewglass, Rev. James, LL.D. Wakefield, Yorkshire.
*Bewley, Edward, Esq. Edington, Clara, King’s
County.
*Blacker, Stewart, A.M. Carrick Blacker, Portadown,
Co. Armagh.
Blennerhasset, Sir R., Bart., M. P. Churchtown,
Killarney.
*Boyle, Alexander, Esq. 12, Harlsfort-terrace, Dublin.
*Brady, Cheyne, Esq.
Brady, Daniel Frederick, Esq., M.D. 5, Gardiner’s-
row, Dublin.
*Brady, Rt. Hon. Sir Maziere, Bart., P.C. 26, Pem-
broke-street, Upper, Dublin.
Brash, Richard R., Esq., C.E. 21, South Mall, Cork.
Brooke, Thomas, Esq. Zhe Castle, Lough Eske, Stra-
bane, Co. Donegal.
Brooke, Sir Victor A., Bart.
boro’, Co. Fermanagh.
*Browne, Robert Clayton, Esq., M. A., D. L. Browne's
fill, Carlow.
Burke, Sir J. Bernard (Ulster), LL. D., C. B.
Pembroke-road, Dublin.
*Butcher, Richard G., Esq., M. D., F. R.C.8. 1.
19, Fitzwilliam-street, Lower, Dublin.
Byrne, John A., Esq., A. B., M. B. T. C.D. 37, West-
land-row, Dublin.
18, Merrion-square,
116, Grafton-street,
Colebrook-park, Brook-
55,
*Callwell, Robert, Esq. 25, Herbert-place, Dublin.
Campbell, John, Esq., M. D. 51, York-street, Dublin.
*Cane, Edward, Esq. St. Wolstan’s, Celbridge, Co.
Kildare.
Date of Election.
1838.
1855.
1866.
1843.
1862.
1842.
1864.
1824.
1842.
1857.
1841.
1867.
1866.
1839.
1860.
1845.
1866.
1856.
1825.
1857.
1847.
1864.
1846.
1857.
1867.
1834.
. Feb. 12
Feb. 12
May 14
Jan. 8
Jan. 13
June 13
Jan. 11
Mar. 16
Jan. 10
April 13
Jan. 11
May 13
April 9
May 13
Jan. 9
June 9
April 9
April14
Nov. 30
Aug. 24
Janes Ul
May 9
Jan. 12
Aug. 24
June 24
*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D. D., F. T.C. D.
william-place, South, Dublin.
Carte, Alexander, Esq., M. D., Director of Museum,
R.D.8. 54, Waterloo-road, “Due
Casey, John Esq. SAD Rose Cottage, Tivoh, North,
Kingstown, Co. Dublin.
*Cather, Thomas, Esq. Wewtownlimavady.
*Cather, Rey. R.C., LL.D. 38, Queen’s Elms, Belfast.
*Chapman, Sir Benjamin J., Bart. “vllua Castle,
Clonmellon.
Charlemont, Right Hon. James Molyneux, Earl of.
Marino, Clontarf.
*Chetwode, Edward Wilmot, Esq., A.M. Woodbrook,
Portarlington.
*Churchill, Fleetwood, Esq., M. D., F. K. &Q. C. P.I.
15, Stephen’s-green, North, Dublin.
*Cleland, James, Esq. Yobar Mhuire, Crossgar, Co.
Down.
*Clermont, Right Hon. Thomas, Baron.
Park, Newry.
*Close, Rev. M. H. Newtown Park, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin. |
Collum, Archibald, Esq., Junior, A. M.
rington-place, Dublin.
*Conroy, Sir Edward, Bart.
Berks.
*Conwell, Kugene Alfred, Esq. Trim, Co. Meath.
*Cooke, Adolphus, Esq. Cooksborough, Mullingar.
Cooper, Lieut.-Col. Edward H., D. L. Warkree Castle,
Collooney.
Copland, Charles, Esq.
town, Co. Dublin.
*Corballis, John R., Esq., LL. D., Q.C. Rosemount, -
Roebuck, Clonskeagh, Co. Dublin.
Corbet, Robert, Esq. 17, Mount-street, Upper, Dublin.
Corrigan, Sir Dominick J., Bart., M.D. 4, Merrion-
square, West, Dublin.
Cotton, Charles P., Esq., C. E.
Lower, Dublin.
Cotton, Ven. Henry, LL. D., Archdeacon of Cashel.
Thurles.
*Crofton, Denis, Esq., A. B.
North, Dublin.
*Crofton, H. M. H., Esq., F. R.A. 8S. Lnchinappa,
Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
18, Fits-
Rawensdale
16, War-
Aborfield, near Reading,
7, Longford-terrace, Monks-
11, Pembroke-street,
8, Mountjoy-square,
Oct. 27 | *Croker, Charles P., Esq., M.D., F.K.&Q. C. P. I.
7, Merrion-square, West, Dublin.
Date of Election. 3
1866. June 11
1853.
1855.
1846.
1846.
1851.
1849.
1860.
1847.
1851.
1854.
1856.
1843.
1864.
1861.
1867.
1867.
April 11
May 14
April13
Jan.
12
June 9
pept. 9
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Feb.
Feb.
Jan.
Mar.
Feb.
Jan.
. Oct.
9
Wl
13
13
11
April 8
Cruise, Francis R., Esq., M.D. 38, Merrion-square,
West, Dublin.
*Davies, Francis Robert, Esq. A.M. Hawthorn,
Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Davy, Edmund W., Esq., B. A., M.D. Elm Grove,
Terrenure, Roundtown, Co. Dublin.
*D’ Arcy, Matthew P., Esq., M. P. 6, Merrion-square,
East, Dublin.
*Deasy, Right Hon. Rickard, LL. D., Fourth Baron ofthe
Exchequer. Carysfort House, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
*De la Ponce, Mons. Amadie. Paris.
De Vesci, Right Hon. Thomas, Viscount. Abbeylerx
House, Abbeylerx.
*Dickson, Rev. Benjamin, D.D., F.T.C.D. 3, Ail-
dare-place, Dublin.
*Dobbin, Leonard, Esq. 27, Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
*Dobbin, Rev. Orlando T., LL.D. Ballver, Kells,
Co. Meath.
Domvyile, Sir Charles C. W., Bart. Santry, Co. Dublin.
Downing, Samuel, Esq., C. E., LL. D., Professor of
Civil Engineering, T.C.D. 4, The Mill, Monks-
town, Co. Dublin.
*Drury, William Vallancey, Esq., M.D. 86, Harley-
street, Cavendish-square, London, West.
Dublin, Most Rey. Richard Chenevix, Lord Arch-
bishop of, D. D., Primate of Ireland. Zhe Palace,
Stephen’ s-green, North, Dublin.
Duncan, James Foulis, Esq., M.D. 8, Merrion-street,
Up., Dublin.
Dunne, Right Hon. Major-General F. P., D. L. Brit-
tas, Clonashe.
*Dunraven and Mount-EHarl, Right Hon. Edwin R.,
Earl of, F. R.S., a Vice-President of the Academy.
Adare Manor, Adare.
*Hiffe, James 8., Esq., F. R. Ast. 8., &. Plantation
House, Amersham, Bucks.
Ellis, George, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.S.I. 91, Leeson-
street, Lower, Dublin.
*EKnniskillen, Right Hon. William Willoughby, Earl
of, F.R.8., F.G.S. L., and Dublin Trustee of the
Hunterian Museum, R. C.S8., London. Florence
Court, Co. Fermanagh.
*Farrell, T. A.; Esq., M.A. 38, Merrion-square, East,
Dublin.
Date of Election.
———_—
1854.
Feb. 13
. Mar. 15
Jan, 10
April 12
June 9
Jan. 9
Jan. 11
April 28
April 9
Nov. 12
April 10
May 14
April 10
May 10
Janelle
Jan. 14
April 9
Jan. 10
Aprill4
June 11
Jan-ai i
Feb. 9
Jan. 13
April 9
. June 14
*Ferguson, Rev. Robert, LL. D., F. 8S. A., F. B.S.
15, Carlton Hill, East, St. John’s Wood, London.
*Ferguson, Samuel, Esq., LL. D. 20, Great George’ s-
street, North, Dublin.
“Ferrier, Alexander, Esq. Knockmaroon Lodge, Cha-
pelizod, Co. Dublin.
*Fitzgibbon, Gerald, Esq., M. C. 10, Merrion-square,
North, Dublin.
Fleming, Christopher, Esq., M. D., F. R. C. 8. I.
Merrion-square, North, Dublin. .
Foley, William, Esq., M.D. ilrush.
Foot, Charles H., Esq., B. A. 14, Mitzewilliam-street,
Upper, Dublin.
*Foot, Simon, Esq. 4, Avoca-terrace, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin.
Forrest, J. K., Esq., F.R.C.8.1. 13, Clare-street,
Dublin.
*Frazer, George A., Esq., R. N.
Frazer, Rev. A. B., A. M. Haversham, Newport Bag-
nil, Bucks.
Frazer, William, Esq.
Dublin.
Freeland, John, Esq., M.D. Antigua, West Indes.
*Freke, Henry, Esq.. M.D., T.C.D., F.K. &
Q. C. P. L., 68, Mount-street, Lower, Dublin.
French, Right Hon. Colonel Fitz-Stephen, M. P.
French Park, Roscommon ; and 68, Warwick-square,
Belgravia, S. W.
*Frith, Richard H., Esq., C. E. 101, Gardiner-street,
Lower, Dublin.
6,
124, Stephen’s-green, West,
Gaffney, Rev. James. Fairview, Clontarf.
Gages, Alphonse, Esq. Royal College of Science,
51, Stephen’ s-green, Hast, Dublin.
*Galbraith, Rev. J.A., M.A., F.T.C.D. 48, Leeson-
street, Upper, Dublin. |
Gallwey, Thomas, Esq., J.P. Avdlarney.
Garnett, George Charles, Esq., A.B. 5, Mountjoy-
square, North, Dublin.
*Garstin, John Ribton, Esq., LL. B., F.S. A.
Merrion-street, Upper, Dublin.
Gibson, James, Esq. 35, Mountjoy-square, South,
Dublin.
*Gilbert, John, T., Esq., F. 8. A., Librarian of the
Academy. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Goold, Ven. Frederick, Archdeacon of Raphoe. Sha-
ron Glebe, Newtownceunningham, Derry.
21,
Date of Election.
1836.
1848.
1848.
1863,
1860.
1867.
1824.
1819.
1842.
1857.
1839.
1848.
1836.
1845.
1867.
1847.
1850.
1829.
1837.
1828.
1861.
1866.
1861.
1845.
1857.
1852.
May 25
June 12
April 10
April 13
May 14
April 8
Mar. 16
April 26
Jan. 10
June 8
Jan. 14
Jan. 10
April 25
Jan. 13
April 8
Jan. 11
April 8
Nov. 30
Feb. 13
April 28
May 13
Jan. 8
May 13
Feb. 24
Aug. 24
April12
*Gough, Rt. Hon. Lord, A. M:; D.L., F.L.S., F.G.S.
St. Helen’s, Booterstown, Co. Dublin.
*Graham, Rev. Andrew, Esq. Observatory, Cambridge.
*Graham, Rey. William. Dresden.
Granard, Rt. Hon. George Arthur Hastings Forbes,
Karl of, K. St. P. Castle forbes, Co. Longford.
Graves, Rev. James, A. B., Treasurer of Ossory.
hectory, Inisnag, Stoneyford, Co. Kilkenny.
Green, J.S., Esq. 83, Leeson-street, Lower, Dublin.
*Grierson, George A., Esq. Jalahide, Co. Dublin.
*Griffith, Sir Richard, Bart, LL. D., F. R.S8., F.G.S.
2, Pitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
*Grimshaw, Wrigley, Esq.
Dublin.
Griott, Daniel G., Esq., M.A. ing’s-Inns, Dublin.
*Grubb, Thomas, Esq., F.R.S. 141, Lewnster-road,
Rathmines, Co. Dublin.
13, Wolesworth-street,
*Haliday, Alexander H., Esq., M.A. Carnmoney,
Co. Antrim.
*Hamilton, ©. William, Hsq.
Lower, Dublin.
*Hamilton, George Alexander, Esq., LL. D. Hampton
Hall, Balbriggan.
*Hanagan, A., Esq. Luckington, Dalkey, Co. Dublin.
Hancock, William Neilson, Esq., LL.D. 64, Gar-
diner-street, Upper, Dublin.
Hardinge, William Henry, Esq., Treasurer of the Aca-
demy. Lochestown-avenue, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Hardy, Philip Dixon, Esq. 2, Frankfort-place, Rath-
mines, Upper, Co. Dublin.
*Hart, Andrew Searle, Esq., LL.D., 8.F.T.C.D.
Killester, Raheny, Co. Dublin.
*Hart, John, Esq., M.D. 8, Bloomfield-avenue.
Hartley, Richard W., Esq. Beech Park, Clonsilla,
Co. Dublin.
Hatchell, George W., Esq., M. D.
Dublin.
Hatchell, John, Esq., Junior.
South, Dublin.
*Haughton, Rev. Samuel, M. D., F.R.S., F. T.C. D.
51, Wellington-road, Dublin.
Hayden, Thomas, Esq., F.R.C.8.1., L.K. & Q.C.P.I.
30, Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*Head, Henry H., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S8:1., LK. &
(Cre) eee ae REG =SHE fh Fitzwilliam- -square,
West, Dublin.
40, Dominick-street,
13, Hume-street,
12, Merrron-square,
Date of Election.
1840 June 8 | *Hemans, G. W., Esq., C. HE. 13, Queen-square, West-
1851.
1865
1859.
1831.
1867.
1847.
1851.
1861.
1824.
1816.
1866.
1847.
1341.
1842.
1867.
1836.
1863.
1831.
1865.
1869.
1867.
1864.
1838.
Jan lo
Feb. 13
Jan. 10
10
minster, London, S. W.; and 17, Gloucester-street,
Upper, Dublin.
*Hennesy, Henry, Esq., F. R.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy, R.C.U.D. Wynnefield, Rathgar, Co.
Dublin ; and 2, Harcourt-buildings, Temple, London.
*“Hennesy, W.M., Esq. 11, Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
*Hildige, James Graham, Esq. 7, Merrion-st., Upper,
Dublin.
Mar. 16 |*Hill, Lord George A. JBallyare, Rathmelton, Co.
Feb. 11
April 12
June 9
April 8
Feb. 28
June 24
June 11
Jan!
Aprill2
June 13
April 8
Jan. 25
Jan. 12
Nov. 30
April10
June 14
Hebe ll
Noy. 14
June 24
Donegal.
Hill, John, Esq., C. EK. Hnnis.
| «Hone, Nathaniel, Esq. St. Doulough’s, Co. Dublin.
*Hone, Thomas, Esq. Yapton, Monkstown-avenue,
Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
Hudson, Alfred, Esg., M.D.
North, Dublin.
*Hudson, Henry, sq.,.. M.D: B. Ke @) CP. 1
Glenville, Fermoy.
“Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S. Putney Park, Surrey.
Hutton, Thomas M., Esq. 118, Summer-hill, Dublin.
2, Merrion-square,
*Ingram, John Kells, Esq., LL. D., F. T. C. D., Secre-
tary of Council of the Academy. 2, Wellington-road,
Dublin
*Jellett, Rev. John H., M.A., F.T.C. D. 18, Heytes-
bury-terrace, Wellington-road, Dublin.
*Jennings, Francis M., Esq., F.G.8. Cork.
Jephson, R. H., Esq. 24, Clarinda-park, #., Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.
*Joy, Henry Holmes, Esq., Q.C., LL. D. 33, Mount-
joy-square, East, Dublin.
Joyce, Patrick Weston, Esq., A. M.
race, Ranelagh, Co. Dublin.
5, Clifton-ter-
*Kane, Sir Robert, M. D., F. R.S., &c., a Vice-Presi-
dent ofthe Academy. Queen’s College, Cork ; and
Wickham, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
Kane, W. F. De Visme, Esq., J. P. Drumreaske
House, Monaghan.
Kavenagh, Very Rev. James, D. D. St. Patrick's
College, Carlow.
Keane, Marcus, Esq., J.P. Beech Park, Ennis.
*Keenan, P. J., Esq. Delville, Glasnevin, Co. Dublin.
*Kelly, Denis Henry, Esq., D. L. 51, Mount-street,
Upper, Dublin.
Date of Election.
1836.
F349.
1846
1848,
1838.
1844.
1857.
1866.
1868,
1863.
1845.
1837.
184l.
1837.
1835.
1864.
1833.
1835.
1864.
1836.
1857
1857
1839
1852
1845
1845
Jan. 25
April 9
. April 13
April 10
May 14
April 8
Aug. 24
April 9
Jan. 13
April13
June 8
Feb. 13
aay. Av
Feb. 13
Nov. 30
April11
Nov. 30
Heb: 23
Jan. 11
Jan. 25
May 11
Aprill3
May 13
May 10
Jan. 13
Feb. 10
li
*Kelly, Thomas F., Esq., LL. D., J. P.
street, Lower, Dublin.
Kennedy, Henry, Esq.. M.D., F.K. & Q.C.P.I.
3, Rutland-square, Hast, Dublin.
*Kennedy, James Birch, Esq., J. P.
Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Kenney, James Christopher F., Esq., J. P. Avlclogher,
Co. Galway ; and 2, Merrion-square, South, Dublin.
*Kent, William Todderick, Esq. 51, Rutland-square,
West, Dublin.
*Kildare, Charles William, Marquess of, V. P. R. D.S.
Kiulkea Castle, Mageney.
Killaloe, Right Rev. William, Lord Bishop of, D. D.
Clarisford House, Killaloe.
*Kinahan, Edward H., Hsq.
North, Dublin.
Kinahan, George H., Esq. Geological Survey Office,
Galway.
Kinahan, Thomas W., Esq., A.B. 2, Abercorn-ter-
race, Circular-road, North, Dublin.
*King, Charles Croker, Esq., M. D.
*Knox, George J., Esq. 2, Linchley, New-road, London.
*Knox, Very Rev. H. Barry, M.A. Hadleigh, Suffolk.
*Knox, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Ballymoney.
*Kyle, William Cotter, Esq., LL. D. 8, Clare-st., Dublin.
10, Leeson-
1, Albert-terrace,
11, Merrion-square,
Lalor, J. J., Esq.
Co. Dublin.
*Larcom, Right Hon. Sir Thomas A., Bart., Major-
General, K.C. B., F. B.S.
*La Touche, David Charles, Esq. Castle-street, Dublin.
La Touche, J. J. Digges, Esq., A. B. 1 Hly-place,
Upper, Dublin.
*La Touche, William Digges, Esq., D. L.
phen’s=Green, North, Dublin.
*Lawson, Right Hon. Justice James A., LL. D.
Fitzwilliam-street, Upper, Dublin.
*Leach, Lieut.-Colonel George A., R. E. 3, St. James’ s-
square, London, S. W.
*Leader, Nicholas P., Esq. Dromagh Castle, Kanturk.
ikearcdseeArinum sHsqe, bee as, MEuD.. “2. C. bs
M.R.C.P.L., Physician to the Great Northern
Hospital. 12, Old Burlington-street, London, West.
L’Estrange, Francis, Esq., M. D., A. M., F. R. C.S.
39, Dawson-st.; and Landaur, Raglan-road, Dublin.
Le Fanu, William R., Esq., C. E. 59, Petzwilliam-
square, North, Dublin.
2, Longford-terrace, Monkstown,
34, Ste-
27,
Date of Election.
1846.
1848.
1828.
1869.
1853.
1837.
1868.
1832.
1846.
1845.
1838.
1859.
1833.
1845.
1836.
1868.
1851.
1812.
1857.
1853.
1869.
1864.
1825.
1827.
1857.
1865.
1843.
1856.
May 11
April 10
April 28
April12
April 11
April 24
April27
Feb. 27
Jane ou2
Feb. 10
Feb. 12
June 24
Feb. 25
Jan. 13
Mar. 16
Jan. 13
May 12
Jan. 9
Aprills
Aprilll
Feb. 8
Aprill}
Feb. 24
Mar. 16
Feb. 9
April 10
Dec. 11
June 9
12
*Lefroy, George, Esq. 18, Leeson-street, Lower, Dublin.
*Leinster, His Grace Augustus Frederick, Duke of.
Carton, Maynooth.
*Lenigan, James, Esq., A.M., D.L. Dalkey.
Lenihan, Maurice, Esq. Leumerich.
Lentaigne, John, Esq., D.L. 1, Great Denmark-st.,
Dublin.
*Limerick, Right Rev. Charles, Lord Bishop of. Zhe
Palace, Limerick.
*Little, James, Esq., M.D. 24, Baggot-st., Lr., Dublin.
*Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D..D., D. Cb ER: 853
L. & E., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. Pro-
vost’s House, Dublin; & Kilcrony, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
*Lloyd, William, T., Esq., M. D. London.
*Longfield, Rev. George, D. D., F. T.C.D. t, Harls-
fort-terrace, Dublin.
*Longfield, Right Hon. Mountifort, LL. D., Judge in
the Landed Estates Court. 47, Fvtzwilliam-square,
West, Dublin.
*Longtield, William, Esq. 19, Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*Luby, Rev. Thomas, D.D., 8. F.T.C.D. 48, Lee-—
son-street, Dublin.
*Lucas, Rt. Hon. Edward. Castle Shane, Co. Monaghan.
*Lyle, James Acheson, Esq., M.A. Zhe Oaks, Lon-
donderry.
Lyne, Robert Edwin, Esq. Sandymount, Co. Dublin.
Lyons, Robert D., Esq., M.D. 8, Werrion-square,
West, Dublin.
*Mac Carthy, Vicomte de. Toulouse.
Mac Carthy, Denis Florence, Esq. 74, Gardiner-
street, Upper, Dublin.
M‘Carthy, James Joseph, Esq., F.R.1.A.1. Char-
leston House, Rathmines, Co. Dublin.
Mac Cormac, William, Esq., M.D. 4, Lombard-
street, Belfast.
McDonnell, Alexander, Esq., C. E., M. A. St. John’s,
Island-bridge, Co. Dublin.
Macdonnell, James S., Esq., C. E.
*Mac Donnell, John, Esq., M.D. 4, Gardiner’s-row,
Dublin.
*McDonnell, Robert, Esq., M. D., F.R.S. 14, Pem-
broke-street, Lower, Dublin. —
Mac Donnell, Major W. EH. A., V.L., F.G.H., 8. L.
New Hall, near Ennis.
Mac Dougall, William, Esq. Drumleek House, Howth.
| *Mac Ivor, Rey. James, D.D. Moyle, Newtownstewart.
Date of Election.
1841.
1831.
1846.
1864.
1832.
1865.
1859.
1828.
1817.
1842.
1865.
1867.
1840.
1861.
1841.
1858.
1860.
1845.
1861.
1859.
1869.
1866.
1840.
1844.
1854.
1835.
1846.
Feb. 10
Feb. 28
Feb. 23
June 13
Oct 22
April10
Jan. 10
Mar. 15
Mar. 15
Jan. 10
Feb. 13
April 8
Jan. 13
Jan. 14
April 12
yan. 11
Jan. 9
June 23
Jan. 14
Dec. 12
Feb. 8
April 9
Feb. 10
June 8
May 8
Nov. 30
Jan. 12
|
13
*M‘Kay, Rev. Maurice, LL.D. Ballyrashane, Cole-
rane.
*Mac Neill, Sir John, LL. D., F. R.S. 7, Hensington-
square, London.
Madden, R. R., Esq., F. R. C. 8S. Eng. 1, Vernon-
terrace, Booterstown-avenue, Booterstown, Co. Dublin.
Madden, Thomas M., Esq., Ex. Lic. K. & Q. C. P.,
&e. Lying-in Hospital, Gt. Britain-street, Dublin.
*Mallet, Robert, Esq., Ph. D., M. I. C. E., F.R.S.,
F.G.S. Zhe Grove, Clapham-road, London, S.
Malone, Rev. Silvester. Avlkee.
*Manchester, His Grace William Drogo Montagu,
Duke of. 1, Great Stanhope-street, London; and
The Castle, Tanderagee.
*Martin, Ven. John C., D. D., Archdeacon of Ardagh.
Kulleshandra.
*Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.A. A7vllaloe.
*Meath, Most Rev. Samuel, Lord Bishop of, D.D.
Ardbraccan House, Naan.
Meehan, Rev. C. P. Presbytery, Exchange-street,
Lower, Dublin.
Merriman, Michael, Esq.
town, Co. Dublin.
Mollan, John, Esq., M. D.
North, Dublin.
Monck, Right Hon. Charles Stanley, Viscount. 26,
Rutland-square, North, Dublin; and Charleville,
Enniskerry.
*Monsell, Right Hon. William, M.P., D.L. Tervoe,
Limerick; and Atheneum Club, London.
*Montgomery, Howard B., Ksq., M. D.
Moore, A. Montgomery, Lieut.-Colonel, 4th Hussars.
Moore, David, Esq., Ph. D., F.L.8. Glasnevin,
Co. Dublin.
Moore, James, Esq., M.D. 7, Chichester-st., Belfast.
*Moore, William D., Esq., M. D. Dub. 40, Fézwii-
liam-square, West, Dublin.
Moran, Very Rev. P. F., D. D. 55, Hecles-st., Dublin.
More, Alexander G., Esq., F.L.S. 8, Botanic View,
Glasnevin, Co. Dublin.
*Napier, Rt. Hon. Sir Joseph, Bart., LL.D. 4, Mer.
rion-square, South, Dublin.
*Neville, John, Esq., C. HE. Jocelyn-street, Dundalk.
Neville, Parke, Esq., C. E. 4, Waterloo-road, Dublin.
*Nicholson, John A., Esq., A. M. Balrath House, Kells.
Nugent, Arthur R., Esq. Clonlost, Hillucan.
9, Royal-terrace, Kings-
60, Fitzwilliam-square,
Date of Election.
1869.
1869.
1867.
1833.
1867.
1865.
1857.
1845.
1869.
1834.
1849.
1866.
1867.
1866.
1857.
1869.
1866.
1869.
1844.
1861.
1866.
1838.
1866.
1839.
1841.
1843.
1845.
1863.
1851.
1838.
June 14
June 14
June 10
May 27
Jan. 14
4
10
June 10
June 11
Dec. 10
Jan. 8
June 10
Apr. 12
Dec. 11
Feb. 10
Apr. 18
June 9
Feb. 12
14
O’Brien, JamesH., Esq. St. Brendan’s, Rathmines,
Co. Dublin.
O’Callaghan, John C., Esq. 1, Rutland-street, Upper,
Dublin.
O’Connor Don. Clonalis, Castlerea.
*Odell, Edward, Esq. Carriglea, Dungarvan.
O’Donel, Charles J., Esq. 47, Leeson-street, Lower,
Dublin.
O’Donnavan, W. J., Esq., LL.D. University Club,
17, Stephen’s-green, North, Dublin.
O’ Donnell, Sir Charles R., Lieut.-General. Limerick.
*O’ Driscoll, W. Justin, Esq. 65, Mountjoy-square,
West, Dublin.
O’Farrell, Ambrose More, Esq. Ballyna, Enfield.
O’ Flanagan, James R., Esq. 18, Summer-hill, Dublin.
*Ogilby, William, Esq., M.A., F.G.8., &. <Altna-
chree, Castle, Dunamanagh.
O’Grady, Edward 8., Hsq., B. A.
green, South, Dublin.
O’Grady, 8. H., Esq. Zhe Temple, London.
O’Hagan, John, Esq. 20, Kildare-street, Dublin.
O’Hagan, Right. Hon. Thomas, Lord High Chan-
cellor. 34, Rutland-square, West, Dublin.
O’Hanlon, Rev. John. Presbytery, Exchange-st., Lr.
O’Kelly, Joseph, Esq., M.A. ochestown-avenue,
Kingstown, Co. Dublin.
O’Laverty, Rev. James. Hollywood, Belfast.
Oldham, Thomas, Esq., LL. D., F. R.S., Superin-
tendent of the Geological Survey of India. Calcutta.
*O’Mahony, Rev. Thaddeus, M.A. Seigheullen, Kil-
dare.
O’Rourke, Rev. John. Maynooth.
*Orpen, John Herbert, Esq., LL. D.
green, Last, Dublin.
O’Sullivan, Daniel, Esq.
street, Dublin.
105, Stephen’s-
58, Stephen’ s-
34, North Great George’ s-
*Parker, Alexander, Esq. 46, Upper Rathmines, Co.
Dublin.
*Phibbs, William, Esq. Seafield, Sligo.
*Pickford, James H., Esq., M. D., D.L. Brighton.
Pigot, Right Hon. David R., Lord Chief Baron. 52,
Stephen’s-green, Hast, Dublin.
Pigot, David R., Esq. 24, Gardiner-street, Lower,
Dublin.
Pigot, John E., Esq. Bombay.
*Pim, George, Esq. Brennanstown, Cabinteely.
Date of Election.
1849.
1851.
1864.
1862.
1852.
1836.
1864.
1854.
1830.
1858.
1867.
1846.
1843.
1839.
1867.
1855.
1816.
1844.
1867.
1868.
1843.
1853.
1851.
Jan. 8
Jam, 13
Jan. 11
Apr. 14
Apr. 12
Apr. 25
June 13
June 9
Oct. 25
Jan. - 11
Jan. 14
Dec. 14
Feb. 13
Apr. 8
Apr. 8
Ape 9
Feb. 14
June 10
Jan. 14
Feb. 10
15
*Pim, Jonathan, Esq., M.P. Greenbank, Monkstown,
Co. Dublin.
'*Pim, William Harvey, Esq. Monkstown House,
Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
Poore, Major Robert, 8th Hussars.
*Porte, George, Esq. Lansdown Lodge, Beggar’s-bush,
Dublin. .
*Porter, H. J. Kerr, Esq. Brampton Park,'Huntingdon.
*Porter, Rev. Thomas H., D.D. Tullahogue, Dun-
gannon.
Power, Alfred, Esq. 35, Raglan-road, Dublin.
Pratt, James Butler, Esq., C.E. Drumsna, County
Leitrim.
*Prior, Sir James, F.S.A., F.R. Ast. 8. 20, Worfolk
Crescent, Hyde Park, London.
Purser, John, Esq.,Jun., M.A. Lota, Cross-avenue,
Booterstown, Co. Dublin; and 6, Mountpleasant,
Belfast.
Read, J. M., General, U.S. ; Consul-General for France.
Hon. F.N.A., F.R.S.N. Albany, U. S.
*Reeves, Rev. William, D.D., M.B., LL.D. The
Publie Inbrary, Armagh; and Rectory, Tynan.
*Renny, H. L., Lieut. R. E. (Retired List). Quebec.
*Rhodes, Thomas, Esq., C. E., F. R. A.S., Hon.
M.1.C. E.
Richey, A. G., Esq. LL.B. 27, Upper Pembroke-
street, Dublin.
Ringland, John, Esq., M.D. 14, Harcourt-street,
Dublin.
*Robinson, Rev. Thomas Romney, D.D., F.R.S.,
F.R. Ast.S., Hon. M.I. C. E. Lon., Hon. M. Cam-
bridge Phil. Soc., Hon. M.I.C. E. 1, Hon. M.
Acad. Palermo, Hon. M. Acad. Philadelphia, Hon.
F.R.G.S.1. Observatory, Armagh.
*Roe, Henry, Esq., M.A. London.
Roughan, G. F:, Esq., P. L. I. Hyre-square, Galway.
Russell, Very Rev. C. William, D.D. St. Patrick’s,
Maynooth.
*Salmon, Rev. George; D.D., F.T.C.D., F.R.S., a
Vice-President of the Academy. 81, Wellington-
road, Dublin.
Sanders, Gilbert, Esq. Brockley, 6, The Hill,
Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Sayers, Rev. Johnston Bridges, LL. D. Ava
Madras.
Date of Election.
1846.
1847.
1869.
1861.
1835.
1834.
1868.
1833.
1837.
1867.
1846.
1853.
1834.
1857.
1856.
1857.
1845.
1845.
1848.
1863.
1846.
1866.
1847.
1869.
1848. Feb.
14
Feb. 9
Jan. 11
Apr. 12
Apr... 8
Feb. 23
June 23
Jan. 13
Apr. 22
Apr. 10
14
13
Jan.
Apr.
Apr. 11
Nov. 29
June 8
Apr. 14
Aug. 24
Feb. 24
June 23
Feb. 14
Jan. 12
Jan. 12
June 11
Feb. 8
Apr. 12
16
Segrave, O’Neale, Esq., D. L. iltimon, Newtown-
mountkennedy.
*Sherrard, James Corry, Esq. Kinnersley Manor, Rei-
gate, Surrey.
Sidney, Frederick J., Esq., LL. D.
street, Dublin.
Sigerson, George, Esq., M.D. Richmond-hill, Rath-
mines, Co. Dublin.
Sloane, John Swan, Esq., C.E. Woodlands, Fur-
view, Co. Dublin.
*Smith, Aquilla, Esq., M.D.
Lower, Dublin.
*Smith, Rev. George S., D. D., Professor of Biblical
Greek, T.C.D. Drumragh, Omagh.
Smith, John Chaloner, Esq., C.E. Engineer’s Office,
Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford Railway, Bray.
Smith, J. Huband, Esq., M. A.
Smith, Robert William, Esq., M. D.
street, Dublin.
Smythe, W. B., Esq., D. L. Collinstown, Kullucan.
*Stapleton, Michael H., Esq., M.B. 1, Mountjoy-
place, Dublin.
Stewart, Henry H., Esq.,M. D. 71, Zecles-st., Dublin.
*Stokes, William, Esq., M.D., F.R.S. 5, Merrion-
square, North, Dublin.
*Stoney, Bindon B., Esq., C. E, 42, Wellington-road,
Dublin.
Stoney, G. Johnstone, Esq., LL. D., M. A., F.R.S.,
Secretary to the Queen’s University in Ireland.
40, Wellington-road, Dublin.
*Sullivan, William K., Esq., Ph. D., Secretary of the
Academy. 6, Mount-street, Upper, Dublin.
*Sweetman, Walter, Esq. 4, Mountjoy-sq., Nth., Dublin.
19, Herbert-
121, Baggot-street,
63, Eecles-
*Talbot de Malahide, Right Hon. James, Baron,
F.R.S., President of the Academy. Zhe Castle,
Malahide.
*Tarrant, Charles, Esq., C.E. Waterford.
Taylor, Colonel Meadows, C.S.I. M.R. A.8.C.E.,
J.P. Oldcourt, Harold’s-cross, Co. Dublin.
*Tenison, Edward King, Esq., D. L. Kilronan Castle,
Freadue, Carrick-on- Shannon.
Thom, Alexander, Esq. Donnycarney House, Artane.
*Tibbs, Rev. Henry Wall, M.A., F.S. A. Scot., &e
Bobbington, Bridgnorth, England.
Tichborne, Charles R. C., Esq., F.C.8. L. 27, Wal-
tham-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Date of Election.
1869. June 14
1846. Feb.
1816,
1863.
1868.
1834.
1836.
1860.
1828.
1864.
1841,
1866.
1857.
1862.
1839.
1837.
1866.
Feb.
Feb.
Jan.
Apr.
9
14
8
9
June 8
eda,
Jan.
13
. June 10
eee
. 14
9
8
1867. Jan. 14
1861. April 8
1844. June 10
1855. Nov. 12
1857. Aug. 24
17
Tobin, Sir Thomas. Ballincollig, Cork.
*Tufnell, T. Jolliffe, Esq.. F.R.C.S.I. 658, Mount-
street, Lower, Dublin.
*Turner, William, Esq.
Tyrrell, Henry J., Esq., F.R.C.8.1. 29, Westland-
row, Dublin.
Urlin, Richard D., Esq. 12, Leeson Park, Dublin.
*Vandeleur, Crofton M., Colonel, D.L, M.P. 4,
Rutland-square, Last, Dublin.
*Vignoles, Charles, Esq., C.E., F.R.S., F. R. A: 8.
21, Duke-street, Westminster, London, S. W.
Waldron, Laurence, Esq., D.L. 88, Rutland-square,
West, Dublin.
*Wall, Rev. Richard H., D.D. Zrrislannon Lodge,
Galway.
Warren, James W., Esq., M.A. 39, Rutland-square,
West, Dubhn.
West, Very Rev. John, D.D., Dean of St. Patrick’s.
The Deanery House, Kevin-street, Upper, Dublin.
Westropp, W. H.8., Esq. 2, Jdrone-terrace, Black-
rock, Co. Dublin.
*Whitehead, James, Esq., M.D. 87, DMosley-street,
Manchester.
*Whittle, Ewing, Esq., M.D. 1, Parliament-terrace,
Tnverpool.
*Wilde, Sir Wiliam R. Wills, M. D., F.R.C.S8., a
Vice-President of the Academy, Surgeon Oculist in
Ordinary in Ireland to her Majesty; M.R.S. of
Upsala, &. 1, Merrion-square, North, Dublin.
Wilkie, Henry, Esq. Belgrave House, Monkstown
Avenue, Co. Dublin.
*Williams, Richard Palmer, Esq. 38, Dame-street,
Dublin. 7
*Williams, Thomas, Esq. 71, Stephen’s-green, South,
Dublin.
*Wilson, Henry, Ksq., F.R.C. 8. I. 29, Baggot-street,
Lower, Dublin.
Wilson, John, Esq., M.A. Durham Villas, Kensing-
ton, London.
Wilson, Joseph, Esq. 15, Zemple-st., Upper, Dublin.
*Wilson, Robert, Esq. 28, Waterloo-road, Dublin.
*Wright, Edward, Esq., LL. D. 10, and 11, Leinster
Chambers, 43, Dame-street, Dublin. ;
Wright, E. Perceval, Esq., F. R. G.S8.1., M.D., Her- -
barium, Trinity College, Dublin.
B
Date of Election.
1863. June 22
1863. Mar. 16
1865.
1832.
1826.
1852.
1869.
1869.
1869.
1866.
1866.
1866.
1869.
1863.
1841.
1820.
1863.
1864.
1826.
1869.
1864.
1864.
1837.
1867.
1836.
1841.
1852.
1836.
1834.
18
HONORARY MEMBERS.
His Royat Hieuness ALBERT Epwarp, Prince or
WALES.
Sabine, Major-General Edward, R. A., President of
the Royal Society. 138, Ashley-place, Westminster,
Tondon, S. W.
SECTION OF SCIENCE. -
Agassiz, Louis. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U. 8.
Airy, George Biddell, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Astrono-
mer Royal. Greenwich.
Babbage, Charles, M. A., F. R. 8S. 1, Dorset-street,
Manchester-square, London. :
Beaumont, Elie de, J. B. A., L. L. Paris.
Brown-Sequard, Charles Edouard. Paris.
Bunsen, R. W. Heidelberg.
Carus, Victor. Lezpsic.
Clausius, R. Zurich.
Chasles, Michel. Paris.
Darwin, Charles Down. Bromley, Kent.
Daubrée, A., Ecole des Mines. Paris.
Dove, Heinrich Wilhelm. Berlin.
Dumas, Jean Baptiste. Paris.
Dupin, Charles. Paris.
Hansteen, Christopher. Stockholm.
Helmholtz, Hermann. Heddelberg.
Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, Bart., D.C. L.,
F.R.S. Collingwood, Hawkhurst, Kent.
Hooker, Joseph Dalton, M.D. Kew.
Hyrtl, Carl Joseph. Vienna.
Le Verrier, F. Paris.
Liebig, Baron Justus Von. Munich.
Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., &. 58, Harley-
street, London, W.
Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, Bart., D.C. L.,
F.R.S. 16, Belgrave-square, London, S. W.
Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques. Brussels,
Regnault, Victor Henri. Paris,
Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M. A., F. R.S., &. Cam-
bridge.
Somerville, Mrs. Mary.
Date of Election,
1836. Jan. 25
1842.
1850,
1863.
1869.
1868.
1849,
1836.
1869.
1849.
18380.
1869.
1866.
1863.
1850.
1867.
1869.
1848.
1863.
1867.
1841.
1863.
1869.
1854.
1866.
1850.
1866.
1867.
1866.
1867.
Mar.
Mar.
Nov.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Noy.
Jan.
Mar.
Noy.
July
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Nov.
Mar.
Mar.
Nov.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Nov.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
16
16
30
16 |
16
16
30
20
16
30
25
16
16
16
30
14
16
30
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
30
16
16
16
16
Hg
Sykes, Colonel Wm. Henry, F.R.S., &. 47, Albion-
street, Hyde-park, London.
Wheatstone, Charles, Esq., F. R.8., &c. 7, Chester-
terrace, Regent’s-park, London, W.
Wurtz, A. Paris.
SEcTION oF PotirE LITERATURE.
Boeckh, Augustus. Berlin.
Ebel, Hermann. Lezpsic. -
Gayangos y Arce, Don Pascual de. London.
Grote, George, Esq.
Guizot, Francoise Pierre Gillaume. Paris.
Harcourt, Rey. Wm. Venables Vernon, A. M., F. R. S.
Bolton Percy, Tadcaster.
Lassen, Christian. Bonn.
Lepsius, Richard. Berlin.
Macloughlin, David, M.D. Paris.
Mommsen, Theodore. Berlin.
Mottley, John L., Esq. London.
Miller, Professor Max.
Thiers, A. Paris.
Tischendorf, A. Levpsie,
SEecTION oF ANTIQUITIES.
Benavides, Don Antonio, Madrid.
Bottay ee. Lares:
Cochet, L’Abbe. Rouen.
De Rossi, Cav. B. Rome.
Halliwell, James Orchard, Esq., F.R.8., F.S. A., &e.
6, St. Mary’s-place, W. Brompton, London, S. W.
Keller, Ferdinand. Zurich.
Larcom, Major-General Sir Thomas A., F.R.S., &c.
London.
Mauray, Alfred de. Paris.
Neilsson, Rev. 8. Copenhagen.
Pétit-Radel, L.C. F. Paris.
Thorpe, Benjamin, Esq. Chiswick.
Visconti, Commendatore, P. E. Rome.
Way, Albert, Esq. Wonham Manor, Reigate.
Worsaae, J.J. A. Copenhagen.
ei eon tay,
. me
RT, A. BROCE. VOL. X. PLATE I.
MAP OF BAILA-NA-SEAN, INISHMORE.
°
0529 WM,
A
2
in
S
Z
Weg
S
S
=
=
Y
SI
7S
A—Templeanchea thrairaluinn. B—Cowrugh. C—Ballynacragga.
D—K. C. Chapel. E—Lighthouse. F—Oghil Fort, G—Oghil.
[Copied from Ordnance Map, Galway Sheet, 110.]
R. I. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE II,
Fig. a, No. 1.—Cloghaun or Beehive Cell.
S30 (HH AA
| >
ae
aesiece FAAS
i eceralall
AA ve nit
Fig. c, No, 10.—Cnocan or Beehive Cell, covered with clay.
k. J. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE III.
Fig. b, No. 7.—Fosleac, or Cell built of flags,
Fig. d, No. 11.—Cnocan, divided into two chambers.
——
SS ————
/\
VJ
ONY ROO
OYYYYYnscyy
IAAI
a oe
\ de
ees J
Fig. f, No. 19.—Fosleac, with side chamber.
pee re ye
R. I. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE IV.
Fig. e, No. 16.—Three-chambered Cnocan.
cn,
(ee Le :
ony <3) Rei
CD, ER |
.
x
Cee
\ TTY Ss
(
COIN eS
K
spouse
i
(ORTE
OMe Mem RCL Pir ks Ee oul | G: '
DPS ae) i vege Pea TSS (A j
rs <x a
Sa ZO) '
1
!
e & :
‘
!
x (a 1
t
tS
I
{ SB '
f <0, '
fe LD 1
a Z|
yet cai H
Aa =] 1
BAS
Am
. ae —
Fig. .—Corner of Cloghaun. ee Vy
3
x
S
yt}
Y
aN
Oss
cl
Ca Pom ato
52g
ce are
Wee we 2S
wh dota Le
SS
pe
4!
ae Lr et OE Aer
Se ee Stig ee
PE Fo oe PS
ge ES
5 GE a ag RB Bi BS ie eS ee
se
ite
bi ORO ap gsr age tee
VOL. X. PLATE V.
R. J. A. PROC.
an.
r. g, No. 14.—Ruined Cnoe
o
>
Fi
R.I. A. PROC. VOL, X. PLATE VI. i!
aoe
Hag Bh a a ae™ 's
a
a iy
‘
i
i
i
mn s=Ss ‘in = | a
‘Mh aS SSS Ss ee oe = SS | ry
hry
eae
03
>
A
4
=
ion
=I
<
mo
(ae)
“_
a
=|
Fig. 1.—West view. |
—
Fig. j.—Large Cloghaun, Half-a-mile South-West of Onaght. |
Ruin of Cragbally wee.
== =
et
iy
B= i
?>EtVTM]\—Xcq aa cjccc[eix = of
= ; EE = =—= =
Fig. m.—North-East view. Fig. n.—Plan.
Rk. 1. A. PROC.
MAP OF LOUGH NANEEVIN, SHOWING SITE OF THE CRANNOGE.
[Copied from the Ordnance Map, Galway Sheet, 67.]
es
> S72 Es az
Soggy
A Se Se FS.
BARS pe WIRE
ag Sagat re pins
GER a
ions
Be ees
4
bed
APs
Ne
R. 1, A. PROC. N LATE \
lO ILLUSTRATE MR, HENNESSY'S PAPEI N GROUND ICE IN TI
BREE EEE EEE
PERE HEHEHE
———
- 29 30 st t§ 2 3 9 10
DECEMBER JANUARY
: ous g the two periods of froat
Th 0! sents reh of I re; % he undulating continu line, the march of Minimum Temperature, during the two perioc .
‘he undulating dotted line represents the mareh f Mean Temperature ; and the undulating continuons line, the march of Min I
R, I. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE IX.
Sse SS ee
PLATE IX*
VOL. X.
PROC. R. I. A.
\\
\ IN ~
Fig. 12
SSA
RTS RESESS
VOL. X. PLATE 16. #
Gh 'D we unrysag
+ o~
~ agate Se
EP Wt awMyTnIS
Sees)
+ SE att te fae
et
R.1.A. PROG.
OL OLE EE TA BD LGB OWE
HAND oP
MAI tau anpasaprg
fw ney
al
I F 2
eo Ly
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renee,
ae
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eras
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:
= !
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R.A. PROC.
20 3a
Pa A On aren Se
ages
AREER SG.
<1
et rs OL Ss
ee
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VOL X, PLATE XIf.
R.!.A. PROC.
R.LA. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE XIIL
Fig. 1.
Fig. 3,
a I a I I et CREO AES PEE DE, SLs Sein pa St Se eee
ER Fae Sp a ORI Soe = GS ES eg Se eS ZS SS FS ZS ee eee ee
Des
Bee Se eS
PIR rt DRED
>
x<
Uy
=
<=
=
a
es
aj
(=)
>
ie
\
2)
—Y
ay
PLAN
OGHAM CAVE DRUMLOGHAN.
R.L.A.PROC,
R.1.A.PROC.
Cy
OGHAM GAVE DRUMLOGHAN. VOL.X.PLATE XV.
So
VOL.X.PLATE XVI.
.LA.PROC.
a
MARCUS WARD & CG.
= ee A
aaa: Ses OT
eZ Livaite ee
ee a
: S
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7
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LA, PROC,
BORE ERE FS GAT GOI EE ARSE ETRE F
—s Fae is SF AF Se EAS RR
rape Sepeees 5 pie eae a ae ee ees Peak = a me eR ae RES iosetod : ae
a a aS ES ee es Se Se SSS
{
= eS ae SS ee a a ee me ee ee
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RELL AS CS... Se a ee ee 2 .
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Spapusinlonumbunre ansaid cee ee ee ee . be Tg SPOT A Ram
ST i Se AS Ni ER A I CE ae
Ri eo ee Latha
SG RSS SS
REDO CRINGE NSE BES AE Re eae ipa e
ee i el RL Tl Er
>
PLATE XIX
MARCUS WARD & CO.
X
VOL
PROC.
A
I.
VOL. X.PLATE XX.
RIA PROC,
EeENSOR 6G
ek COU.
PCClUS
head of Triceps
Pvaff lagna youmy
SHMOLIDND —
long
| lTeres Mayor |
: 1S
Tensor Vagal She
ES ne SE GER AST A i ne» GET sR ig = Ae aed J
ioe ee ee ee I pel Fr
~~ = ae a ee ae FS ae Ne NN
LEAOT UMS THUOT Or
Curator LUET F204 -
RPE (ESTES De es OTL SE eS ay
R.1, A. PROC.
VOL, X. PLATE 24L
Sine ey
Shee
AY
Seer
Si eed,
ee a A es
ane arnt. phipcameratty CA UG Ra, REIN TORS FE > abs Seer tee ok oR — Ere cr tr
SHEET. Vi
SPREE TT Vv
6° Oe A Ge a eee OS ee ee oe eee Pee ee ae Se ee ee PS ee. hee eee ee Ue ee be
21 2 Sey es oe ed ee ed 2d Ae PO ee 2 eS Sy 2 a (8 Bn ef Gen a ee a
e) Dh }
¥ ]
pve may
iy C
pl Anpboy
=
>
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7
a
co
vv
im + -- dou,
aaa
bases eR Oy
IASTOY APs NAGE
30
| d¥W TWors0t0ds = =
ee.
XX “Td X°TOA
VOL. X. PLATE XXIII.
MAP orDRUMAHITT
RIA PROC:
|
|
)
)
)
:
Two MILES SE of BALLYCASTLE
SCALE 6 INCHES TOA MILE
-Sta
ICS,
-=
GW
7
|
age eee Bm a ee ges
LS
oS ee ey ae ans ee
a
a)
a
R. f. A. PROC. VOL X. PLATE XXIV.
SS
—=
=
Ss
———_
= Se
SEEEEAALZZ
eed
ai ci \\I H
A Rant a
il wut MN Mi
j
ty tee
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i Fi
thy
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aE
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=
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SS
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zzz
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sie
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se
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i a i We : i in awl
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SS ay Vi i eee i)
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SS =]
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a = \\\ j + a AY ‘\ ih y
SS = Th
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=)
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ay
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fe eee WN} }
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SSS H AN |
== = i \\ \ \
a= SSS ih WW
SS == Wah
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I
SS ==
ie)
Se See.
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R. I. A: PROC. VOEIX. PLATE Oe
Z ae’ GRAND
QS? -S | }
ES ze ~=CAUSEWAY | ;
iu H }}
u | i
=) | }
un <f ,PORT NOFFER | i
[o} ,
FE x
= -\ROVERIN VALLEY
WwW = i
fags \V LS HEAD ;
z= sw" E (CHIMNEY TOPS
H gr E
i © of g
= i} 5) [
z xr : i
q Ww) 21
< | Lge
a N Gos s — | :
ia = % oe! < “40 \BENANOURAN ;
} B 7 a5 en | hs
| | pie \N ee sy 6 ;
| Ve | A
| -<PLAISKIN
; \
PORT j
| wPLAIS KIN §
| % \ »)
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</ :
oo ieee sine PORTNATRUIN
< a 3
| x E &
| Tepe eesae Seo * 3 bh BENGORE 3
.\HEAD i
2 ) = ‘
CSseeesemm Yeo Ni |] Fro % :
3 = oe 4 ey a !
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rT} Sil & </PORTFAD ~ :
Be eZ Ww 8 |
= 4 i}
t i= =
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a= [ee SS SOC HEAD ° i
=) | ed ee - i
a Es PORTMOON y }
ah O/ BENANDANIR z i
EB OD : |
a z } ISLAND 2
| = GN H
Lo i
< S\ Cp ° Ee i
| ae / \ vy ames ry | i
Fk \ 2 /_ PORTNAGOVNA - = | |
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Si es Mes <
| = t kK S)
| = @z -¢ S = 0) |
r SS ques i
ES = - wl i
= == u +s i)
fe) ne qt i
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| led x fo) i
ro) = i
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x < }
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ied fo f
> % | — eu DUNSEVERI 1
1 pay. cK i
Wl SS ye i
wy =Ne wv BS / | ‘
| 2 = BA fi
= NS Sy i
\ Q == Ws
uy
NS
=) ig
VOL. X. PLATE XXVI.
R. 1. A. PROC.
‘oyuuoksS ff ‘dell, 9 <“HIRUD Pp
ote =
A Ze Faye oe
8
i
‘|
hI" .
H D
°
>, Jes ee
ere ere,
voesse
e eat
SSS N=
= = \
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j
(2)
>
= SSOYO
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NAQqQV4 HD
SN ee
‘QUOJSpULS POT MON 9
“OUOJSPURS [VOD ‘spop yzun ‘g
‘AVE HOOTYOW GNV ‘GVA UIVa
Ww owas
YOLILS
MN
‘ayeys {20D @
aol 1SVv3
"O4RIS VOL wv
Pie
VOL. X. PLATE XXVII.
R.I. A. PROC.
4
»
Es Ee :
=» \ a
is ; <
Ls >
a ei
: ™
ee
& ~
y -
x a
tg :
¢ &
. :
.
%
! ps
!
A PROCEEDINGS
VOI< PLANE YRVUT |
—=> — —==_—
Berrnereo
ar Med
i] r A t PA Dy
j Showing the
_ DISTRICTS IN WHICH OGHAM INSCRIPTIONS
HAVE BEEN FOUND.
| To Ulastrate M° Brash s pape
.:
lol Xp o9#
British Niles
20
3
Bs hii
ee Hoiiis thus A S ge % 5 = Vorton,
) a
Puna. Dungerune
| \ = © Pallypantey:
. au z Charla)
¥ y xs ap MAE an ghia} i Portadoun ye
= & nifiiamallard “ehh OA Ave § x) G5 nt Pokplerry
- 2s : ~ ; Tanleragce \
frist & eo ic \ taney Warton ag, NNT EN oa an ‘
H Sy paste & FMacncnn ure PARSE AC HE a soup & aNd Tal Mpa
SLIGO 4 r — “\
umone ) eee KS Norrsraken A CRIM A GH
Ready
Ballisade Narlown
UnniskeaXy
Is
$ R B lipcond: te
:
é Crefearter
AEG ~ = 5 “Foster i 5 ae Gunter J se
| “ry eos : ng tay
heared
STUEBAR ¢ catia -
- Duntee? < |
Rue i ie * YOR sr icone oIDD Silorungton:
J 5 casera —~ ale vires ° : }
\ u—6] aso eee florocy ea
Ee om a —Yvoncrorp \ ey y SA hae
| es
\ Cappough Coe
A S ,
i Trieeglt Ss flossdufy Ber Mileage
4 mit p Gounc Talbot
eee serge _ cries \ ET
> =( Bunowen
Ae ee | NGS __vatdarscag
nem = an Q
LN ee A i, } =
iA) 4 Tolinstinn
oll , 072), ; rae
B Drum Vi ZF parherry SSoantin hy
ints > Balinastor « . Sst?
wats Angling i 4
‘ ke CALWAY De ee , Cabinte {
| - all ) z ~ ~ c
ai & Wve Canter ted 7 : On KM pray
i Z ee “Eyrecourl, fee anager we bate
oe, AY Kimura P ra S .
SG Cae tg N 5 phtes =r 6s y ‘Dire or p>) wmelfich
Ist Z : Acie ite hee 2, re » Moun
op Arran eC Sy Se 7 =P 2& E
<2 MAR YBORG)
34 ak =
i + = Wourtrath NS Wel 1
Hl \ Caste Demet
H Ballyroan J \
i nt bheylac..
H x A CARLOW -
ee -- 5 i : } E Time (
3 Faghain
tution
Bi *
Killen
ly
| Cashel
altybour™
WEXFORD Wexford Haye
New Boss
Greenore PE
eluska
Carsore Pt \}
( Saltees |
NOTE
The pink lint (rdicates the localities where Oghare Stones —
have been found A
lisa Movale lel RCOLES VOL. X. PLATE XXIX.
Il ne Gan |
ff fry Cae ey ‘hw! |
| | = (ie |
| | Sel |
. | |
|
so TG |
)) yea |
i a “ly }
|
| |
| Elevation as seen from south-west. |
| . |
|
|
| Piven eae ae Vers ese ene LS
Ty QYETTELLEEEEEEE. |
| GY’ MMMM |
GA \ |
Ai 0
| Gu
| | Ye |
| | Y io
4 ! }
| Z| |
Gy\
Oe
Y : |
| Y, H VA |
Zia ———— wen |
| YELL |
4 t |
. eye . . - . - |
Ground Plan, showing the position of the supporting stones still remaining. |
|
No. 3.—Curiously designed figure, carved on a tolerably smooth
sloping rock, on a level with the surface of the ground.
i) |
1 Hi tl rt gcse i |
i) ; \\ i oe Hi )! ta apsity jute! |
Ainaggnre iyi yl
No. 2.—Rock Engraving, Rhee Baer yee, Sa |
representing outline of HEIGHT. ill Py) eh, Dn ii BREADTH.
sole of a sandal. I Meinl |
a to b6—5 inches. At 1—33 inches. |
a |
etoc-5 ,, 2 OMe
ctod—4 ,, 3—63—,,
) Total, 14 inches.
|
}
i |
thal =
. , ;
| |
His |
‘
4 |
| {
Seep rt i mua |
| ry . ° > . |
Notr.—The space between the double lines in the above figure is |
slightly rounded, like a moulding.
Ral AL PROC:
VOL. X. PLATE XXX.
Swans
zee ZZ
PE (APPL
[= SS re a a
“AN prreenererrers
\ Ss ——————— ————
S
SS =
VOL. X. PLATE XXXI.
R. 1. A. PROC.
Fe Or ee ee RET eT ee ee a a Ne Se ea A ig SS
JS
a = iF a
he y, ISS =
Uy) ¢
Le BOT) et dae WME ve
FANS 2 -
OWS MUN
CAAA OT
<a Pea Ap:
2
VOL. |X. PLATE XXXII.
R. I, A. PROC.
aw ts
Ss pa
TK
<i Wii
eS AS eS
—
_
—=
‘4
“i
A
<2)
iss
<t
+
—
Ay
VOL. X.
RelA ROC:
eae oe
—— Se a RE SS Se ah — =
EM ye 2) \ y DAK ‘ ie Z z "i y f Hy Swe ; ae = 2 a
i
i enim
A Z 5 “
i ah did @ =? VE sah \ f TNS: =
——_
=e See Sa
= 3 > —— =
I I OIE = ———
ee ~ —— =
il}
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(yy al
mee!
5
ae l
~/
= =|.
Se
: z
c aS *
ee
{
z =
~
—
I
rs :
. =
o
ESSERE SS SR ESS he eR BE TS Se ee ELE ee ey TR a ee err ea Sa Ege eee
XXXIV.
VOL: X. PLATE
—————
Teh
R.J. A. PROC.
R. 1. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE XXXYV. i
t SSS
| ( | ;
| i ed 2 oT ae eee ts
So UT ATT il hu ei TT
on fn
TT | |
0 SS TM ae, |
| fe = if He |
E ——_
FSF
\ peaks.
. \ Ee - : =
~—- 4 l\
\ ¢
~ a
~—=---
R. 1. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE XXXVI.
SRS
ieee ee: Bae:
I
L
——
—— 3
Pa ay
ALI
Yyjyy yyy
ti}, UUYJ™_l J
W},.fY ty QE
Wij}
“iy
4)
bttt4
if
1
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J 1
SS SS SSS Sopa
I
1 a
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1
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M77, 1
a Oe Z BUG -
| BiG tjjY GY: typ YY
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ASSES
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Fi
q aos , vA
Onl) ee PN
(te Z ih
Y — j= se A VAN)
ieee
x Alli
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2S
= =
————_—} = =
= SS—= :
—— == =
ad
i
ayy 4
)
) i Ws
iy i
SAY N
Aa Hi
Hf wi \ f Hy tink
| | Mpc shy)
| OG GA ia As
Hy Mf} YY) brs dtd iH i W) A
4 i fe lity HN Nrens(t A
| b H ‘ fi fit ff HS Wty H
ON
yp
——=
if
if
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Mh “i i \ h |
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| =
rc
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ali *
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YU An . in ay i §
it sete nile
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ih Hl i
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| i ! il wil AY b hati iat et Hk ! NS “i 7. (AN M A\ \ MW Hf |
{ | ¥
‘
—-
a
R.I. A. PROC.
VOL. X. PLATE XXXVIII.
Oy
U
| AD KE
Shea
4
ie
|
= CPT i camel i tt Na When AE SEA a i Re a rr SRI OES he, er
val or
a hae
Wego ac Su sary Py
p 3 RR ee pi . area oS roy oe F > SAF ebtiateg ’ =
Sip Ise eros ee as Pesala Dat as Doct ee eC Le Sa sh aceon STC Va Be P § Sf Ne a EGS ae ae ee rn te
VOL. X. PLATE XXXIX:
\\ aul ‘| | Hn)
fy | | :
S << Ty
a nar
pd
Pree
LA
ais -
j s
5 S \
4
: j
4
a
“7 ‘ te
« os
7 =
i
=
1
z o
5
Vor. X, PLATE XLV.
fs
| R. 1. A. PROC. VOL. X.. PLATE XLV.
| {
|
:
|
;
.
|
|
SEL ne Geena See
|
| |
| \
| | j
|
| |
}
a
SKETCH MAP OF THE SOUTH-WEST PART OF ARDILLAUN. \¥
1
: [Seale, 3 in. to one mile.] 4
| | 1. Clochaun [site]. | 8. Chaimber in the wail. f
2. Fosleac [site]. | 9. S. W. gate into the Cashel. y
: | 3, Clochaun. | 10. Oileach (?) or Clochaun (?) [site].
| 4. Oileach (?) [site]. | 1. S.E. gate into the Cashel.
H 5. Clochaun. | 12. The Abbey.
| 6. N. E. gate into the Cashel. | 13. Clochaun (?) [site].
| 7. Chamber in the wall. 14, Mill [site]. i
R. I. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE XLVI.
i}
|
|
| oe
ut
} |
No. 1.—Fig 1. 4
i
|
|
|
' |
| \
Foundation of structure outside the wall.
| \
—
|
No, 2.—Fig. 2. No. 8.—Fig. 9. (a
|
cf
uJ
Ue i?
nN 1
; Cross section of chamber.
i
a [Scale, 10 ft. to one inch. ] q
FEES ‘y
Foundation of structure near the Northern extremity of the enclosing wall, and close to the edge of )
the cliff.
| [Seale, 20 ft. to one inch. ]
Se
nN
=a
x
2 N ¥ Sage ra
if oe. ~ ae! ~
7 pra ane oihdes
a Z ¥
> ¥. ~
he \. z =
« = =, ~
= Se
4 , i
z = x : a
3
yi t,
s ie = oor - 5
.
2 . ; oe
a wee
% 7 = a ~
ee 2 ef .
i 4 Ss
oe 2 2
™~ 5 z a
2 . = fi
' a
5 n 7 2
< f 4
* e z . <
je = : \ are
E “7
i
° ‘i 3, 3 ¢
fers eee
wis =e m a3
val *) ~ a
a FI ; J
. = 3
- zi - Ala pares nh
x l f : L BS oe,
" t :
= 4 ore
fi
- — ot a A. kate
R.I. A. PROC. VOL. X. PLATE XLVII.
No. 4.—Fig. 5.
Plan of Cloghaun, outside the church Plan of structure close to Fig. 5, outside
enclosure. church enclosure.
[Scale, 10 ft. to one inch. ]
No. 3.— Fig. 4.
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Sketch of No. 3.—looking North.
R.L-A. PROC.
VOL. X. PLATE XLVIII.
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Cross at the landing cove on the east of the Island Cross at well near the centre of the Island
of Ard, west coast of Galway. of Ard, west coast of Galway. |
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Fig 3 Fig. 4.
Restored Cross, from fragments on Illaun-M‘Dara, Cross on laun-M‘Dara, Co. Galway.
Co. Galway.
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